FRASER RONALD

Legionaries of RomeLegionaries of Rome

CENTURIONLegionaries of Rome

By Fraser RonaldArt by Kieron O’GormanLayout by Rob WakefieldEditing by Chris Bullock

Mechanics Editing by Chris Groff

Development by Darcy Burgess, Kieron O’Gorman, Chris Groff, Wayne Humfleet, Fraser Ronald, Chris Vander Heyden, Glenn Wells, Victor Wyatt,

and The Warden

Likeness for Caesar provided by Gerhard FertlGaius Rufus character designed by Donald CrankshawTitus Pullo Quietus character designed by Jurg Steiner

Gaius Tullius Marcellus character designed by Chris Marcellus«The Triumph of Titus» by Lawrence Alma-Tadema

Copyright 2013 Fraser Ronald.

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1You know what I mean . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Qualities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Dice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

PLAYER CHARACTER CREATION 8 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Weakness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Luck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Pivots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Advancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Aspects in Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Multiple Participants . . . . . . . . . . 23 Resolution Examples . . . . . . . . . . . 24Death and Dying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Doom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Healing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

RUNNING THE GAME 32 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 DifficultyTable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Building Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Now, here are some examples of Challengescreatedonthefly duringaplaytest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

ADVENTURES & CAMPAIGNS 40 BuildingtheStory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Adding Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Choosing Challenge Focus . . . . . 42 Considering Pivots . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Adventures and Campaigns . . . . 45 Non-PlayerCharacters . . . . . . . . 45

HOW I PLAY 48 Meta-Gaming,TableTalk . . . . . . 49 Don’t Ask me, Tell Me . . . . . . . . . . 50 Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Holding the Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

RUNNING A MILTARY CAMPAIGN 56 TheProblems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Scouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Special Purpose Troops – the “OtherGuys” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Spies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Last But Not NecessarilyLeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

ERAS OF PLAY 66The Late Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Roman Empire, 130 BCE . . . . . . . 68 TheStructureofSociety . . . . . . . 74 AnoteaboutRomanclasses . . . . 74 The Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Patronage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 TheTribes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 The Centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 How Does This Affect MyGame? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 The Structure of Government . . 79

table of contents

The Magistrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Other Magistrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 How Does This Affect MyGame? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 The Structure of the Late RepublicanLegions . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 The Manipular Legions . . . . . . . . 86 Positions and Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 OtherOfficers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 How Does This Affect MyGame? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 TheLateRepublic as a Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Adventures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100Late Republic NPCs . . . . . . . . . . . . 102The Civil Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 TheStructureofSociety and Government in the Civil Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 The Structure of the Legions in the Civil Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Positions and Rank . . . . . . . . . . . 110 The Civil Wars as a Setting . . . . 111 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 SpyingandScouting in the Civil Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Adventures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Aspects of the Civil Wars . . . . . . 120Civil War NPCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

The Principate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Roman Empire, 45 BCE . . . . . . . 124 Roman Empire, 125 AD . . . . . . . 127 TheStructureofSociety and Government in the Principate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 The Structure of the Legions in the Principate . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Positions and Rank . . . . . . . . . . . 131 The Principate as a Setting . . . 133 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Adventures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Aspects of the Principate . . . . . . 141Principate NPCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143Crisis of the Third Century . . . . . 144 TheStructureofSociety and Government in the ThirdCentury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 The Structure of the Legions intheThirdCentury . . . . . . . . . . 154 Positions and Rank . . . . . . . . . . . 156 TheThirdCentury as a Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Jointhefieldarmyandseethe known world! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Aspects of the Crisis of the ThirdCentury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164Crisis of the Third Century NPCs . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

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ForewordThe first thing you need to know about this game is that it exists because of Kickstarter and a bunch of people I don’t know (and some people I do know) giving me their money and trusting me to make an awesome game. That is simply amazing. This book would not have happened without their trust and their enthusiasm. It has been extremely gratifying to interact with the Centurion community – and I am frankly amazed that there is a Centurion community, let alone a community before the book has even been published – and I really hope that they are satisfied, at the very least, with what they get.Some specific thank-yous: to Mark Diaz Truman and Magpie Games for guiding the Kickstarter and taking care of fulfillment. There is real comfort in talking to a professional with experience who also has enthusiasm for the project. Not just the help was appreciated, but the interaction.Thank you to Kieron O’Gorman for the amazing art. I think the two pieces Kieron did before the Kickstarter got underway really helped the project hit its goal and beyond.Thank you to Rob Wakefield for making my shit look so good. Rob had a logo soon after I decided to attempt to kickstart Centurion, and it looked amazing. The cover and the character sheets soon came after, and now the layout of the book itself. I would look like a cheap punk if Rob didn’t help class things up.Thank you to Chris Bullock for all the work he put into editing – and he put in a ton of work, I assure you. There is no way a writer can properly edit his own work, and while I usually get Chris Groff to try to help rationalize the mechanics, I’ve never been able to afford to pay an editor to try to kick the rest of the text into shape. I dumped a whole lot of words on Chris Bullock, and he polished them up so nicely, I’m proud to take them out and show them to the world. I probably should have had him edit this foreword as well. My bad.Thank you to the aforementioned Chris Groff. Chris has been my mechanics go-to guy since before I published Sword Noir. Sword Noir cobbled together a bunch of mechanics from other games and the biggest challenge was making all the pieces fit together. I mostly built Centurion out of whole cloth, and it’s been nice working with a net – knowing that Chris will take a pipe-swinging pass at the system and let me know how it will fail.

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I must thank all the members of the Ottawa Warband: Nick Dumais, Kieron O’Gorman, Chris Vander Heyden, Glenn Wells, The Warden, and – for only a moment - Darcy Burgess. These guys have helped to guide Centurion into the form it exists. There were many poignant comments and observations that I spent long hours considering. The group had a lot of impact on how the rules evolved, and if you like what you read here, you have them very much to thank for it.When I write ‘last but not least,’ it sounds totally trite, but truly the following supporters from Kickstarter are the reason this book exists. If they had not trusted in me, Centurion would not exist as it now does. I think it would have seen the light of day in some manner, but not like this. The awesome would definitely have been diminished.

So a very special and heart-felt thanks to:The Legionaries: the grunts building the roads and fighting the barbarians.Alex Imrie, Andrew Medeiros, Aravinthan Sivaneswaran, BGolm, billk, Bruce Curd, Chris Bernhardi, Chris Engler, Chris Moore, Chris Perrin, Dain Lybar-ger, David McLachlan, DojiStar, Dunadin777, Eleventy Media, Evan Powles, funnytool, Gaston Keller, Ian Borchardt, James Dillane, Jamie Brett, Jason Blalock, Joshua Hodges, KarlTheGood, Leslie Reissner, Magnus Gillberg, Manu Marron, Mark, Mark Poukkula, Michael Elices, Mikael Hansson, Mor-gan, Neal Dalton, Olivier Grima, Patrick Kraft, Paul Bendall, Rebecca Brown, Robert Daines, Ryan Marsh, Steve Moore, Steven Warble, Tiberio Graco, Tors-ten PieperThe Optios: making sure everyone is marching in order and facing the enemyAdam Canning, Bill O’Neil, Brandon Neff, Bruce Durham, David Blethen, DrewSouth, Gilbert Isla, Gregory Horrell, John Bogart, Jonathan Brock, Jona-than Trew, Josh Jordan, Mark Townshend, Ricardo Tavares, Shannon Bell, Simon Hunt, smithbaThe Centurions: the rough and ready backbone of the legionsAdam Morris, Andrew James Leggett, Andrew Kenrick, Andy Kitkowski, Apt-eji, asurber, Ben McFarland, Bryan Botz, Chris Groff, Chris Snyder, Christine Gertz, Contesse, Corey Reid, Craig Dunn, David Havelka, David Przybyla, Der-rick Cook, DocGrognard, Eric M. Paquette, fantomas, Felix Le Rouzes, FredH, Galen Verret, Jacob Tessendorf, Jar, Jason Pitre, Jeffrey Mayo, jellybelly, Jibe Farand, JJ, John Golden, John Mehrholz, Joseph Scott, Judd M. Goswick, Kat Lim, Kevin, Kevin Donovan, Lawrence Kameen III, Leandro Mena Ugarte,

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Louis Grange, Lowell Francis, Marc Schlichting, Mark Richardson, Mark S, Mark Shocklee, Martin Hinves, Michael Drysdale, Mike Zwick, Nicholas Bronson, Owlglass, Patrick Ciraco, Paul Flanaghan, Peter Amthor, Peter S. Williams, Phasmtis, Philippe Marcil, Phill, Ralph Mazza, Rich Spainhour, Rob Hall, Rob Justice, Rob Wakefield, Scout Revolution, stlstrapper, Stytch, The Warden, Thor, Tyson Vanover, Victor Wyatt, Wayne Humfleet, Wolf-Ulrich Schnurr, ZekeStoneThe Pilus Priori: Centurions with a little bit more, standing at the front of the centuryAaron, Adam Everman, Capellan, Damien Brunetto, Dan K, Daniel Gagnon, David Terhune, Doug Grimes, Erik Berglund, James Hamilton, John D Ken-nedy, Michael Bowman, Robert Carnel, Robert Moore, Will RotenberryThe Primus Pili: The top centurion in a legion, commanding all the gruntsAlessandro Tomassetti, Brian Kreuzinger, David Larmour, Dirk Vanleeuw, George Valenzuela, Graeme Comyn, Kirin Robinson, Mike Stellick, robertThe Socii: Soldiers provided by allies that march alongside the legionsChris Perkins, Karl R. KerchiefThe Tribunus Angusticlavus: the Equestrian tribune who was a strategic commander in the legionDonald CrankshawThe Auxiliary: a soldier from the provinces who marched alongside the legionsEd KiernanThe Tribunus Laticlavius: the young patrician commander second only to the legate in the legionAlexander ShendiThe Praefectus Castorum: the camp prefect, a centurion risen through the ranks to be third in command of the legionChris Marcellus, Jurg Steiner, Michael GorczycaThe Legate: Commander of a legion and representative of the Emperor himself.Gerhard FertlThe Proconsul: Governor of a province, he could command multiple legionsBrett Bozeman

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You Know What I MeanMuch of this section comes verbatim from SwordNoir:HardboiledSword&Sorcery, and KissMyAxe:ThirteenWarriorsandanAngelofDeath, so if you’ve read those, you can skip this.There are a few terms used through the text that are general and are not specifically discussed within the rules, but really need to be understood before embarking on learning the system itself. Some of these terms may be understood by those who already play role-playing games (RPG), which—I’m going to go out on a limb here—likely includes most or all of the readers.Every game needs Players and Centurion is no different. That’s where all of you come in. A player is someone in the real world either acting as the Game Master, or someone controlling a Character in the adventure the Game Master is facilitating. A Game Master (called a GM) is a player who facilitates an adventure. This basically means that the GM controls the world and the narrative forces the characters encounter. Usually, the GM designs and populates the fictional universe of the game. The GM may also prepare adventures in which the characters interact. However, it is entirely feasible to have the adventure creation be a collective construct of some, most, or all of the players.It is important to note that the entire point of a game is for everyone to have fun. This RPG is a cooperative system, meaning that none of the players “wins.” Winning is defined by having fun. While GMs should be proud of their creations—be they adventures, campaigns, worlds or universes—the GM should be more proud of facilitating a fun and fulfilling game for everyone.I might be stressing this too much, but the mechanics of this system assume trust among all the players, and that includes the GM. Players have some narrative control within the mechanics, so the GM cannot be too enthralled with the created setting or adventure, as the players may alter it. The game and all within it is not the possession of the GM, rather it is a communal possession of all the players.A Character is a fictional construct created using the rules of the system and representing an individual within the fictional universe of the game. A Player Character or PC is a character controlled by a player. These are the player’s representative’s within the game—their avatars.

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A Non-Player Character or NPC is a character controlled by the GM. The NPCs populate the world in which the PCs act. A Round is a discrete section of scene in which some parts of action resolution take place. A round encompasses the action that happens with one throw of the dice. After all the dice have been used, the next round begins. A Scene is a set of actions or movements revolving around a specific, short-term goal or problem. Those of us who went through high school English courses likely encountered William Shakespeare, and therefore should know all about scenes. Those of us familiar with TV and movies should know this term. Those of us who read comics and other literature know it as well, though the term is rarely used in those media.A single fight is a scene. The scene begins when the characters encounter the opponents and ends when the opponents have been overcome—killed, incapacitated or driven off. An encounter with a snitch at a bar is a scene. The scene opens when the characters enter the bar and ends when their discussion with the snitch ends. If the characters then got into a fight at the bar with opponents other than the snitch, that would be a different scene.A Session is a single sitting of gaming. A session is a period in real-life rather than in the game. The session begins when all the players—including the GM—begin to play, and ends when the playing ends—whether that leads to some geek discussion, a few drinks, or a parting of ways as the players head home.An Adventure is a scenario or story that may last a few sessions, but rarely longer than that. Think of it as a story arc in a comic, an episode in a TV series, or a single novel in a series. Aeneas visit to Carthage and audience with Queen Dido in the Aeneid is an example of an adventure, as is his landing on the island of the cyclops Polyphemus.A Campaign is an interlinked series of adventures that tells a larger story. Think of the Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul. Even in each battle, there would have been multiple adventures, and these pieces all contributed to the story arc of the conquest of Gaul. An even longer campaign could be a TV series with a meta-plot. HBO’s Rome (an excellent mini-series which I heartily recommend) and the BBC’s adaptation of I, Claudius fit that description. Other examples could include series like Avatar: the Last Airbender, the X-Files or Fringe.

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OverviewCenturion is a role-playing game (RPG). I would be surprised if anyone would encounter this game without already knowing how an RPG works. If you have somehow discovered this game but do not understand RPGs, there are lots of resources on the internet to explain them. At its most basic level, an RPG is group story-telling, with the GM creating scenarios and plots with which the players’ characters interact, creating the story and advancing the plot. When characters face challenges or try to complete a task whose outcome can have a major impact on the plot or which may result in the harm or death for the PCs, dice are rolled to determine the PCs’ success. The dice allow a level of tension because they randomize outcome. The process of rolling dice to determine the success of a PC’s action is called a Test in Centurion.In Centurion, players will take on the roles of legionaries, allies or auxiliaries in the military of the Roman Republic and Empire. The characters will be scouts, spies, or other special troops rather than heavy infantry fighting set-piece battles. This is to allow for a greater variety of adventures and sense of independence, which is – in my opinion – the bedrock of fun role-playing. The rules which follow will provide your framework of play, and you will find information on the kinds of characters one might play and the types of adventures one might set them on in the setting chapters on the Late Republic, Civil Wars, Principate and Crisis of the Third Century.

QualitiesThe most common element to describe a character in Centurion is the Quality. A Quality is a short descriptor, which is usually a single word or short phrase. Your character is defined through Qualities of one sort or another: Concept, Traits, and Elements. Qualities modify actions to which they apply. If the Quality is “Woodsman” and the character is faced with climbing a tree, the Quality applies. Were the

Ut varias usus meditando extunderet artis paulatim (Practice and thought might graduallyforgemanyanart)

-Virgil(PubliusVergiliusMaro) in Georgica

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character faced with building a cart, the application becomes a bit trickier, unless the character can convincingly argue how being a woodsman relates to the building of a cart. If that same woodsman were to try to fashion a sword using a smithy, the Quality would not apply. “Blacksmith” or, even better, “swordsmith” certainly would.Qualities are measured by the number of dice they provide when they are applied.

DiceDice are used in Centurion to resolve actions. The process for resolving actions in Centurion is called the Test, and the results of Tests are decided by rolling ones dice against the dice rolled by other players, including the GM. We will get into the mechanics of Tests later.Dice are abbreviated by their number of sides, therefore a six-sided die would be a d6. The basic die type in Centurion is the d6. The die-types used in Centurion are d6, d8, d10, and d12. Centurion characters are designed using Qualities, which describe the character. Each Quality is rated in d6s. A Quality that is rated at 2 has 2d6. A Quality rated at 4 has 4d6. These d6 can then spent to buy dice to use during a Test. During a Test, the dice from a character’s Qualities are assembled and can be used to buy other dice for use in the Test. Every other die has a value in d6s. A d4 is worth ½ a d6. A d8 is worth 2d6, a d10 is worth 4d6, a d12 is worth 8d6, and a d20 is worth 20d6. As an example, if a character had Qualities rated at 2, 3 and 3, that character would have 8d6 for a Test (2+3+3=8). The player can roll 8d6 for the Test, but may decide to buy other dice to use. That 8d6 can buy a d12, and so the player would roll a single d12 for the Test. The player could also buy a d10 (4d6) and 2d8 (2d6 = 1d8, so 2d8 = 4d6).

Player Character CreatioN

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Not all characters in the game are heroes, but all PCs are. These steps are for creating Player Characters or other heroic characters. Later, in Challenges are explanations of NPC heroes, regulars and minions.A Character is made up of Concept, Traits, and Elements. Each of these is a Quality, a term or phrase that mechanically describes your character. Each is rated in d6. The number rank of a Quality indicates the number of d6 it provides.What follows is a summary of the steps you could take when building a player character. Each point is discussed in more depth later in the text.

1. Create a Concept. This Quality relates to what the player intends the character to represent. The Concept begins at 1 (which represented 1d6). Remember, all Qualities in Centurion are rated by the number of dice they offer. The Concept can be increased using the 7d6 provided for Elements (see below). Each dice spent increases the Concept’s rank by 1.

2. Rank Traits. These Qualities represent your character’s basic attributes. The Traits are Physical, Mental, and Social. Your weakest Trait is 1, your medium Trait is 2 and your strongest Trait is 3. Traits are never advanced.

3. Create Elements. Elements are Qualities that the player creates for the character. The player has 7d6 with which to create and increase elements, and to increase Concept. Spending 1 die creates an Element at 1, while spending 2 creates an Element at 2, etc.

4. Create Pivots. A Pivot is a goal or other character quirk that helps to define the character. Pivots can provide dice for Aspects (see Aspects). The character may have up to three Pivots. Pivots are not ranked.

5. Go, see, conquer.

Your CharacterLooking at the character sheet is a good way to introduce you to some of the ideas and mechanics of Centurion.

NameThis would be your character’s name. If you are playing in a historical Roman setting, there are plenty of resources out there to help you choose one. If

Arma virumque cano (I sing of armsandaman)

-Virgil(PubliusVergiliusMaro)inAeneis

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you are using these rules to replicate a Roman setting in an alternate Earth or other imagined setting, you might be able to get away with Fye-Tor, but in general, try for a relatively passable Roman name. They aren’t hard to make.For our examples, we’re going to build Gaius Rufus, created by Donald Crankshaw, and Kaeso Fabius Maximus Gavros.

ConceptThis describes, in one or two words, your character. This is a type of Quality. The Concept includes two parts, the Focus and the Role. In any Test in which the player can explain how the Focus and/or the Role apply, the Concept’s die can be used.The Focus refers to which Aspect your character focuses on. You can read more on Aspects below in Aspects. The Focus is important in regards to how the character can use his Aspect dice. The Focus is represented by the adjectives: dutiful, honourable, and valorous. A dutiful character is focused on Duty, and an honourable character is focused on Honour and a valorous character is focused on Valour. Using the adjective, one might have an Honourable Illyrian recruit.The Role part of the Concept describes the player’s vision for the character. The Role could be seasoned centurion, Syrian auxiliary, or young tribune. Anything that describes the function, purpose, or your vision of the character can be a Role, but it should be simple and general. There is no need to be specific. Illyrian recruit might seem pretty specific, but it’s not as specific as “angry young Illyrian recruit looking to prove himself and step out of the shadow of his arrogant brother.” That’s too specific. If these are all parts of your character, you’ll have a chance to use those when we get to Elements.Your Concept begins at 1d6. At character creation, each character has 7d6 to use for Elements or for increasing Concept. It can later be increased as per the advancement rules below in Advancement.Explaining how the concept applies might be easy: of course your seasoned centurion knows how to fight, so that concept would apply when the character is in a fight. If the character is Valorous, Concept of course applies in a Valour Challenge. Other explanations might be a bit more of a stretch. You might say that given that young tribunes must come from at least an Equestrian household, if not a Patrician, and since Equestrians and Patricians are usually educated by Greek slaves, there’s a chance the

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young tribune heard about this particular Greek village the character is approaching. In both of these examples, the character’s Concept would apply, and the character could use the die from Concept when resolving the action.For Gaius Rufus, Donald wanted to create an impetuous young tribune, from a long and noble lineage, eager to prove himself worthy of it. Gaius is bold, but not yet wise. It seems obvious that his Focus should be Valor. So Gaius Rufus’ Concept is Valorous Young Tribune, which starts at 1. Donald could spend some or all of his available 7d6, but if he does so, he’ll have less to spend for Elements. Let’s wait and see what he wants to do with the Elements.For Kaeso Fabius Maximus Gavros (let’s just call him Gavros), this is a character from the Crisis of the Third Century who’s trying to profit as best he can from his time in the legions – the only steady job he could find. From the Aspects available during the Third Century, Gavros chooses Strength. He’s going to get by on the strength of his personality. So we’re going to make Gavros a Strong Legionary Fixer. I’m using fixer in the sense of a guy who uses influence to get things done. Think of Faceman from the A-Team. Yes, I went there.

TraitsTraits are three Qualities that generically describe your character at a very basic level. The three Traits are Physical, Mental and Social. The Physical trait governs physical actions like fighting, climbing, swimming or digging. The Mental trait governs mental actions like solving a problem, remembering information, designing a structure, or writing a treatise on governance. Mental also governs awareness, such as seeking out an enemy, attempting to discern deceit, or listening at a door. The Social trait governs social interactions, such as debate, diplomacy, seduction, or interrogation.Whenever you can explain how this Trait applies to an action your character takes, you may use it in a Test (see below).At character creation, the player chooses a Trait to be the weakest, one to be medium and one to be the character’s strongest. The weakest Trait is ranked at d6, the medium at 2d6, and the strongest at 3d6. Traits can never be advanced.As a patrician, Donald thought Gaius Rufus would be well educated and probably have learned oratory and social graces. But as Donald already decided Gaius’ impetuous and not very wise: he doesn’t seem the sort

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who’d have much patience for study. So Donald decided that Gaius’ Mental attribute is the lowest. Donald didn’t think Social should be the highest, so he ranked that as Gaius’ middle one. Donald makes Gaius’ Physical his highest attribute, deciding that he’d thrown himself into the physical part of his military training with all the eagerness of youth.So that gives Gaius’ Traits as:

Physical 3 Social 2 Mental 1

Gavros, being a Fixer using influence and the strength of his personality, he’s of course going to have Social as his main Trait. He’s a bright boy, so Mental will be his second, with Physical being his lowest. Probably not the best for a legionary, but it just means Gavros will have to fight smart.Gavros’ Traits are:

Physical 1 Mental 2 Social 3

ElementsThese describe the important features of your character in detail. Like Concept, Elements are Qualities and define your character. Unlike Concept, Elements can be specific, such as particular skills or faculties possessed by the character. An Element might be a facet of the character’s appearance or bearing. It could be a single word or a short phrase. “Swordfighting,” “diplomacy,” “eyes of the eagle,” and “the strength of a bull” could all be Elements.Just as Concept and Traits, each Element is ranked by d6. At character creation, the character has 7d6 for use in creating Elements and increasing Concept. As with Concept and Traits above, whenever you can explain how an Element applies to an action your character attempts, you may use it in a Test (see below). A player may apply only one Element to a Test unless the player spends Luck to include other Elements (see Luck below).

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Note, Elements may also represent items important for a character. In general, a character has whatever is reasonable for that character to have in terms of equipment and wardrobe. Items need not be listed, but certainly can be in order to add a level of granularity otherwise absent from the character description.Some items, though, will be Elements. Things like a signature weapon or a particularly well-made tool could be taken as Elements. These items will modify any action in which they are used for their purpose – artisan’s tools would not modify an attack and a sword would not help when baking a cake. These items are intrinsic to the character, and if they are lost or removed, it should only be temporary. The character should be provided with a temporary Element of equal rank to compensate for the temporary loss of the item. This temporary Element should in some way connect to the lost Element, so as not to punish the player. For example, if a character lost a sword she had as an Element, perhaps give the character “Battle Rage” with the same rank as the lost sword. This would compensate for the loss with the narrative explanation that the loss has triggered a particular combat reaction—she’s just opened up that can of whoop ass she was saving for just such an occasion.For Gaius Rufus, Donald had a pretty clear idea of the character in his head, so he easily noted some of the things Gaius should have.First, Horsemanship. As a noble, he’s expected to ride, and learned to do so long before he was old enough to stand for election to Tribune. Next, Military Training. He’s obviously learned the basics of using his weapons and armor, as well as military formations and signals. This would likely also include some minor understanding of engineering (setting up the camp every night and building roads), running, jumping, and swimming.And to round out his military elements, Tactics. Military Training would be the kind of training delivered to a legionary, but Gaius is expects to command, and he wants to do it right. While he’s never been one to focus on mental disciplines, it’s different when it’s battle.That covers what he would need to serve in the legions, but clearly there’s more to being a tribune than that. He’d have certainly learned some things about Politics growing up in patrician family.

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If each Element is provided with 1d6, that’s 4d6 spent out of 7. Donald want to increase Gaius’ Concept to 3, so that leaves 2 more. He spends one of those on Military Training, bringing it up to 2. With that final one, Donald decides to round Gaius out a bit, and give him Streetwise at 1. Gaius has a familiarity with the seedy parts of town – sometimes he finds his entertainment in less than reputable places.And so we have Gaius Rufus.

Concept: Valorous Young Tribune, 3 Traits: Phy 3, Men 1, Soc 2 Elements: Military Training 2, Horsemanship 1, Tactics 1, Streetwise 1

Gavros also has his legionary training, so we’ll give him Military Training. He’s got his winning personality, so we’ll call that Trust Me. Given that he’ll probably be trying to acquire items and equipment, or just make sure his comrades are fed, I’m going to give him an Element called Scrounging. Let’s spend 2 dice on Military Training, 3 dice on Trust Me, 1 on Scrounging and 1 to increase his Concept.And thus for Gavros we have:

Concept: Strong Legionary Fixer 2 Traits: Phy 1, Men 2, Soc 3 Elements: Trust Me 3, Military Training 2, Scrounging 1

Weakness There is no Weakness section on your character sheet. A Weakness is an Element that incurs a penalty when applicable to a situation. Rather than providing dice to the character, it provides dice to the opponent in a Test. Examples of a Weakness include “One Arm 1” or “Scarred Visage 2.” For “One Arm,” were a character attempting to scale a cliff, that 1d6 would be added the Challenge dice opposing him in the Test. For “Scarred Visage,” were the character attempting to persuade an NPC, the NPC would add 2d6 to his dice opposing the persuasion.Weaknesses are not created, rather they are imposed as penalties in some circumstances. Most commonly, a Weakness is a result of a Doom (see Death and Dying below)

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AspectsThe three Aspects are Duty, Honour, and Valour. They represent traditional values of Rome with especial significance to legionaries. Alternative Aspects are provided for games set in the Civil Wars, the Principate, and the Crisis of the Third Century, however these Aspects may still be used in those periods as while the contemporary expectations of legionaries changed, the paradigm of the legionary remained that of the Late Republic.Duty: This can be considered the explicit expectations of the legions and the state. This represents the character’s will to meet these expectations, enforce laws and follow orders, and the strength and perseverance with which the character will do so.Honour: This can be considered the implicit expectations of society and family. This represents the character’s sense of right action, which reflects well on family and clan.Valour: This is the character’s bravery in the face of danger. This represents the character’s willingness to engage in dangerous activities—both physically and otherwise—and to accept the consequences.The Aspects have both virtuous and non-virtuous applications. If your character’s action benefits others and is within the laws and societal norms of Rome, one may consider that a virtuous application of the Aspect. One may still consider actions virtuous if they are a reaction to the aggressive actions of another, unless those aggressive actions are a response to a non-virtuous action by the character. If the action harms other while only benefiting the character, or violates the spirit of the laws or societal norms of Rome, this is likely a non-virtuous application of the Aspect.When the PCs have a successful scene, and if the characters were virtuous in that scene, the PCs each gain a d6 for one Aspect. In general, the GM will indicate the Aspect which she feels applies, though the player may make a counter suggestion. If you need a referee or judge to make the final call on which Aspect applies when neither the GM nor the player is willing to compromise, you are playing the wrong game.There are scenes in which no dice are accumulated. If the scene relates to none of the Aspects, or is one of a series of Tests in a scene leading to a single goal, the character receives no dice for his or her success. For example if the characters have some kind of personal matter unrelated to family honour,

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the characters would gain no dice. If there are many steps the characters must complete to fulfil a direct order, the characters won’t necessarily gain dice for each and every step.If a scene relates in some way to an Aspect, but at least one of the PCs acts in a non-Virtuous manner, a die is removed from each PC’s Aspect and provided to the GM for use with Challenges and NPCs. Dice accumulated this way by the GM are called the difficulty pool, and the GM may use these dice in the same manner players use Aspect dice for their characters, except that the GM does not use them for Advancement.The dice that have been accumulated in a character’s Aspects have various uses. A d6 from a character’s Focus Aspect (see Concepts above regarding Focus) is equal to 1d6 for the options below. A d6 from either of the other two Aspects is considered a d4 or ½ a d6 for the options below.1) Modifying a Test: Dice from Aspects can be used to increase the dice used

in a Test. In this use of Aspect, the character’s Focus does not effect the value of the dice used. See Aspects in Tests in Tests below for the details.

2) Healing Damage: Aspect dice cannot be used to heal Wounds during combat, but after the scene in which the Wound occurs, Aspect dice can be used to heal damage. Aspect dice are used to remove the value of the Wound(s), so more than d6 may be required if the character has more than one Wound. For more information on Wounds, see Death and Dying below.

3) Remove a Condition: A character can use an Aspect die to remove 1d6 worth of Conditions. See Conditions below for more information. Although one Aspect die only removes 1d6 worth of Conditions, multiple Aspect dice may be used at the same time to remove more than 1d6 worth of Conditions.

4) Advancement: At the end of a session, Aspect dice may be used to Advance a character. See Advancement below.

LuckThe Romans considered Luck as a kind of blessing. It was also very important for success. No matter how great a general might be, without Luck, that general will lose. Caesar’s apparent Luck led many to believe he was favoured by the gods – at least those Romans who still believed in gods.

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Luck can be represented by tokens and players can share their character’s Luck with other players.At the beginning of the game, 10 Luck tokens plus 3 Luck tokens per player are placed in a pot in the centre of the table.When a player (including the GM) rolls a 1 with a die during a Test resolution (see Tests below), that player receives a Luck token from the pot. The die with the 1 result remains on the table for Test resolution. Luck may also be provided by the GM in scenes that relate to no Aspect. If the PCs act virtuously in a scene but do not gain Aspect dice, each PC involved in the action should gain a Luck token from the pot.When a player uses a character’s Luck, the token is given to the GM for later use. The GM may use this accumulated Luck for NPCs and other challenges. When the GM uses Luck, she puts it in the pot in the centre of the table. It’s the circle of Luck.Players can share their characters’ luck at any time. There is no restriction on the sharing or passing of Luck. If a player sees another player needs Luck, he can pass the Luck token over for that Player’s use.Luck can be used in the following manners:1) Add Another Element: In general, only one Element can be used in a

Test. For each Luck token used by a player, the PC may include the die from another Element. There is no limit on this except for the number of Elements possessed by the PC. All the conditions of using an Element applies to adding another Element, including an explanation of exactly how the Element applies to the Test.

2) Avoid a Condition: If it is spent immediately after an opponent’s success, a Luck token can avoid the Condition the opponent can apply to the character. See Conditions below for more information.

NPCs may use Luck in the same manner as PCs.

PivotsA Pivot is a goal or other character quirk that helps to define the character. It can be a goal that motivates the character, a relationship that shapes the character, or a need that drives the character. This signals to the GM the kind

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of situations and hooks which the player desires for the character. If you would like your character to be involved in swashbuckling derring-do, have a Pivot such as “I use everything in my reach on my road to victory.” If the character is searching for a lost brother “I will find my brother, no matter where he might be.”A Pivot is linked to an Aspect, and so the character may have three of them, one for each Aspect. “I use everything in my reach on my road to victory” would likely be a Valorous Pivot. “I will find my brother, no matter where he might be” would likely be Honourable, given its ties to family. For this Pivot, it would be important to explain why a character so focused on finding his brother would be in the legions? Was his brother a legionary? Is the man the character suspects of taking his brother in the legions?A Pivot need not be elaborate, but it is a chance to tell the GM what you want your character to be doing as well as a chance to give your character some colour and background.When the character completes a Pivot, the character gains either a Luck token or an Aspect die in the Pivot’s linked Aspect, player’s choice. NPCs do not have Pivots.A player can create a Pivot at character creation or at the beginning or end of any session, but not during a session. A character may alter, or remove a Pivot at the end or beginning of a session, but not during a session. Gaius’ main goal is to prove himself worthy of his family name. This is going to be split into two different Pivots. One will be linked to Honour, and will refer to Gaius’ place among his ancestors. Let’s say Gaius comes from the line of Marcus Minucius Rufus, the Master of the Horses under the famed Fabian who opposed Hannibal. That Rufus got involved in a skirmish with the Carthaginians while Fabian was away, and so this requires daring outside of, but not contrary to orders. The other will be linked to Valour, and refer to being worthy of his blood.So Gaius’ Pivots will be:

Honouring his ancient lineage. The character gains an Honour die when he successfully completes a daring and impetuous plan that is outside of orders but does not ignore them.

Worthy of his blood. The character gains a Valour die when he uses audacity to overwhelm a superior opponent without taking damage.

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Gavros wants to accumulate enough wealth that he can “retire” early, basically buy his way out of the legions. His problem is that he is always helping out his comrades. These are two conflicting Pivots, but I think they really encapsulate the heart of the character. It also gives the GM licence to throw in scenes in which Gavros can con his way into a windfall, but then have to lose that in order to help his friends. I want to throw in a Pivot for Valour, because he is, after all, a legionary. I’m actually going to make that one rather difficult, simply because I believe that Gavros will probably be getting Valour dice from fighting – he is a legionary in the third century, after all.So Gavros’ Pivots will be:

Another day closer to retirement! The character gains a Strength die when he uses his Social to increase his wealthy or assets.

What good’s a reward if your friends ain’t around to use it? The character gains a Loyalty die when he uses his wealth or assets to help a friend or legionary comrade.

Last man standing and not a scratch on him. The character gains a Valour die when he is the last survivor among his team in a fight and has taken no Wounds in that fight.

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AdvancementAt the end of each session, a player may improve her character by using dice remaining in Aspects. There is no requirement to advance a character, nor must all the dice be used (they might come in handy next session), however Advancement should only occur at the end of a session.When advancing, a character can trade d6 from his focus Aspect (see Concepts above regarding a focus) or 2d6 from either of the other two Aspects toward a d6 for advancement. New Elements bought after character creation are always created at d6, and therefore cost d6.Elements and Concepts are advanced one rank at a time, and the player must pay a number of d6 equal to the next rank. So, if one has an Element at 5, in order to advance that Element to 7, first the player would need to advance it to 6 by paying 6d6, and then to 7 by paying 7d6.Only one Aspect may be used per session for Advancement.Let’s say Gavros has 3d6 in Strength, 1d6 in Loyalty, and 4d6 in Valour. His player can’t really use his Loyalty die, because his concept is Strong Legionary Fixer, and so he needs two dice from Loyalty to get even 1d6 for Advancement. His 4d6 in Valour could be traded for 2d6 in Advancement, but the only Quality he has at 1 is Scrounging. He could advance that to Scrounging 2 if he used those dice. Gavros’ player decides to use the three dice in Strength to advance his Concept to Strong Legionary Fixer 3.

Audentes fortuna iuvat (Fortune favoursthebold)

-Virgil(PubliusVergiliusMaro)inAeneis

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TestSWhen a character attempts an action that has an impact on the game – failure might have repercussions or success might have rewards – that action is resolved by a Test. Not everything needs to lead to rolling the dice for a Test. If a character is climbing a tree to scout ahead, does that really need the dice to hit the table? If the characters are building the palisade for the night’s camp – something that as legionaries they would literally do every night – is it important to go through a Test? Probably not, unless that’s what your players love. If your group just loves rolling the dice, then do it. Roll them for everything.In general, Tests are only needed when the outcome of the action is significant, when it will change the game somehow, when there are repercussions, and when it can lead to something interesting. However, if a failure will bar forward progress in the game, don’t leave it to chance: let the PCs succeed so that the game may proceed. If you want to keep playing, the characters will have to succeed sooner or later, so where’s the fun in making them fail if you are just going to make them keep trying until they succeed.For a Test, each character (or Challenge) assembles dice from Concept, Trait, and one Element (or the player may spend Luck for additional Elements, one additional Element per Luck token spent), if those Qualities apply to the action in question. As long as the Quality (a Concept, Trait, or Element) applies to the action in question, the dice from the Quality can be included in the player’s pool for the resolution of the Test.

Aspects in TestsDice can be taken from Aspects to modify a Test. As per Aspects above, 1d6 from an Aspect can be added to the dice pool rolled in a Test. The Aspect from which the 1d6 comes must be related to the goal of the Test.Many Challenges already have Aspects, and in such cases, the Aspect dice used to increase a character’s dice pool must come from that same Aspect. In Challenges that lack Aspects, the player must justify the type of Aspect based on the goal of the character’s action.

Iacta alea est (The die has beencast)

- Gaius Julius Caesar as quoted bySuetoniusinThe Life of the

Deified Julius

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It’s important to emphasize that a goal is different from an action. Fighting is an action, but there almost an infinite number of goals for which a character might fight – to rescue an innocent, to defeat an enemy on an opposing side of a war, to protect a friend, to gain a prize, to show one’s superiority over the guy who just spoke ill of your legion, etc. Climbing a tree is also an action, but the goal of that could be to win in a race, to get an apple, to gain a vantage point from which to spy on an opposing army, to follow a direct order etc. For example, if the Test is to climb a tree because the centurion ordered the character to do so, the dice to modify such a Test should come from Duty.

ResolutionWhen all the dice are on the table, it is time to resolve the action.1) The GM takes the dice pool provided by the Challenge and assembles her

hand of dice. As per Dice above, d6 can be combined to create larger dice, so 2d6 can be a d8, 4d6 can be 2d8 or 1d10, etc. It is not necessary to combine d6, and if the dice pool consists of 7d6, the GM can simply roll 7d6.

2) Having seen the GM’s hand, the players each create their own hand. Players may also combine dice as per Dice above.

3) Everyone rolls their dice. Try not to get them all mixed up. Dice with a result of 1 provide a Luck token to their character.

4) Dice are compared, beginning with the largest dice (d20, then d12, then d10, etc) and starting with the highest result among each die type (a d20 with a result of 8 goes before a d12 with a result of 10, and a d20 with a result of 10 goes before a d20 with a result of 8). A die can conquer a smaller die with a result equal to or higher than that die’s result. A die can also conquer a die of equal or greater size with a result higher than that die’s result.

5) Conquering a die allows the character a moment of narrative control, in which the player can describe the successful action, and how it has changed the situation. The changed situation is then reflected in a Condition or – in combat or a Valorous Challenge – a Wound. A Condition can be avoided by spending a Luck token.

6) The processes continues with the next highest result or, if there are no more dice of that type left on the table, the next largest dice with the

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highest result. If there are no more opposing dice on the table, the round is over and the Test continues with everyone gathering up their dice pool again.

7) This sequence continues until the Test is resolved. A Test is resolved when a Challenge is overcome or there are no enemies opposing the PCs.

ConditionsIn a Test, when a character gains a success, that character may attach a Condition to the target of the Success. In combat, this is usually – though not always – a Wound. A Condition is a description of something that has happened to the target or some way in which the target has changed. It should follow on the narrative of the success. For example, if a PC is in a tap house brawl, and breaks a bench over an opponent, the player may choose to attach the Condition “Stunned” rather than inflict a Wound, given that this is not about killing people. A Condition imposes a d6 penalty die. This die is put in the hand of the character’s opponent in the next round of a Test. So in the tap room brawl, the Stunned condition would provide the PC with an extra 1d6 in the next round of the Test. This d6 can be increased with following successes. Conditions last until the end of a session. As of the next session, all Conditions are cleared.Aspect dice can also remove Conditions. Aspect dice from the characters focus can remove Conditions at a rate of 1d6 to 1d6, but Aspect dice from the character’s other Aspects remove Conditions at a rate of 2d6 per 1d6 of Condition.

Multiple ParticipantsIn general, in combat PCs may act in a concerted or organized manner, but each PC still acts independently during a Test. If there are more enemies than there are PCs, those enemies are divided up in a logical manner among the PCs. For example, were the PC group made up of a two legionaries – heavy infantry types – a commander and an archer, the PCs might say that the legionaries are trying to cover the other two. In that case, only those two PCs could be targeted. The commander has nothing with which to attack, but this is a case when the Social or Mental Trait could be used for combat, with the narrative that the commander is issuing orders, or even just lending encouragement to the troops.

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If more than one PC is attempting to overcome a Challenge, their efforts are combined. In such a case, the highest Concept, Trait, and Element from among the PCs participating are used for the resolution. At every even number of PCs participating after two (so four, six, eight), an extra Element can be added, but no single PC can provide more than one Element, unless Luck is used. Luck can always be used to add an extra element.

Resolution ExamplesAs an example, the character Flavius Agrippa has been ordered to spy on a barbarian camp, and must climb a cliff face to reach it. 1) Flavius has a concept of “Valorous Seasoned Centurion 2” which the

player explains applies as the legions often operated in areas with cliffs and mountains, and so Flavius has likely encountered mountain terrain previously. The GM allows this. Flavius has a Physical of 2 and the Elements “Outdoorsman 2” – which applies with little explanation – “Like a Cat 1” – which the player might apply given the use of agility and cats’ well-known aptitude for climbing – and “Surefooted 1” – which the player could surely argue applies as Flavius will be greatly aided in his ascent by his stability and balance. Given that Outdoorsman has the highest rank, this is the Element the player applies.

2) Adding up his Concept, Trait and Elements, Flavius has 6d6.3) The Challenge has a Concept of “Cliff 4” because it’s a big, intimidating

cliff, a Trait of “Physical 2” because while it is difficult, it is not impossible to climb, and the Element of “Icy 2” because that’s another major threat to someone unprepared or inexperienced. That means the GM is rolling 8d6. The cliff is quite tall, but not out of the ordinary for a cliff, so the GM decides this is a Moderate Challenge, and so Flavius needs two successes to overcome the challenge.

4) The GM decides to combine dice for 1d10 (4d6) and 2d8 (2d6 each, for 4d6 and a total of 8d6).

5) Looking at this, Flavius’ character decides to take 2d6 from Flavius’ Valour Aspect. The player explains that should Flavius fail, he could easily fall, leading to Wounds and possibly even death. This Challenge has no Aspect, so the GM agrees to this. She reminds Flavius’ player that this could mean Flavius could be Wounded or even killed. Flavius’ player acknowledges this and so he is able to put another 2d6 on the table, for a total of 8d6.

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6) Flavius’ player decides to go big or go home, so he builds a hand of 2d10 (4d6 each, for a total of 8d6). The dice are rolled. The player gets a 9 and a 1. Ouch. Flavius gains a Luck token due to the 1. The GM rolls a 5 on her d10 and a 6 and a 5 on her d8s.

7) The d10 is the largest die on the table, and the player’s 9 is the largest result. It really doesn’t matter what the player does, he’s going to win one and lose one, so he decides to just remove the GM’s d10 by conquering her 5. The player narrates this success as Flavius carefully sizing up the cliff face until he has mapped a path of handholds. He applies the Condition “Handholds 1” and gains one of the successes needed to get to the top of the cliff. The GM could have avoided this Condition with her Luck, but she likes the player’s narrative and the scene with the veteran centurion gazing at the cliff, planning his ascent, so she accepts the Condition.

8) There is still a d10 on the table, but the 1 can do nothing, so the next in line are the d8s. The GM conquers Flavius’ 1 with her 6 on a d8. She decides to go easy on Flavius and only apply a Condition rather than a Wound. The player breathes a sigh of relief and uses the Luck token he gained this round to avoid the condition. While a die remains on the table (the GM’s d8 with a 5), there are no other dice to oppose it, so this round is over. The GM liked how things turned out, so she is going to continue with a d10 and 2d8. The player spent Aspect dice last time, and decides not to do so this time (the night is young and he doesn’t want to burn through all his precious Aspect dice). He does gain a further d6 due to the Condition he places on the Challenge (“Handholds 1”), so he now has 7d6. He builds a hand with 1d10 (4d6) a d8 (2d6) and a d6. The GM rolls a 7 on her d10 and an 8 and a 2 on her d8s. The player rolls a 4 on his d10, a 7 on his d8, and a 4 on his d6. This looks like it could be rough, but the player should get that second success Flavius needs.

9) The d10s go first, and the GM conquers the player’s 4 with her 7. She could have conquered any of the player’s dice, but since the player’s 4 on a d10 could conquer her 2 on her d8, and her 8 on the d8 will go before the player’s 7, it looks like a sound move to make the Challenge interesting and difficult. This time, the GM decides to give Flavius a Wound. The player can’t block that with Luck. She narrates that Flavius misses a handhold and starts sliding down the cliff face. He flails at a handhold, slowing his descent, but he gets bounced off a rock, smacking him good. Flavius now has “Wound 1.”

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10) There are no further d10s on the table, and the d8s are next. The GM’s 8 conquers the player’s 7. She is going to apply a Condition, and while the player has 3 Luck tokens at hand, he wants to save those just in case. He takes the Condition. The GM applies the Condition “Wrenched Arm 1,” saying that Flavius finally stopped his decent by getting a good grip on a rock outcropping, but wrenches his arm doing so.

11) The GM still has a d8, but her 2 can do nothing, so play passes on to the d6s. The player’s d6 with a result of 4 is the only d6 on the table, and the player conquers the 2 on the GM’s d8, scoring the required second success. He narrates Flavius carefully continuing his climb, favouring his right arm, the one that feels like it’s been pulled off, testing each handhold and foothold, the wind cooling his sweat and making him shiver, until he finally pulls himself over the lip of the cliff. Flavius looks down, shakes his head, and decides that next time, he won’t wear armour when trying to climb a cliff. Just in case he needs to deal with this cliff again, he applies the Condition “Intimidating but conquerable 1.” Again, the GM could avoid this Condition, but given that the Challenge is over and the narrative for it is so good, she lets it stand.

As a group example, Flavius, Gaius Rufus, and Kaeso Fabius Maximus Gavros are searching through a legion camp for a legionary whom they know is part of a conspiracy. Tribune Gaius has order the group to fan out, but keep in sight of each other as they pass through the crowd. 1) The Challenge Concept will be “Find the Conspirator.” The camp is large,

however every legion camp is set out in exactly the same format, so the PCs would know their way around. We’ll call this a Good challenge, for a rating of 2. This is going to be a Mental task, and in this Challenge, since the Conspirator – an NPC – is the target, we’ll use his Trait, which is 1. Finally, we will use the Conspirator’s Element of Sneaky 2, for a total of 5d6. This is a Demanding Challenge, requiring three successes.

2) Among the three PCs, each has a Concept at 2, so it doesn’t matter whose Concept is used. Gavros’ Legionary Fixer seems to work best, as he has probably spent lots of time searching through camps for people or items. Gaius and Flavius both have a Mental of 1 while Gavros has a Mental of 2, so the group uses Gavros’ Mental. Gavros’ Scrounging and Gaius’ Streetwise both seem to apply to the attempt to searching through the camp to find someone or something, and they are both at 1. Flavius spends a Luck to add another Element, which allows both to use their Elements. That leaves the PCs with a grand total of 6d6.

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3) The GM decides to build a hand of 2d8 (4d6) and 1d6. The PCs build a hand with 1d10 (4d6) and 1d8 (2d6)

4) The GM rolls a 7 and a 4 with her d8s, and a 4 with her d6. The PCs roll a 4 on their d10 and an 8 on their d8.

5) The d10 goes first, and the PCs conquer the GM’s 4 on the d8 with their 4 on the d10. That’s one success, and they add the condition “Noticeable 1,” indicating that the Conspirator is a good head taller than most people, so pretty noticeable, even in a crowd.

6) The d8s go next, and the PCs 8 conquers the GM’s 7. That’s two successes. The PCs add the condition “Out of Uniform 1,” which, again, will make the Conspirator noticeable in a legionary camp, but might also come in useful if there is a confrontation in the camp between the Conspirator (apparently out of uniform) and the PCs (who are in their kit).

7) There is a d6 on the table, but no dice to oppose it, so the dice are gathered up for the next round.

8) The GM still has 5d6, but because of the two Conditions, each at 1, the PCs now gain an extra 2d6, for a total of 7d6. Gaius spends another Luck to be able to add an Element, including Gavros’s Scrounging, for a total of 8d6.

9) The GM decides to roll 1d8 (2d6) and 3d6, while the PCs opt for 2d10 (8d6).

10) The GM rolls an 8 on her d8 and a 3, 1, and 3 on her d6s. Not looking good for the Conspirator. The PCs roll a 2 and a 6. They only need one more success.

11) The d10s go first, and the PC’s 6 conquers the GM’s 3 on the d6. The PC’s have their three successes, and catch sight of the Conspirator. They add the Condition “Nervous 1,” thinking that also might come in handy later, if they have to question him.

As a further example, the character Flavius Agrippa, after reaching the top of the cliff he had previously climbed, finds himself facing three barbarians and their chieftain—a regular character. He spends a Valour Aspect die to remove his “Wound 1.” Just in time – the barbarians charge!1) The barbarians are minions, with a Concept of Barbarian Warrior, 1.

They have a Physical of 1. For the three warriors, the GM has 6d6. Their

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chieftain is a regular character with a Concept of Barbarian Chief, 1, Physical at 1, and the Element Berserker, 1 (see Running the Game, Non-Player Characters below for more information on minions and regulars). For the chieftain, the GM has 3d6. In total, the GM has 9d6. Flavius’ Condition of “Wrenched Arm 1” (from when he climbed the cliff) provides her another 1d6, for a total of 10d6. She builds a hand of 1d10 (4d6) and 3d8 (2d6 each, so 6d6).

2) Flavius has a concept of “Valorous Seasoned Centurion 2” which certainly applies in combat, as does his Physical Trait of 2. The player might argue that the Elements “Like a Cat 1” and “Surefooted 1” apply as speed and dexterity of a cat will certainly aid him against these opponents and the fight is on the edge of a cliff, so being steady on one’s feet is a decided advantage. Flavius also has the Element “Renowned Gladius 2” which refers to the shortsword presented to him by his former Legate due to his deeds of renown. This is both the most logical Element to apply and the highest ranked, so the player uses that. The player is rolling 6d6. The player decides to build a hand of 1d10 (4d6) and 1d8 (2d6).

3) The dice are rolled. Flavius gets a 7 on his d10 and 1 on his d8. Bad rolling. He does get a Luck token for that 1. The GM rolls a 4 on her d10, a 5, a 6 and a 1 on her d8s. She gets a Luck token for her 1 as well.

4) The d10s are compared first and Flavius’ 7 is the highest result, so he goes first. He doesn’t have many options, with his second roll being a 1, so he conquers the GM’s 4 on her d10. He decides that he’s removing one of the minions. The player narrates that the warriors charge, and Flavius raises his shield, driving its edge into the throat of one of them. This delivers a Wound, and the GM indicates that the warrior drops. These are minions, and can only take one Wound.

5) Next come the d8s. The GM’s 6 goes first, and she conquers the player’s 1. She narrates this as Flavius’ wrenched arm throws off his aim with his gladius, and one of the warriors gets inside his defence, slashing him across the chest. Flavius now has Wound 1.

6) Sure, there are dice on the table, but not opposed dice, so this round is over. The GM is down to 7d6 due to the downed warrior, but with Flavius Condition and Wound, that is upped to 9d6. She builds a hand of 1d10 (4d6), 2d8 (2d6 each, so 4d6) and 1d6.

7) Things are not looking good for Flavius. He still has his 6d6, but decides to use a Luck Token to also include the Element “Outdoorsman 2” saying

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that as the fight is on the edge of a cliff, his ease with the surroundings will give him a decided edge. The GM likes this explanation and so now Flavius has 8d6. He goes big, and builds a hand of 2d10.

8) Dice are rolled. The GM gets a 5 on her d10, a 5, and 2 on her d8s, and a 6 on her d6. Nice rolling. The player rolls a 9 and a 4. Things are looking much better for Flavius now.

9) The d10s got first, and Flavius uses his 9 to conquer the GM’s 5. Flavius drives his gladius into the side of the warrior who slashed him, piercing the minion’s heart. That Wound puts the warrior of out of the scene.

10) While the GM has a 5, which is higher than the player’s 4, the 5 is on a d8 and the player’s 4 on a d10 gets to go first. He uses it to conquer the GM’s 2 on a d8. Flavius turns the blade of another attacking warrior with his shield and head-butts him. The warrior slides to the ground, senseless.

11) There are no opposing dice on the table. It’s a new round, and now it’s Flavius one-on-one with the chieftain. The GM now has 3d6 from the chieftain, plus 2d6 from Flavius’ Wound and Condition, for a total of 5d6. The GM builds a hand with 2d8 (4d6) and 1d6.

12) The player is feeling a little better about his odds, since he now has 6d6, more than the GM. He builds a hand with 1d10 (4d6) and 1d8 (2d6).

13) Dice are rolled, with the GM getting a 6 and a 2 on her d8s and a 3 on her d6. The player gets an 8 and a 5. He smiles. The GM kind of chuckles, seeing what’s coming.

14) The player’s d10 goes first, and he uses his 8 to conquer the GM’s 6. The player narrates this as the chieftain charging at Flavius, screaming, sword held high. Flavius takes the blade on his shield, then kicks the chieftain in the chest, knocking the wind out of him and pushing him back. That’s one Wound for the regular character, who will be dead with the next Wound.

15) The player’s 5 on his d8 is next. He uses it to eat the GM’s 2. The player narrates Flavius growling at the chieftain, who turns and tries to flee. Flavius sends his gladius flying overhand, to take the chieftain right in the back, pinning him against a tree.

16) Very nice. Flavius gets a Valour Aspect die (this was a Valorous Challenge), but is carrying both a Wound and a Condition. The player is running low on Aspect dice, so hopes that he won’t get in another fight and doesn’t spend any to remove his Wound or his Condition.

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Death and DyingIf a character succeeds during combat, that success can result in either a Condition or a Wound. Conditions are discussed above in the Conditions section of Tests. But what about Wounds?Wounds are considerably more serious than Conditions. While they have the same mechanical impact – penalty dice – Wounds do not disappear at the end of a session, and while Luck can allow a character to avoid a Condition in combat, nothing can stop a Wound.A heroic character – which includes all PCs – can endure four Wounds. Each Wound incurs a d6 penalty die. After sustaining a fifth Wound, the character receives a Doom and is removed from the scene.Minion characters are removed from the scene after a single Wound, while regular characters can sustain one Wound, but the second removes them from the scene. NPCs removed from a scene due to Wounds need not be dead. The players can decide that NPCs removed from the game are merely unconscious or momentarily stunned rather than dead. They might be on the verge of death, just waiting to tell the PCs some important information before gurgling their last while they cough up blood.

DoomIn general, a Doom results in the death of minions and regulars, although regulars that are recurring characters or important to the plot may avoid this. For PCs, the result of a Doom is based on the kind of game the group is playing. If the death of PCs is acceptable to the game group, a Doom will result in character death. However, even in a group that accepts PC death, a PC should have some chance to avoid death due to a Doom. A player can use a Luck token to avoid her character’s death.If a Doom does not result in death – either because that is not how the group rolls or because the player used a Luck token to avoid character death – the Doom results in the character gaining a Weakness at 1 (or an existing Weakness increased by 1), such as “One Arm 1” or “Scarred Visage 1.”

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HealingThe main way for characters to heal – that is remove Wounds – is to spend Aspect dice. Dice from the character’s Focus Aspect (see Concept above in Your Character for more information on Focus) can remove 1d6 worth of Wounds, while 2d6 from the character’s other Aspects can remove the same.If this is not an option, a character can remove one Wound per three days of rest and medical care or one Wound per seven days of rest alone.

RUNNING THE GAME

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If you’re reading this, I’m going to assume that either you are either planning on running a game of Centurion or you are considering it as a possibility in the future. Maybe you just like systems and mechanics and ideas for building adventures. Fair enough. What follows is both mechanical and philosophical. I’m going to tell you how to build Challenges for Centurion, but I’m also going to tell you how I’ve been running the game, and how that’s worked for me.I highly doubt I’ll answer all your questions. If you need every questioned answered, if you are adrift without direction, if you want me to cover every possible base . . . well, you’ve got the wrong book. Centurion runs best when everyone – the players and the GM – are flexible and ready to address the unforeseen in creative ways. To me, that’s part of the fun.

ChallengesThe GM does not have characters per se. The GM presents challenges for the characters to overcome. These challenges can be non-player characters (NPCs), but can also represent difficulties, dangerous situations, or physical obstacles. Anything which impedes the characters from achieving their goals is a Challenge, and the GM presents these Challenges.The GM handles NPCs and non-character challenges in very much the same way. NPCs differ in that they may be involved in combat. Non-character Challenges might include the swaying of a mob to one’s point of view, or gaining election to the Senate. These would be Challenges that include individuals but are not against NPCs.NPCs and Challenges have Concepts. An NPC might be a legate, a Germanic barbarian, or friendly innkeeper. A Challenge might be “Unruly Mob” or “Sheer Cliff.” The Concept for a Challenge might also be the goal of the encounter, like “Find Out if He’s Lying” or “Build a Palisade Fast.”Challenges may have a related Aspect. For ease of understanding, let’s refer to this as the Focus, the same as a PC’s Focus (see Concept above in Your Character for more information on Focus). This relates to the kind of Aspect die characters receive when they succeed against the scene’s goal.

Sunt superis sua iura (The gods havetheirownrules)

-Ovid(PubliusOvidiusNaso)inMetamorphoses

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Not all Challenges have a Focus. If a Challenge is part of a series of Tests leading to a singular goal, it won’t have a Focus. This is important, because Challenges with a Focus provide Aspect dice to characters when the Challenge is overcome. If you have three different tasks that lead to the deciphering of a coded message, only the ultimate Test that decodes the message has a Focus. The others do not. Only a Challenge (Valour) can inflict damage with a success. All other Challenges may only create Conditions.Along with a Concept, a Challenge will have a Trait. This indicates the kind of Challenge the character is facing. For example, climbing a cliff is almost certainly a Physical Challenge, while examining the cliff face to see if there is an easier method of approach could be a Mental Challenge and talking someone into helping the character during the climb or giving information about the ascent would be a Social one.In the example of the Unruly Mob above, this Challenge could be a Physical one if the character fought the mob, a Social one if the character calmed the crowd with rhetoric, or even a Mental one if the character tried to discern who was leading the mob. These Challenges might actually be linked, with the PCs first figuring out who’s leading the mob (Mental), then incapacitating that individual (Physical) and then intimidating the mob to return to their homes (Social).Only that last, Social Challenge would earn an Aspect die, as that was the Test that actually overcame the mob.Challenges may also have Elements. The cliff might have the Element “Confusing Trails” that would modify the character’s attempt to find the easiest ascent. The Unruly Mob might have the Element “Leaderless” which would make a character’s attempt to discern a leader a problem – and this could also be a Weakness when an unexpected obstacle or event faced the Mob. The Challenges’ Concept, Trait, and Element(s) are ranked based on the Difficulty Table below. Each should be considered separately rather than simply replicating the same difficulty for each Quality.

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Difficulty Table

Difficulty Rank (d6) Definition

Basic ½ (1d4) Child could do thisAverage 1 Average person would usually succeedGood 2 Difficult for an average adultGreat 4 A professional could accomplish this taskExceptional 8 A professional would have difficulty with this taskLegendary 16 This is like a gold at the complexity OlympicsMythic 24 One for the history books . . . or scrollsDeified 32 Only the gods could do this!

For the Unruly Mob, they might be a small mob, so the Concept’s rank could be 1, while they might have the Element “Bunch of Toughs” at 4 and “Leaderless” at 16 to emphasize how this mob is totally out of anyone’s control. The Mob might also have “Susceptible” at 2 indicating it’s pretty susceptible to persuasion.The cliff might be exceptionally large, with a Concept of “Cliff 4” because it’s a big, intimidating cliff, a Trait of “Physical 2” because while it is difficult, it is not impossible to climb, and the Element of “Icy 2” because that’s another major threat to someone unprepared or inexperienced.Along with rating the Concept, Trait, and Element(s) of a Challenge, the GM must also decide on its Complexity. The Complexity relates to the number of successes a character needs to overcome the challenge: Simple requires one success, Moderate requires two successes, Demanding requires three, and Extraordinary requires four. Each time a character conquers one of the Challenge’s die in the resolution (see Tests above) the character gains a success.Were the Cliff not that tall, it might be a Simple Challenge, however most Challenges are Moderate. That Unruly Mob might be a Demanding Challenge, but an Extraordinary Challenge should be exceedingly rare, perhaps for two legionaries swimming to shore at Amphipolis after their ship is sunk in the Adriatic.

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Building ChallengesAs can be expected, much of the preparation for Centurion involves the creation of Challenges. If you know what you want the PCs to accomplish, you build those as Challenges. There need not be a specific route to these challenges, you can have them ready to pepper the adventure as the PCs reach them logically.For example, let’s say that your characters are attempting to uncover a conspiracy against Emperior Claudius. This is soon after the conquering of Britain, and is being undertaken by Gaius Silius, the lover of Claudius’ scandal-prone wife, Messalina. Silius (an unfortunate name, but what can you do with history?) is the consul-designate in 48 CE for the 49 CE term, and has conspired with Messalina – whom he apparently married – to murder Claudius.In our adventure, Silius has a freedman servant named Faustus, who is knowledgeable of the conspiracy, and rumoured to be at odds with Messalina. The PCs have a chance to get evidence against Silius through Faustus.The purpose of the Challenge is to gain information, but we’re talking betrayal here. So let’s say the concept is “Turn on your Boss.” Faustus is pretty darn loyal to Silius, who freed him, but we’re going to toss that in as an Element. I’m going to say that the difficulty of getting a servant to inform on a boss is pretty much average. This stuff happened with a certain amount of regularity. That puts the rank of the Challenge at 1.Faustus has a Social of 1 and a Mental of 2. This is important as there may be different ways for the PCs to attempt to deal with Faustus, either by persuasion or logical argumentation. Looks like persuasion might be the best way.Finally, as mentioned above, we are throwing in Fautus’ loyalty to his master as an Element. Silius freed him, so we’re going to say Faustus’ loyalty is exceptional, putting this Element at 8.This Challenge is not planned to be the result of a direct order, but it might be if the PCs are flailing about without direction or purpose. I think, instead, I’m going to call this an Honour Challenge, because loyalty to the state and the opposition to conspiracy would aid Faustus’ family honour.

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So, we have a Challenge that would look something like this:

Turn on your Boss 1 Social 1 (Mental 2) Loyal to the Boss 8 Honour

Now, here are some examples of Challenges created on the fly during a playtest.The final goal of this series of Challenges is a package the PCs must retrieve from an NPC. This NPC is not a villain. He’s a legionary scout, assigned to deliver the package. The PCs did not know the package’s destination, but they knew a particular tribune, whom they believed to be traitorous, sent it. Simply attacking the scout would almost certain lead to bloodshed, and this was an honourable, fellow legionary, so the PCs didn’t want him dead. I knew they needed to get the package. I didn’t know how they would try.First, the PCs wanted to figure out the package’s destination. They figured it would be Rome, so the smooth-talker among them introduced himself to the scout, said he noticed the scout was heading off somewhere, and wondered if he could drop off a note to an old mistress on the way to Rome. If the Challenge proved successful, the legionary agreed to do it, or he otherwise tipped off the PCs to the direction in which he was travelling.This was a step toward getting the package, not actually getting the package itself, so the PCs would get no Aspect dice for success. However, if they wanted to use Aspect dice to modify the Test, I would venture that this was a Duty Challenge, as intercepting the package was part of the order to the PCs from their commanding officer.We decided the Concept was “Involve Other in Mission,” as that’s what the PC was doing, involving himself and his task in the mission. The request wasn’t too difficult and it didn’t really put the scout’s task at risk, so I decided it was an Average difficulty, giving it a 1.The attempt was a Social one, as the PC was attempting to persuade. The scout’s Social was 1.Finally, I added the Element “Under Orders.” The orders had been delivered to this scout, a legionary and not an officer of any note, by a tribune, a very

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high-ranking character. That’s a pretty damn big deal. I gave that a Good difficulty, as getting him to bend those orders would certainly be difficult, but it wasn’t against his best interests or likely to lead to severe punishment. That left “Under Orders” with 2.Finally, the Complexity of this Challenge was Demanding, meaning the PC needed three successes. That was tied to the fact that the scout had no idea who these guys were, that the orders had come from the tribune – the second in command of his legion – and the scout was smart enough to figure his mission was a pretty important one. That, and the PCs had to do this without alerting the scout to their intent.The PC was successful, and left the NPC with the Conditions “Gullible, 2” and “Underestimate, 1.” The PC was left with the Condition “Suspicious, 2” which could cause him some trouble down the road were it not so close to the end of the session.But we weren’t done. Another PC then needed to find the package. The Challenge ended up looking like this:

Where is it? 2 Mental 1 Moderate Complexity

You’ll notice this Challenge doesn’t have an Element. Not every Challenge will. I’m sure I could have cooked up an Element to use, but if it is not glaringly obvious that an Element should be used, why fight to get one? The Challenge works just as well without one.The PC was successful, everyone got another Luck token, and the poor scout ended up with the Condition “On the Horse 2.” The PC’s task had been made much easier because along with the dice from the PC’s Concept, Trait, and Element, the PC gained dice for the NPC’s existing Conditions (“Gullible” and “Underestimate”). The PC, though, got the Condition “Thief? 1,” as the scout had gained a success and noticed the PC’s scrutiny.Finally came the ultimate Challenge of the scene. Another PC tried to remove the package and avoid suspicion by replacing it with a fake package – basically a quickly located rock or chunk of wood hastily wrapped and hoped to be the same basic weight as the package. Finding an item for which to switch the package was not a Test. It was a great idea and really helped build the scene, so why would I punish that by insinuating the possibility of

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failure? I mean, think of Raiders of the Lost Ark if Indy didn’t fill the bag with sand. The scene would have been good but not as good. I want the best, most fun scenes possible in my games.The player didn’t ask me if he could find such an item, he told me he had found the item and wrapped it. Cool. Let’s go with that. That’s awesome.That’s how it’s played.So, the final Challenge actually had an Aspect die as a reward, and it was a Duty Challenge (as mentioned above, this was in answer to direct orders). This is what the Challenge looked like:

Switcheroo 2 Physical 2 Attached to the Horse 2 Moderate.

The PC’s attempt was certainly assisted by the now multiple Conditions on the poor scout. By the end of the scene, the package had been switched, and the scout had a further 2d6 in Conditions (“Easily Distracted”).

ADVENTURES & CAMPAIGNS

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I have a hard time giving advice on how to build adventures and campaigns because it’s not something that I take a lot of time thinking through. I think we all know how to construct stories, and that’s pretty much what adventures and campaigns are. However, there are mechanical aspects unique to Centurion that influence the construction of adventures, so I’ll do my best to give you an idea of how I build adventures and campaigns.I’m not going to discuss world-building, because Centurion is not about building a world. The world of Centurion is our world, just about two thousand years ago. In a sense, though, by building adventures and/or campaigns, you are world-building. You will be adding details to history that are not true. You might be interpreting history, and you are at least using it as a foundation, but you are not relating historical happenings.

Building the StoryIn general, I would expect that certain events or personages of historical Rome are going to act as the grist for your adventure-writing mill. It might be Marius’ war against Jugurtha and the Numidians, it might be Caesar’s visit to Egypt, or it might be Claudius’ invasion of Britain – whatever it is, you are going to make it your own, and then you are going to share it with your group.How are you going to make it your own? First, you’re going to figure out what the problem is that the group must solve. Why are they there? I don’t mean the narrative foundation of the group’s very existence – that could be something you could decide along with the other players –I mean the goal of the adventure. Is it to scout out Jugurtha’s forces preceding Gaius Marius’ arrival in Numidia, to investigate the loyalties of the Gabiniani – legionaries left in Rome by an earlier proconsul who became mercenaries for Ptolemy XIII – after Caesar’s arrival in Egypt, or to discover the cause for the refusal of legionaries to embark on Claudius’ invasion of Britain?Once you have the goal of the adventure, you can flesh out the general story. Who are the main antagonists? What do they want? Who will oppose the characters and who will assist them? Are these specific places of note that are important? Are there cool things to see or do, perhaps a treasure or item linked to the adventure?I generally break an adventure down into background, situation, goal, places of note, and characters of note. The background tells us how we got here.

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The situation is what is happening currently, and generally relates to the goal. The goal is what the characters are trying to accomplish. The places of note are those important locations which will likely impact on the adventure. And characters of note are the opponents and allies the PCs will face. Depending on the complexity of the adventure, this might all be on one page.

Adding ChallengesWith the story set in your mind, you can now set up some Challenges. You can consider these as parts in a flowchart leading to the successful conclusion of the adventure. Just like rooms in a dungeon you created for your fantasy dungeon-crawl, the characters probably won’t hit all these Challenges, so don’t get too attached to them. Honestly they shouldn’t take you too long to prepare.When creating these Challenges, you need to consider the PCs’ Foci and Pivots. These should help you to target the Challenges for your players. If all the PCs are Valorous, you better have plenty of fights available, or other Challenges in which the PCs can risk life and limb. It’s nice when there is a spread of Foci and you can hit all three each adventure, possibly more than once.Which might lead you to ask: how many Challenges should I put in my adventure?In general, you want to deliver four to six Aspect dice per session, more if there is combat. Given that Aspect dice are the main way to heal damage, if the characters encounter combat, they will be burning Aspect dice to heal, so consider that when creating Challenges.And remember, not all Challenges will deliver Aspect dice. If the Challenge does not have a Focus, it does not deliver dice, only Luck.

Choosing Challenge FocusWhen designing a Challenge, one must choose its Focus. Now, many Challenges, especially those designed on the fly, will not have a Focus. Those Challenges created in advance, those that are part of the adventure preparation, should have a Focus. That is based on the assumption that these are important events or actions for the overall plot.

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But what Focus to give them? That is a function of why you are creating these Challenges. Each PC should have a Focus. It’s right there in the Concept (Honourable Centurion, Valorous Gallic Scout, Dutiful Young Patrician). You, as the GM, should know every PCs Focus. You should also be using these to design your Challenges.The Focus has both a mechanical purpose – valuing experience gained for certain types of actions – and a narrative purpose. Like the Pivot (more on that later), the Focus should tell you what kind of Challenges the player wishes for their character. As the GM, it’s your job to insert that narrative into the game. You can do this by creating Challenges that match the PCs’ Foci.This isn’t to say that you need to design the entire adventure around the PCs Foci. What I am saying is that it isn’t hard to find Challenges that match those Foci that are also linked to whatever adventure you have planned.Granted, if you are willing to use only a bare-bones style of preparation, with most of the Challenges done on the fly, you won’t need to worry about setting up Challenges based on character Foci. I would imagine the players will do that themselves. I would keep a running tally of the kinds of Challenges you have played in a session, just to be sure you are touching on everyone’s expressed interests. Challenges are the main way to gain Aspect dice, and those dice are pretty important to the game. It’s part of your job as the GM to make sure everyone gets mechanical rewards. Since hitting the PCs Foci is a way to both provide mechanical benefit and deliver the kind of Challenges players have indicated they desired, putting some thought into a Challenge Focus pays some pretty nice dividends.

Considering PivotsPivots are your friend. They are there to express a deeper understanding of the character, but they also provide a further signpost to the kind of Challenges and adventures the players desire. Don’t ignore this. It should make your job of designing adventures easier.The whole point of the Pivot is to tell you what the player wants his character to do. Sure, it provides a mechanical reward to the player, and that’s nice, but it is also a great way to telegraph a player’s interest.

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Depending on the Pivots players choose, you may not only receive clues on how to motivate the player or character in adventures, but also some nice little subplots that you can weave into whatever adventure you are planning. The adventure may be about scouting out the British adversaries Julius Caesar will face on his landing, but if there’s a subplot about a lost brother, this might be a really cool place to insert a clue. Hit that Pivot, give that player a Luck token, and immerse her more deeply into the plot by making her character’s history a part of the narrative.Think of the Pivot as stage directions by the player for the character. The player can provide the context for spotlight time for the character. That makes your job easier. You should be worried about ensuring that every character has a chance to shine. Pivots do that for you. They tell you how you can make this character shine. It isn’t even about the character succeeding necessarily – though that would be nice so the character gets the mechanical reward – it’s more about giving the player what she wants and moving the story forward at the same time. It might not be the narrative of the main plot, but it’s the narrative of one of the character’s, and the more those stories intertwine, the more invested the player will be in the game. And, just to be a bit of a bastard here, jeopardy is a lot easier to manufacture when the player is invested in a character. Without that investment, threats to Flavius the Centurion may work within the game mechanics, but lacking a sense of real identification with the character, the player will not feel threatened. If Flavius the Centurion’s quest to find the meaning of the message etched on his father’s sword (an Honour Pivot, that one) has appeared in three of the last eight games, it’s an established subplot. Flavius’ player is likely pretty invested in the character now. There’s also a good chance the other players feel a sense of ownership of that subplot as well, given that their characters have been – hopefully – involved in moving that subplot forward.The Focus of the Pivot, just like the Focus of the character, helps to create the Challenges associated with the Pivot. This is all about making your job easier. The players are literally telling you what to put in the game. The best part is that they are not telling you what the plot has to be – though their Foci and their Pivots should be giving you some sharp hints as to what they would like to be doing – just what the subplot could be. The players are telling you want they want to see, what they want to do. They are feeding you Challenges. You would either have to be a dick or kind of megalomaniacal not to buy into that.

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Adventures and CampaignsThe difference between an adventure and a campaign is simply time. Both climax with the realization of a goal, the main difference being that while an adventure – mechanically – is made up of interlocking Challenges, a campaign is made of interlocking adventures. For example, the Jugurthine War could be a campaign, while a scouting mission to assess Jugurtha’s troops or a diplomatic mission to Bocchus of Mauretania would be adventures within that campaign.There is no real hard and fast determination of what constitutes an adventure and what constitutes a campaign, nor need there be. The biggest difference is that a campaign takes more planning. The adventures need all to be linked into one overwhelming goal (overthrow the king of Numidia, become the singular power in Rome, conquer the Celtic peoples of Britain). This does not mean there should be no subplots, it actually means subplots take on a greater significance.A subplot provides characters with goals and motivations outside of the actual goal of the adventure. This helps to flesh out the PCs and brings their history into the game. Using Pivots, each character could have a subplot in a campaign, and for large, subplot-producing pivots, the Aspect die could be earned each time the subplot is part of a session. This will help to get each character some extra Aspect dice.

Non-Player CharactersYour PCs are going to need to interact with others in the game world. This could be as transitory as the stablekeeper at a military post where the PCs exchange horses to as permanent as a freedman secretary to one of the PCs.The NPCs flavour the world and can provide important information and examples of how society works.NPCs are divided into three kinds of characters: minions, regulars and heroes. Minions are insignificant characters in the narrative. This is a faceless character that exists only to assist or obstruct the PCs. A Minion rarely has a name or a personality beyond that which is required to drive the plot. Minions have a Concept at 1. Their Traits are ranked at ½ (d4), ½ (d4) and 1, in the order of the GMs choosing. A Minion can have a single Element at 1 or two Elements at ½ (d4) each.

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Regulars are non-significant characters in the narrative. While not as important as a Hero, a Regular plays a role in the narrative and has a specific identity. Fellow legionaries and officers, and other characters regularly encountered or known by the PCs would all be Regulars.Regulars have a Concept at 1, and their Traits are ranked at ½ (d4), 1 and 1, in the order of the GMs choosing. A Regular can have a single Element at 2 or two Elements at 1 each.Heroes are significant characters in the narrative. These are the characters that can affect the story, and can make important changes to the narrative. All PCs are Heroes. Important NPCs may also be Heroes, such as the main villain, experienced or dangerous legionaries and enemies, or a trusted PC contact, patron or client.Heroes have Concepts, Traits and Elements. The GM builds NPCs much as the players build PCs, but there are no restrictions on how many dice the GM may use. When building a Challenge, the NPC’s Concept, Traits, and/or Elements may be used. In combat, it is generally only the NPC’s Qualities that are used, but in other Challenges, Qualities from the NPC can be mixed with

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other Qualities. For example, the Concept of the Challenge might be “Win His Trust,” which works much better mechanically than the NPC’s Concept (perhaps Centurion, Legate, or Allied Dignitary). The NPC’s Social would be used, and perhaps either an Element from the NPC (let’s say “Experience Courtier”) or something reflecting the situation (“High Pressure Negotiations”).

HOW I PLAY

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This is the advice chapter. This is me telling you how I’ve run this game I’ve created and how I feel I’ve succeeded at keeping my players invested and excited. There are a couple of caveats. First, this works with a group that has trust. I trust my players to fixate more on character than advantage. They trust me to work in their benefit – I will bring the fun. We are all working together toward a good story. Nobody is trying to score points except for trying to get some character spotlight, and that is simply a part of RPGs.Do I need to tell you this is all opinion? This is all opinion. This is what works for me and how I see things. Given that you’ve put down hard-earned money for this game, I will assume that you are at least somewhat interested in my opinions and what works for me.

Meta-Gaming, Table TalkI’ve got no rules against meta-gaming. I do not dissuade players from bringing real world knowledge to the table, and I absolutely encourage table talk. This is an off-shoot of that trust part I mentioned above. For the purposes of this discourse, I consider meta-gaming the application of player knowledge to the game. Meta-gaming is only really a problem when PCs are acting out of character due to the player’s out-of-game knowledge. In a game like Centurion, if one of your players knows enough about Roman history – or perhaps has seen a movie or read a novel relating to the period in which you are playing – she may know how events are meant to transpire, or the secret plans or motivations of some of the major characters with whom your group is interacting. If that player is using that knowledge to increase the tension or fun in the game, there’s nothing wrong with her applying that meta-game knowledge.If a player has her PC act out of character (has always been respectful of authority, but turns on Marcus Junius Brutus with no further explanation), and you suspect it is due to meta-gaming, I would suggest you sit down – outside of game time and in private – to discuss the situation. Let the player know that you were surprised at her character’s actions. You can ask about the character’s motivations, or the player’s reasons for making the character act that way. Have an adult discussion about it, and just let the player know that while you generally have no problem with meta-gaming, in this case, it didn’t help the story. In a way, it hurt it, as the character’s actions were

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perplexing. After a discussion, hopefully you will have resolved the matter.You can also turn your game into an alternate history. Perhaps in our world Marcus Brutus was part of the mob that killed Caesar, but in this alternate history, Brutus saves Caesar, and becomes one of his trusted lieutenants, as Caesar – rather than Augustus – becomes the first emperor. In this case, knowledge might help – especially knowledge of existing relationships and personalities – but events having taken a different course, it might also hinder, and could even lead players astray.Table-talk is in many ways similar. When I say table-talk, I mean those discussions at the game table between players rather than characters, including players advising other players as to what a character should do.This can be a real help, especially if the player can’t decide what to do, or just isn’t getting into the groove. Personally, I enjoy a table in which everyone is having a discussion – out-of-character – about what cools things a character could do, or how the story could evolve. To me, this shows enthusiasm for the game. That kind of enthusiasm is infectious.The problem comes when there is a player (or more than one), who does not want the advice, and is intimidated or otherwise bothered by the table-talk. Those players need to know it is okay to politely ask for some time to think. As a GM, you need to back that player up. There’s nothing wrong with letting a player consider his actions, and if he wants suggestions, all he needs to do is ask. This isn’t a hit at others at the table, it’s just a different style of play.I would assume, and I could be wrong, that you know your players. You will know better than I how best to inspire them and get them enthused about your game. I’m not saying that meta-gaming and table-talk are part of the rules of Centurion, but both have helped my players and I to really get some good games going.

Don’t Ask me, Tell MeA lot of times, especially in traditional role-playing games, players feel the need to ask the GM/DM what exists in the world in which they are playing. This may work well for the GM who wants to maintain control over the game, but it doesn’t work so well if you want cool scenes and unique ideas from your players.

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The way I play is that a player shouldn’t ask me if something is available or present – the player should tell me that it is. For example, don’t ask me if the town has a smith, tell me it does, and then tell me how this feeds into some awesome idea you had. If a player delivers good scenes and pushes the story forward, I’ll give that player a lot of leeway. This isn’t about players getting items or wealth for their character – there is no wealth in this game. This is about making the game fun and letting the players have real control over their characters and their story. If you have players who are abusing this aspect of the game, you need to speak to them outside of the game and explain the purpose of allowing them a high level of narrative control.I have found that when a GM has total control over the world, that the GM will consider it his world and the adventure his story. This is not true, at least not in Centurion. The GM’s world would wither on the vine without the PCs, and the adventures would have no story and no one interested in them without the players and their characters. This is a collaborative game, and that collaboration is truly more than the sum of its parts.You may find that your players are uncomfortable with this level of control. That’s fine. This isn’t something with which they should feel burdened. However, when it comes time for that player to ask “is there a tree in the yard?” I would answer “what do you want to do with the tree?” Let the player tell you the idea she has for that tree, then ask her if she wants a tree in that yard. If she answers in the affirmative, then tell her that yes, there is a tree. Players might think they don’t want the “responsibility” of narrative control, but in general, given the opportunity, they will take it. It allows their characters to do – or at least try – the things they want their characters to do. If you are concerned that giving your players too much control will ruin your carefully constructed adventure, you may be playing the wrong game. I find Centurion works best when the GM is designing challenges on the fly in response to the actions and intents of the PCs. Certainly have an idea for the adventure in mind, and have some key Challenges prepared, but have the flexibility to address the repercussions of the PCs’ actions and be ready to build Challenges based on the PCs’ plans and intentions.

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GenderHere’s the tough one. There were no women in the legions. There simply were not. There was an actual, physical inspection (at least during the Principate) to verify a recruit’s masculinity. I was spoiled with my last historical game (which was really an ahistorical game, but who’s counting?), Kiss My Axe, because there actually were female Vikings. They were rare, yes, but some had storied careers which made them the subject of sagas, such as Lagertha, a shieldmaiden who was said to have married Ragnar Lodbrok for a time. Rome does not have such shieldmaidens.Roman disregard for women seems a continuing part of its culture, throughout the periods which this book examines. This and the gender test for entering the legions are two hurdles to overcome if one wishes to include female characters in one’s campaign.Perhaps you don’t. Perhaps you are happy with the status quo, because there are no women in your gaming group, the females in the gaming group are either interested in playing male characters or want to explore the prejudices against and obstacles for women in a historical context, or are running the game and accept Rome’s historical antipathy for half its population. There may be many reasons your group is happy playing in Rome with its biases intact. If that’s the case, nothing more need be said.If, however, you want to include female characters, there are lots of ways this can be done.How many people honestly know about the gender test? I didn’t, and frankly I only have one source for it (Philip Matyszak’s Legionary: the Roman Soldier’s Unofficial Manual), so this could be an error based on an incorrect reading of a primary source. In your campaign, you can just jettison the idea of the physical. Without that, there’s nothing stopping a female character from pulling a “Hua Mulan.” This option has the least impact on the setting, though it might not be the best, unless the tension of being discovered and disgraced (or possibly executed) is something the player wants as part of the game.Another option is to downplay Rome’s historical misogyny. Tone it down enough that a woman of exceptional capabilities might be accepted in the legions with some curiosity and maybe even a little animosity, but not outright official condemnation and legal action. This would allow some level

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of tension and exploration of gender roles in a historical setting. The female character could have snuck into the legions or had been involved in some desperate action, like the defence of a town or fort, in which her abilities were noted. There’s also the option of just ignoring historical prejudices. Just play the game and not discuss it. There will likely be the expectation of at least some level of gender bias – that’s the status quo in modern society – and women are still barred from combat roles in some militaries, so a female legionary would probably be recognized, even with someone lacking knowledge of the Roman period, as an anomaly. There are lots of ways to include female characters if one is willing to alter history at least slightly, and since I’d always advocate altering history to suit story, I see no problem with this. Still, this is your game and your group will need to decide how they want to handle female characters in your campaign.

Holding the LineJust as there may be players who want to play female characters, there may be players interested in playing the grunts, the heavy infantry legionaries who don’t go out and do scouting or spying. While the rules as written could probably handle this, they are not designed for squad-, century-, cohort-, legion-, or army-level combat. Now, if the main interested is to play legionaries in camps, going on marches, with fights being occasional punctuations of the monotony of camp life, these rules could do that justice. Focus on the characters in their combat with the final outcome of the battles decided narratively – or perhaps even historically, following the historical results of battles – and these rules will work fine.If heavy combat with armies facing armies is your group’s interest, I’m afraid this is not the game for you. A miniatures game might work better. It’s important for everyone to have buy-in and understand expectations, so be sure when you discuss Centurion, you are clear on what it is and what it is not. Please note, in general, when referring to characters in Centurion, I will often use the masculine pronoun. This is not intended to be sexist, it is simply because I am looking at this game through my eyes, these campaigns as my campaigns and these characters as my characters, and I am verifiably male.

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However, while militaries throughout history were generally reserved for males, there have been exceptional women who have marched with armies and played important roles in military actions. As the characters in a role-playing game are understood to be exceptional, it would only stand to reason that the characters could be female. And in a fantasy, alternate history, or science fiction campaign, our world’s prejudice against women need not be carried over, and no special reasoning need be provided for female characters in the military.

RUNNING A MILTARY CAMPAIGN

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A lot of people say they don’t want to run a military campaign, and there are many reasons why that might be so. Now if you know anything about my work in role-playing games, you’ll know that I focused for a period on modern military-oriented products. So as you might imagine, I enjoy playing and running military campaigns. I don’t encounter the problems that I have heard others posit for military campaigns, but I understand why these are considered problems, and I believe I may have a workable solution for at least some of them. So let’s get to the problems and the solutions. Let’s get into military campaigns.

The Problems Of the three main problems that I have encountered in regards to military campaigns, the first is the lack of independence as a result of the strict command structure. You have a boss above you who tells you what to do. For some groups, a lack of independence might be seen simply as a feature rather than a bug. They don’t need to think too deeply about their purpose – they are simply sent on missions to achieve specific objectives. For many other groups, the lack of independence is much more problematic. Consider a sandbox game, in which the characters have total freedom of action. They can do anything they want. In such a game, a lack of independence totally destroys the game’s intent. Second on the list of encountered problems is the standard mission profile of the military – war-fighting. While the modern military performs other types of missions, such as peacekeeping and support to civilian governments during crises, armies are built to fight wars, and to engage in combat. From this perspective, this does seem to limit the options for a campaign. Anything that constrains the options for possible adventures, and stifles GM creativity is certainly a problem. Finally, there is the size of the standard military unit. In the modern military, the smallest unit is typically a section of 10 to 13 ranks, and that’s a large group for a PC party. Since the average number of players in a group is usually four to six, this will require a lot of NPCs, and that extra NPC baggage will likely result in a lot of blank automatons, wandering around doing whatever they are told to do.

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To summarize, the three problems I’d like to address are 1) the lack of independence, 2) the predominance of combat missions, and3) the large unit size. The single solution that addresses these three problems rest with the types of troops the characters can represent. These troop types are not linked to any particular era. They are also not linked to any particular type of campaign, other than – of course – a military campaign. What I’m about to suggest could work in fantasy, horror, historical, modern or science fiction games. This could be for Glen Cook’s BlackCompany. This could be for the movies Dog Soldiers, Black Hawk Down, or Starship Troopers. The types of units or troops that could address the three problems mentioned above, include scouts, spies, and special warfare or special purpose troops.

Scouts Scouts are, as you might imagine, the troops that are sent out to reconnoitre, to find the opposing force, to acquire information on that force, and to return with that information. Scouts can be used for other missions, like intelligence gathering or combat search and rescue, but this is dependent on the era and resources of the military of which the scouts are a part. As an example, members of the American military are usually expected to be specialists in a particular area, whereas members of the Canadian military are required to master a wider range of skills and specialities. This is because the Canadian military is much smaller. The scouts in a smaller military may be required to train for more roles as there are fewer individuals to meet operational requirements. In such a case, your scout might end up being much more than a scout. This is useful for a PC party, as the scout’s varied skills make them useful beyond simple scouting missions. While scouts are part of the command structure, they are usually given extreme latitude. In the modern military, most scout units are attached to the headquarters, rather than to a specific platoon, company, or brigade. This unique position within the military structure is common as far back as there were structured militaries. In antiquity, scouts were often linked to the generals and military leaders personally. They would be among the staff of “experts” that were part of a pre-modern general’s personal retinue.

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Due to the types of missions they undertake, scouts are required to operate independently. Even in modern times with radio communications, as scouts usually move ahead of the main column and operate in areas occupied by enemy forces, they usually maintain radio silence. They go in quiet and they come out quiet. Because of this, scouts cannot be micro-managed in the field. Scouts are given a mission objective, and are often expected to complete that objective without further instruction from their commanding officer. The farther back in history one looks, scouts would have even less command oversight and direction. In antiquity, as well as the classical and medieval periods, one of the biggest problems a military commander might face was locating the opposing army. As they are tasked with exactly that, scouts were extremely important to such a commander. They would range far ahead of the main military force, spreading out to cover as much ground as possible, linked only tenuously to their parent unit. The primary mission of scouts might be reconnaissance and intelligence gathering, but depending upon the military force and the available resources, they may be required to do much more. Scouts are trained differently than the rest of the army, and they usually possess the skills and the knowledge required to act independently. As such, they are a useful tool for a military commander, and may be given missions of extreme importance or secrecy that the commander is unwilling to assign to other, regular troops. While the missions of the scout may always link to their raison d’etre of reconnaissance and intelligence gathering, it would be easy to have PC scouts find themselves in rather unique circumstances. For example, during the siege of a town in a medieval campaign, scouts might be sent into the city disguised as merchants before the besieging army arrives. Acting almost as spies, the scouts might attempt to find some alternative method of spiriting the main force into the city. Perhaps they are able to bribe, influence, or coerce the guards of an unimportant gate. Perhaps there is one good soldier, maybe even the officer commanding the guard unit, who cannot be influenced and must be “removed” in some fashion or another. This could be one possible adventure within a campaign to conquer a specific province or nation, or simply one season’s campaigning. Such an adventure could offer the players numerous social and role-playing challenges while also delivering the chance for some good old fashion combat.

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Finally, scouting units are often quite small, and can reasonably be as small as four to six troops. When one considers units in the past, particularly in the medieval or classical periods, there was much less organizational structure, which means the size of the unit will only be as large or as small as required. The number of scouts may be limited in number and, therefore, the size of their unit is likewise limited. For example, in a modern campaign where the characters are members of the Regional Task Force hunting Joseph Kony’s Lord’s Resistance Army in the Central African Republic, there might not have been sufficient time prior to the stand up of the operation for the force to fill all the scout billets. The four PCs make up “2 Section” – that would be the name of their unit – and “1 Section” and “3 Section” are just as undermanned. This provides an opportunity to include other specialist PCs, like an engineer or a medic, who can fill the empty billets in the section. You can have a more interesting composition, and provide your players with more options. And so the scout is one potential solution to the three problems often associated with running military campaigns. They usually operate outside the regular command structure, work independently, engage in missions other than combat, and can have a unit size in keeping with the number of players in your group.

Special Purpose Troops – the “Other Guys” Along with scouts, one might also consider special purpose troops, or – in modern times – special operations forces, or simply special forces. Much like scouts, they are trained to act independently and so stand outside the standard military structure and hierarchy. This is especially true when one goes back to the medieval period. For example, the sappers, those troops tasked with conducting the siege of a castle, would have been the same kind of specialists who would have been hired to build the castle. They wouldn’t be soldiers per se, at least not in our contemporary understanding of the concept, they would be artisans and craftsmen. Who knows best how to knock down a wall? The guy who knows how to build that same wall. All of that to say it would have been a different kind of troop constructing and manning the siege engines than those being sent through the hole those siege engines made. This is what is meant by “special purpose.” The unit

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consisting of special purpose troops can, of course, include combat capable soldiers, but it will also definitely include experts, craftsmen and artisans. Historically, these kinds of special purpose troops would have been directly under the control of the commander. During the army’s recruitment, they might be raised as a totally different unit, maintained separately from the fighting force. For example, this was the case in the English military of the Hundred Years War from the Thirteenth to Fifteenth centuries. Special purpose troops in that period were not only raised separate from the main fighting force, but the techniques and traditions involved in their recruitment would be alien to those who recruited infantry, archers, or cavalry. In modern times, one has special operations forces (SOF), which include such storied units as the US Navy SEALs, Delta Force and the SAS. The operators in those units are all outstanding warriors, and these specialized units would be good homes for PCs; however, SOF also includes air force combat controllers, para-jumpers, and electronic warfare units such as Y-Troop of the Royal Marines Commando. So while the combat-focused SOF are the types most people read about and see in movies, SOF includes a variety of special purpose troops as well. SOF units are known for their fluid concept of leadership. The person best suited for the mission is the one who will usually lead it, especially in the planning phase. This works well for PC groups, since the concept of leadership in most gaming groups is very fluid. For instance, the combat-capable character might be the best choice to lead the unit during combat, but in a more social or diplomatic situation the ambassador may be chosen to assume command. While special purpose units, or even special forces, might sound like they have very specific functions, they often find themselves required to take on roles for which they were not designed. When Delta Force – the US’ premier counter-terrorism force – was first formed, it was really envisioned as a hostage rescue unit. It has since become so much more. The same could be said of the SAS. Many people link the SAS to the men in black with gas-masks and sub-machine guns, storming the Iranian embassy in 1980. But that is not the only role for the SAS. One might almost say it is not even the most important role. The SAS, like Delta Force, has been involved in close personal protection, direct action, long-range reconnaissance, and a variety of other missions other than the hostage-rescue/counter-terrorism role most people know.

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If you go back into the past, a specialist in the military might be required to take on roles for which he was not prepared. Take your siege master for example, maybe he’s a mason, so maybe in addition to instructing the commander how to place the siege engines or direct the sappers, he might actually have to go into the city to scout the walls from the inside. A dangerous mission to assess what is going to be required to prosecute the siege. Maybe he’s being sent in with some scouts as backup and security. So, again, one can include different types of characters with different skills all together in one group – very much like a group of player characters. And again when one is speaking of special purpose troops or the modern SOF, the size is fluid. For example, the Operational Detachment-Alpha from the US Army Special Forces – also known as the ODA or A-Team – is a 12-man group, but it can easily be broken down into three four-man groups, or further broken down into four three-man groups, etc. There are a bunch of different specialties – such as an engineering sergeant, an operations sergeant, a medical sergeant – within the ODA, just as there would be within most PC groups.

Spies Lastly there is the intelligence gatherer, or the spy. These characters are similar to scouts, but spies generally operate outside of any specific command structure when in the field. One doesn’t usually attach spies to the modern military force, but there are intelligence gathering units, and there are special purpose units. One could remove soldiers from other forces or units, and assign them an intelligence-gathering role. In the past, one would have spies – much like siege experts and scouts – attached to a specific general. This was especially prevalent in periods when the generals recruited and paid for their own armies, such as during the Baroque or the Age of Enlightenment. These generals would hire not only specific kinds of soldiers, but specific individuals – men they knew and trusted – whom they would regularly hire or leave on the payroll between contracts. Some of the intelligence gathering apparatus would consist of scouts, but the generals who created the military forces of the pre-modern period would have contacts and sources in different regions and different cities. These spies would be totally outside the military command structure and would operate with almost total independence. The commander might give them a

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general task – such as “we are marching on Aquitaine, I need to know what is going on there” or “I’ve been contracted to fight the Ottoman Turks, and I need to know their capabilities.” The kind of missions spies typically undertake would work very well for role-playing games. The missions are varied. The things the players might need to do to get the information, the situations one might encounter while on a mission, what one might learn, or even where the information might be located could touch on almost anything. Any RPG adventure could easily include a mission for a spy – even a dungeon crawl. Maybe the secret, or information, whatever the McGuffin – that thing which motivates the plot – might be found in the sewers, or an underground command and control bunker. Much like special purpose troops, spies have no set unit and no set unit size. If you’ve got two players, four players, six players or even ten player – and God help you if you have ten players – they can all be part of a spy unit. This is another case of a group with fluid command, outside the military hierarchy. In the pre-modern era, spies are much more likely to be attached to the military force than they are today. It is more common nowadays for organizations or groups outside of the military to gather information, which is later analyzed by military intelligence specialists. There remain intelligence officers and intelligence units within the modern military, but their responsibilities are not as comprehensive as it would have been before the creation of organizations like the CIA or the NSA. The pre-modern spy would operate in conjunction with the military force, but most certainly outside the regular command structure. One would not find these spies in the camp with the infantry. Rather, the spies are out there doing the “interesting” stuff, the “fun” stuff.

Last But Not Necessarily Least Along with the various problems that I have addressed to this point, there is one that I have not yet touched upon. I have encountered resistance to playing in a military campaign due to the “realism” of such a game – military campaigns are too real and one plays RPGs to escape reality. While there may be some truth to this, it applies more to the grunts. I would never suggest playing the soldier fighting for survival in the trenches of the First World War. There are ways such a game could be made interesting, and

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systems such as D’arcy Burgess’ Black Cadillacs might work for it. However, if one is playing Savage Worlds or True20, the players are less likely to be the grunt in the trenches. Instead, they would be playing the guys doing the aforementioned interesting stuff. There is no real difference between playing the spy, or the scout, or the SF operator and playing James Bond, Matt Helm, or Blade. Yes, the military is a real thing, yet so is the CIA. Just as a movie can make something very mundane into a spectacular, odyssey of adventure, so can an RPG. That’s what they are for. Medieval times were real and often not very pleasant. But one throws in some dragons, throw in some dungeons, and it is not so real any longer. And you can do the same in a military campaign. Maybe your scouts have run across a dragon in Darfur. What are they going to do then? Who are you going to call?

ERAs OF PLAY

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The Late Republic Rome existed as a city-state perhaps as far back as the seventh century BCE; however, it took some time before it became a true power. It was a monarchy before it was a republic, and it became a republic sometime around 500 BCE. The legions were much different at that time, mirroring the Greek phalanx structure.By Late Republic, I mean the period beginning around the Second Punic War. Rome fought a series of three wars with the Phoenician city-state of Carthage located in North Africa from 264 to 146 BCE. The wars with Carthage, to a great degree, defined what came to be known as Rome as much as they defined the legions themselves. Before the Punic Wars, the legions possessed little of the character that would later make them famous. Yes, they were likely better disciplined than their contemporary counterparts, but the Roman legion that became a byword for a professional military rose from the crucible of the Punic Wars. The First Punic War scratched the surface of total war, while the Third was the perfunctory Roman coup de grace against a once great Mediterranean power. The Second Punic War demonstrated both the military worth of the legions and the will of the Roman state. Rome strove for victory at any cost. It could not lose, because it would not admit defeat.The Late Republic period, at least for the purposes of Centurion, ends with the rise of the military commander, Gaius Marius, who became the first of many dictators to tear down the Republic while building up the Empire. Marius’ military reforms changed the legions into the formidable force with which Pompey and Caesar could carve out an Empire and Augustus could then win it.There are excellent reasons why one would choose this period as the setting for a legionary game, but before we get into those reasons, let’s situate you in this time and place. What happened during the Late Republic? Rome expanded. It grew from an Italian power to a Mediterranean one. During this period, Rome fought wars in Spain, Greece, and the Near East, which all ended in territorial expansion for the Republic. The first real war of expansion was the Second Punic War, as I consider the First Punic War too early in the development of the legions to use Centurion. Given that, let’s first look at the Punic Wars and their effects on Rome.

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Carthage was Rome’s greatest rival in the Mediterranean, and the two cities were similar in many ways. The main difference being that Carthage was a naval power with far-flung colonies, and that it had an army composed mostly of mercenaries. The First Punic War (264-241 BCE) focused on control of Sicily. While Carthage began the war as the principal naval power in the Mediterranean, Rome quickly created its own navy and actually ended up besting Carthage on water. The loss of their navy left Carthage hamstrung, and they sued for peaceThe Second Punic War (218-201) is perhaps the most famous, with Hannibal’s invasion of Italy by crossing the Alps, bringing elephants with him. This is probably the earliest conflict for which Centurion is suited. The war actually started in Spain, with a frustrated Carthage seeking to maintain some semblance of its lost superpower status. It sees Hannibal marching throughout Italy, smashing the heck out of Roman legions. But the Romans never accepted that they were losing. Each time an army was lost, a new one

Roman Empire, 130 BCE

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was raised. Rome was eventually able to isolate Hannibal from his support. The famed Roman general and statesman, Scipio Africanus, conquered a fair number of Carthage’s colonies and allies in Spain, before earning his agnomen by heading over to Africa and finally beating Hannibal at the Battle of ZamaThe Third Punic War (149-146) was really Rome kicking sand in the face of their old rival Carthage. Well, kicking sand in their face and then razing their city to the ground. Using the excuse that Carthage had broken a treaty (which Carthage likely believed in good faith had expired), Rome besieged the city, refused its surrender, and then utterly destroyed it. Cato the Elder, a contemporary Roman statesman, is said to have ended his speeches – all his speeches, no matter their subject – with some variation on “Ceterum autem censeo Carthaginem esse delendam” (Furthermore, I am of the opinion that Carthage must be destroyed). Carthago delanda est indeed. And it certainly was.While Rome’s rivalry with Carthage was the dominant theme during the early part of the Late Republic, Rome found itself embroiled in many other conflicts, some major and some less so. The Illyrian Wars seem to have set the pattern for Roman involvement in the East – initial minor involvement leading to territorial expansion.Illyria (or Illyricum) refers to the area along the eastern Adriatic Sea now known as the Balkans. Rome became involved in the area in order to protect its trade routes. Pirates prowled these sea lanes, finding shelter in the coastal territories ruled by those who might not be hostile to Rome, but certainly did not welcome its expansion.Of course, some were quite hostile to Rome. The first Illyrian War (229 – 228) was fought against Queen Teuta in retaliation for ordering the death of a Roman envoy. Rome repaid Teuta’s insult by sending a punitive raid that captured parts of her territory. The newly acquired territory was given to Demetrius, the queen’s governor of Pharos and Korkyra who had surrendered to the Romans.That didn’t solve the problem, as Demetrius supplanted Teuta and became regent to the child king of the Ardiaean Kingdom, which encompassed most of Illyria. An attempt to conquer more territory led Demetrius into conflict with Rome, and a Roman punitive expedition in 220 led to his ousting and the end of the Second Illyrian War.

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The Third Illyrian War occurred much later, in 168. The king at that time, Gentius, switched his allegiance from Rome to Macedonia, arrested Roman legates, and attacked cities allied with Rome. This led Rome to finally lose its patience, and Illyria became the newest Roman province.Rome didn’t like other powers aligning with Macedonia as the two states competed and fought throughout this period, until the inevitable – that being Rome’s conquest of Macedonia. The First Macedonian War occurred because Philip V allied with Carthage during the Second Punic War. Rome sent – as expected – a punitive expedition in 214 that skirmished with Greek forces and captured a small piece of territory, which Rome would later use as a base of operations. The ending of hostilities in 205 did not change the status quo, but provided a strong warning to the Greeks that supporting the opponents of Rome would bring retribution.As you can guess, there was a Second Macedonian War. Rome suspected that Macedonia had allied with the Seleucid Empire – a Persian state with its capital at Antioch. In order to protect its regional hegemony, Rome sent the legions in 200. The expeditionary force skirmished indecisively with Macedonia until the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197. Rome’s victory allowed it to impose a restrictive treaty on Philip V.Rome’s next war in Greece came in 192, when Rome’s Greek allies who had assisted it against Philip allied with the Seleucid Empire. Hannibal, who had survived the Second Punic War and found employment with Antiochus III, Great King of the Seleucid Empire, warned his employer about underestimating the Romans. That didn’t help. The Roman expeditionary force outnumbered the Seleucids, so the Seleucids took a page from history and attempted to negate the Roman’s numerical advantage by meeting them at Thermopylae. The Romans also took a page from history and outflanked the Seleucid position. Roman victories piled up, as did its conquests, until 188, when a treaty with Antiochus III provided Rome with both territory and a large war indemnity.Philip of Macedonia’s son, Perseus, was not as circumspect as his father, and his attempts to increase Macedonia’s influence and territories led to war with Rome in 172. Once again, the initial Roman expedition had limited success, but finally found its stride and gained a decisive victory in 168. Rome captured Macedonia, splitting it up into proxy republics that Rome hoped would prove easier to control.

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For over a decade, the Macedonian republics did prove easier to control, but an uprising by an alleged son of Perseus in 150 led Rome to send forces back into Greece and annex Macedonia as a province in 148. The surrounding Greek states didn’t like having Roman forces so close, and moved against Rome in 146. Rome handily defeated the Greek forces, conquering the states and creating the Roman provinces of Achaea and Epirus. Rome destroyed utterly the city of Corinth as an object lesson.It is important to note that, while Rome was involved in wars against foreign powers, it was also involved in almost constant military action in Spain after capturing it from Carthage in the Second Punic War. Rome constantly garrisoned its two provinces in Hispania – Hispania Citerior in the north of the Iberian Peninsula and Hispania Ulterior along the south-east coast. It faced multiple tribal uprisings, the most serious being those of the Lusitani tribes from 155 to 139, and the Celtiberians from 181 to 179 and then again from 143 to 133.The conquest of Hispania in the Second Punic War helped to evolve the legions toward a professional force. After driving Carthage out, Rome took advantage of Hispania’s resources and created provinces, initially poorly garrisoned. The value of Hispania to Rome compelled Rome to increase its forces there in order to protect its interests from the indigenous peoples. Garrisons are essentially standing forces, and Rome needed to man its legions in Hispania continuously. This requirement changed the complexion of service.Tradition limited a citizen’s service in the legions to six consecutive years at a time, and no more than 16 years of total service. Before the Punic Wars, there may have been men drawn back into service regularly – there are always those who prefer the juxtaposition of structure and freedom offered by the pre-modern military – and some of them may have served their 16 years, but very few would have seen six consecutive years on campaign. The Second Punic War and the garrisoning of provincial possessions led legionaries commonly completing six year campaigns. Legions could technically be filled through conscription, or compelled service, but it seems that the dilectus – the process of selecting citizens for the legions – rarely included compulsions. Romans generally accepted that service in the legions was both a duty and an honour, so the dilectus remained a voluntary process, in which men appeared on the Campus Martius or perhaps the Capitoline Hill and were selected by their tribes or the consuls for service.

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The character of the legions and those serving in them would change drastically with the Marian reforms. Even in the post-Second Punic War period, those who found themselves in Hispania for a full enlistment tended to be those one might refer to as yeoman farmers. These were not the patricians or the equestrians, but they had land, they had property and enough wealth to be considered the leaders of the plebeians. Six years away from land and property, though, often led to situations in which the legionary was bankrupt by his service and lost the very land and wealth that had made him eligible for service in the first place.I highly doubt that irony appeared amusing to anyone save those patricians and equestrians exploiting the yeoman’s absence serving the nation. Those patricians that voted for the wars, and often profited from them, also profited by purchasing – at very unfavourable rates – the land and property of those legionaries forced into full enlistments to protect the patricians’ investments in Hispania.One can well imagine the anger and frustration of the returning legionary, and the financial impetus that might lead him to appear at the following dilectus, to seek service in the legions again – not for honour or duty but for finance.While this game is about the legions and so war and military matters will likely dominate your games, there were other changes in Rome that might also affect your game, especially if you want to include the characters in the wider Roman world.The riches entering Rome through the provinces and its allies slowly gathered during the Late Republic. The Republic’s growing wealth likely increased corruption and its influence in Roman politics. It is important to understand that in the early Republic, service as a magistrate was considered an honour and a duty. While corruption no doubt existed, the silver flowing into Rome from its conquests overseas, especially from the Second Punic War, exacerbated the underlying class divisions. Garrison duty, a result of overseas expansion, led to a loss of property for many of the plebians who only just crested the property qualification for recruitment into the legions. The citizen body that traditionally filled the heavy infantry core of the legions shrank as bitterness and disaffection grew. Into this came the Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius. They championed land reform, trying to breakup large, patrician plantations to provide land

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to those who had completed military service. They also wanted to subsidize grain for Rome’s expanding mob of landless and poor labourers, who had no real ability to survive economic downturns. Finally, they wanted to provide at least clothing for the poorest of the legionaries, recognizing that wealth distribution had changed dramatically since the adoption of the Manipular legions.As can be expected, entrenched authority and wealth didn’t like someone upsetting the applecart and threatening the status quo. Tiberius, elected Plebeian Tribune in 133, attempted to enact reforms. He met with exceptional resistance, and finally turned to the people, gaining strength through the support of the Plebeian Council. The Senate threatened him with prosecution once he was out of office, so he ran for a second term. Upon gaining a second term as Plebeian Tribune, his opponents lost their tempers and he and his supporters were attacked. Tiberius was killed, but his reforms did not die with him.Gaius Gracchus, his brother, became Plebeian Tribune in 123, reviving land reform and programs to assist the urban poor. He also turned for support to the growing equestrian class, not yet considered aristocratic but often involved in provincial tax collection. His proposals challenged the power of the patricians. Moving slower than his brother, with a broader base of support, Gaius survived into his second term of office – illegal under the constitution. He faltered when he proposed extending citizenship to Rome’s Italian and Latin allies. That was too extreme, and he lost much of his political support, providing one of the sitting consuls an opportunity to move against him. Gaius and many of his supporters were killed, and the Gracchi reforms finally squashed.While the goals of the Gracchi brothers certainly seemed laudable, their situation foreshadowed two factors that would threaten the Republic in the coming Civil Wars period. The Gracchi might be considered the first of the populares, politicians that gained their support from the citizen-mob. In turn, the optimates – those protecting the traditional prerogatives and powers of the patricians – lost their conservative reverence for the magistrate offices. The sacrosanctity of the plebeian tribune had fallen. Soon, the Republic would fall as well.

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The Structure of SocietyThis is a very cursory examination of the Roman class structure, focused on generalities. It’s for a game, not for your dissertation. The information here should give you a rough idea of how Roman society worked. It is meant to give you enough grounding so that you feel comfortable playing in a Roman setting, but also provide enough background to make the players feel immersed in Roman society. There is so much depth to this topic that you could spend a lifetime studying it – and people do. I haven’t spent that long. It’s going to show. Repeat after me: role-playing game.

A note about Roman classesOne of the generalities we’re going to work with here is the division of Romans into the niches they carved for themselves, the three famous classes of Romans – the patricians, equestrians and plebeians – and the less recognized proletarii and its offshoot, the capite censi. There is much more to the class structure of Rome than these groupings, and there were gradations of wealth and honour within each that we won’t even touch upon in this book.

The ClassesProletarians: The Roman class system was tied to their constitution, which Romans believed existed in the ancient days of their state, just after the fall of the kings. That constitution divided up the Romans into classes based on property. Those at the bottom, who owned very little property, were the proletarii, or proletarians as we call them now. The proletarii did not meet the property qualification and could not serve in the legions. There was also the capite censi, the headcount – those who had no significant property and were simply counted by person.

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Though in theory these classes had political power through their participation in the Centuriate Assembly and the Tribal Assembly, two of the Republic’s three voting assemblies (more on that later), by the Late Republic period this political power had eroded substantially. Lacking the property to qualify for the legions meant that citizens in these classes could not be drafted into the legions in the dilectus; however, some evidence indicates that the proletarii could volunteer to serve, and some – such as Spurius Ligustinus, quoted by Livy in AbUrbeCondita as having served 22 years in the legions – made the legions their career.

Plebeians: The plebs or plebeians had the property qualifications for military service, but were not aristocratic. While they outnumbered the aristocratic patricians (and later equestrians), it was the patricians who ruled Rome. The plebeians struggled to maintain and increase their political leverage, but in the end they always seemed to be merely a tool of the patricians.Plebeians might not have had great wealth or political influence in Rome, but they made up the bulk of the legions. If your character is in the infantry, there’s an excellent chance he’s a pleb.

Equestrians: Originally the wealthiest plebeians who served as cavalry, they were therefore accorded certain considerations. At some point before 123 BCE, the ordo equester or equestrian order became a social class. They were considered aristocratic like the patricians, but obtained their wealth from commerce like the plebeians. In the Second Punic War, the equestrians likely remained plebeian cavalry, but by the Third they probably had become a social class with expectations of military command.

Patricians: The original aristocratic social order, the patricians held both the majority of the wealth and political power in Rome. They dominated the magistries and commanded the legions. Though the commons (the plebeians and proletarians) and later the equestrians could vote in the assemblies and gain personal wealth, the patricians ruled Rome, and they did so for their own benefit. Patricians provided the cavalry and commanding officers for the legions. Given that almost all consuls, praetors, and tribunes of the Late Republic were patricians, this class also commanded the legions in the field.

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Think on this: patricians could afford extravagance, but always made up less than 1% of the Roman population. The equestrians rarely feared hunger. Financially, they could keep their heads above water, and might even afford the occasional luxury. Even after the number of equestrians had grown dramatically following the founding of the Empire, they were never more than 2% of the population. The vast majority of citizens were plebeians and proletarii, who regularly faced want and hunger. But at least they were free.

Slaves: A very large proportion of the population were slaves. At times, they made up a significant minority. It’s hard to provide hard and fast numbers, but they were ubiquitous, they were everywhere, and those in Rome would have encountered them every day. The lifestyle of a slave was tied totally to their owner and their position. Farm labourers could expect little comfort, but at least they ate. Those in the mines were worked to death – literally – while household servants of patrician families might enjoy a lifestyle on par with an equestrian family.

PatronagePatronage was very important to Roman society. There existed a social network that permeated throughout Rome and even beyond, and connected all levels of Roman society in a web of expectations and responsibilities. Clients would support their patrons politically, while the patron would provide the client with protection.Clients would vote as their patron requested in the various Roman “assemblies,” such as the comitia centuriata (Assembly of the Centuries), comitiatributa (Tribal Asssembly), and conciliumplebis (Plebeian Assembly). Think of this as voting by party – which is common in most modern democracies – but rather than a party with a political philosophy, it is an individual to which one has pledged loyalty.By saying the patron would provide protection to his clients, this was not necessarily – though could be – protection against violence. The patron would generally provide legal protection. In the modern era, if a tenent has a problem with a landlord, the tenant has the option to refer the matter to the state. The state provides a generally neutral court system to arbitrate or enforce decisions regarding contracts and disputes. In Rome, the wronged party would turn to his patron. If the patron was equal in influence or power

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to the landlord, or – better yet – more so, the patron would intercede directly with the landlord in order to protect his client’s interest. If the patron is not powerful enough, he would turn to his own patron, who may need to refer to an even more powerful patron, following this ladder until the matter reached a patron with the power and/or influence to intercede.Every morning, this patronage system had a very physical representation. Clients had to visit their patrons’ homes to give morning greetings. Since each client needed to visit his own patron, only those at the top of this particular food chain did not wait at someone’s door. The most powerful individuals in Rome would receive their clients – and these would themselves be patricians or very wealthy or influential equestrians. The patron would provide gifts – usually food and sometimes money – to his clients and hear their requests. Once these clients completed their morning duty to their patron, they would return to their own homes in order to receive their own clients, who would have been patiently waiting as a sign of respect. This would be repeated over and over until finally, sometime later, the lowest of the clients would have the chance to greet their patron.A freedman became the client of his previous owner, and this patronage system extended to the colonies or conquered peoples. For instance, if Scipio conquered your people, he became the patron – in name – to your entire peoples. Now, the requirement for morning greeting was almost certainly adjusted to meet these particular circumstances, but the reciprocal responsibilities remained. If a Roman tax collector in a province exceeded the accepted degree of corruption, one would not seek legal redress through the local legal system, one would send a deputation to the patron in Rome and he would deal with the problem. That patron could also draw on the population of the client peoples to fill auxiliary billets in the military.

The TribesThe tribes were an ancient institution that divided up the Roman populace into voting blocs, originally along geographic lines. A male child inherited his father’s tribe, and people granted Roman citizenship were distributed among the tribes. When the Latins and Italians were provided citizenship after the Social War – in the period we’re labelling the Civil Wars – they were divided among the various tribes. Entire cities and peoples were occasionally dumped into one tribe –which, as we shall see below, diluted their political power – while others were divided up among multiple tribes.

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It seems likely that by the Late Republic, the tribes were only political in nature, and had no real social implications.

The CenturiesThe population of Roman citizens eligible for military service was divided into 100 groups – and therefore known as centuries – for the purposes of voting on legislation and magistrates. The centuries had little social impact, but provided those men eligible to be drafted into the legions with greater political sway.

How Does This Affect My Game?While membership in a tribe or century is not going to affect a character’s daily life, tribal membership is important during the legion draft – or dilectus – as this is done by tribe. Is that really important? Not really. The characters could be part of the same tribe and drafted in the same group. Or perhaps the tribune elected by their tribe enters the same legion as they do.Class has the biggest impact on characters and their interaction. Today class is, for the most part, something we can theoretically identify, but which officially has no impact on legal or social standing. Yet, class in Rome was a legal entity, with measurable criteria and legal impacts. Patrician characters (and later equestrian) are going to act – and honestly believe – that they are inherently superior to plebeians, let alone the proletarii. Plebeians are going to understand that the state views them as less important than the aristocracy, and only the most naïve are going to honestly believe they have real political power. It is true that when the plebeians acted as a unified force they could overwhelm the patricians and wrest power from them. Yet, the only time that happened in any significant fashion was during the Conflict of the Orders, which ended around 287 BCE, so a few generations from the earliest portion of the Late Republic (as we’re delimiting the period). There would have been patricians who felt real empathy and brotherhood for their fellow citizens – and perhaps even the Allies – and there were likely plebeians with achievements and influence that permited them to rightly claim to be the equal of any patrician. As the characters are understood to be exceptional, it is possible for them to interact with a sense of equanimity that reflects our twenty-first century ideal of a class-less society. It might also be interesting- in a kind of BreakfastClub aftermath style – for a patrician

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character to be conflicted between the expectations of society and his own inner sense of justice and camaraderie. The delicate balance between his personal and societal values could be challenged when a plebeian character is abused by a patron, who only barely delivers on his side of the patronage relationship while mercilessly exploiting the plebeian.The social structure of Rome will generally affect role-playing rather than the game mechanics of a Centurion game, though there could be times when it is appropriate to use it in a Condition. Think of a debate in which a character places a Condition on another such as “Unruly plebe,” which could be a negative for any conservative Roman – and Romans, generally, were very, very, very conservative.

The Structure of GovernmentSocial ties were an important part of Roman life, but Rome’s true strength lay in its political structure. It is interesting that at least some of this political structure may have been intentionally designed to replicate the organization of the early legions. Given that the origins of Rome’s governmental structure is clouded in myth, there’s no way to know for certain. What is certain, however, is that the pseudo-representative government of Rome lasted for approximately 500 years. The time of dictators and the Civil Wars eventually warped the government into what would later emerge as the Empire. It seems, though, that much of the structure of the Republican government remained intact in the Empire, if only as window-dressing or bureaucratic convenience.The Voting Assemblies As has been mentioned already, the populace of Rome theoretically exercised their political power through three voting assemblies: the Centuriate Assembly, the Tribal Assembly, and the Plebeian Council. While these bodies together provide some degree of political influence for the vast majority of Rome’s citizens, actual balance of power between the three bodies meant that Rome was a de facto if not de jure oligarchy. The patricians might allow the plebeians to believe that their opinions and interests mattered, but the actions of the patricians showed otherwise. A good example of this is the imposition of longer and longer lengths of service in the legions to the point that many moderately wealthy plebeian farmer returned home to bankrupt holdings, which the patricians then scooped up – the same patricians that sent those plebeians to war, and profited from Roman victories in those wars.

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Those patricians lacked Honour. Maybe they had another aspect – Greed? Jerkiness?

CenturiateAssembly: This assembly included all of the male Roman citizens who were eligible for military service, as mentioned in the overview of the centuries above. This assembly voted on legislative matters, but also acted as a kind of appeals court. It elected the highest magistrates: consuls, praetors, and censors. This is the body that officially declared war and provided magistrates with their imperium – their power to command the legions.The centuries were divided by property wealth, and the voting process of the assembly all but assured that the will of the most prosperous Romans would dominate decisions. Each of the centuries, no matter the number of members within it (and some were restricted, protecting the wealthiest from having their votes diluted) had one vote. The centuries also voted in order from most prosperous to least, and a majority vote carried, so often the vote was decided before a majority of plebeians had even voted.

TribalAssembly: This assembly included all those enrolled in tribes, which was officially all Roman citizens. This assembly had no property qualification, and the tribes were supposed to have been divided geographically, like modern electoral ridings or districts. The tribal assembly voted for the lower magistrates: quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.

Voting in the tribal assembly was done by lots – the tribes would draw lots and the winner would vote. Following this initial vote, the remaining tribes would draw, and the winner would vote. . . rinse, repeat. With the winner of the first draw considered to be favoured of the gods, many believed that the position taken by that tribe was the will of the gods, and so the first voting tribe often carried the vote.

PlebeianCouncil: This was a collection of all Roman plebeians, and therefore a council – a meeting of a single class –rather than an assembly, which would have representatives from more than a single class. The plebeian

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council elected the tribunes of the plebs and the plebeian aediles, and – as with the assemblies – could pass legislation and try judicial cases.The plebeian council, like the tribal assembly, voted in tribes. There has been some supposition that the plebeian council folded or evolved into the tribal assembly.

The Senate: The senate was technically a consultative body that provided advice to the magistrates. In point of fact, probably due to the senate basically constituting a patrician council, the magistrates almost always accepted the advice. The senate also had financial functions, and directed the magistrates during times of war.The laws passed by the assemblies and plebeian council had precedence over a senate decree. The senate could not ignore the laws of the assemblies and councils. Given the patronage structure of Rome and the wealth concentrated among the patricians, it was likely they could control the legislative process and did not need to counter laws with decrees.

The MagistratesThe elected officials of Rome, including those commanding the legions, were known as magistrates. As mentioned above, the various assemblies and councils elected the magistrates. A magistrate of a higher rank could veto the decision of a lower ranked magistrate; however, this did not apply to the plebeian magistrates – the tribunes of the plebs and the plebeian aediles – which were technically not magistrates since they lacked maior potestas (major powers) that defined the other magistrates. Young patricians who intended to pursue a career in politics – so, pretty much all of them – had to follow the cursus honorum or ladder of honours.

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This was a progression through offices that was intended to train the patrician and prepare him for later, greater responsibilities, culminating in the office of consul – the highest available office in Republican Rome. The magistrates are listed below in order of the cursus honorum, followed by a listing of other magistrates from least to greatest importance.

Tribune,military: each year, the tribal assembly elected 24 young men of at least 20 years of age to serve as tribunes and commander of the consular legions. This amounted to six tribunes per legion. It may seem bizarre to us that someone so young was given such an important position, but these were very much administrative offices with the sheen of command. The legion ran on the experience of the centurions, with strategy provided by the consuls, meaning that the tribunes were really middle-management rather than commanding officers.While the position of tribune was a year-long assignment, young patricians were expected to gain roughly a decade of military experience – mostly as cavalry – before progressing to the political portion of the cursus honorum. It is important to remember that the Romans really didn’t differentiate between the political and the military, with experience in one considered important for the other.

Quaestor: After serving a minimum of ten years in the military, a young patrician could stand for election as quaestor. These were financial officials who oversaw Rome’s treasury, helped administer provinces, and acted as paymasters. There were likely eight to ten quaestors during the late Republic, though it isn’t entirely clear. By the Civil War period, there were twenty. Each consul and each governor had a quaestor, as would each legion. At least two quaestors administered the state treasury.

Curule aedile: A citizen needed to be 36 years of age and have held the office of quaestor in order to stand for election as curule aedile, the patrician aedile as opposed to the plebeian aedile. The two curule aediles were elected by the tribal assembly and were responsible for public works, festivals, and maintenance of the temples in Rome. The work of the curule aediles was not financed from state coffers, so the cost of public works and festivals would come out of the aedile’s purse, and many a young patrician ran up

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exceptional debts trying to make a mark – and gain support for higher office – while an aedile.Holding this office was actually not mandatory in a patrician’s political career, and one could run for praetor without being an aedile. Yet, an aedile got to host extravagant games, and many a power-hungry patrician still dug deep into his purse and sought election hoping it would pay dividends later.

Praetor: In order to stand for election for praetorship, a citizen had to have been a quaestor or a curule aedile. They also had to be at least 39 years of age. The praetors acted as deputies to the consuls, such as military command, and had judicial responsibilities. There were likely six to eight praetors during the late Republic, and each praetor had six lictors – which were a kind of attendant and bodyguard.Consul: The two consuls that shared leadership responsibilities over the government in Rome were elected every year. This was the pinnacle of the cursus honorum, and should a plebeian reach this office, he gained the right to sit in the senate, something he passed on to his children. To stand for election to consul, a citizen had to be 40-years old (or 42, for plebeians) and must have served as a praetor. After sitting as a consul, a citizen could not stand for a consular election for another ten years. Roman tradition and practice aimed to prevent any single individual from gaining total power, as they remained – even into the Empire – lethally averse to the idea of monarchy.Consuls controlled the military and were the highest juridical authority during the Republic. Only the laws of the state and the veto of the tribune of the plebs constrained their power. Each consul had 12 lictors.

Censor: While the consul was the most powerful office on the cursus honorum, the actual final office was that of the censor. One must have been a consul to stand for election to censor. While it had no military imperium – no power – the position of censor was considered an exceptionally honourable office. Elections happened every five years, and the period of office was 18 months. The two censors conducted – as one might imagine– the census. They apportioned citizens to the tribes and centuries based on property ownership and class. A censor could also remove a senator who had proved unworthy.

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Other MagistratesThe censor was the final rung on the ladder of honours, but there were other offices, some that came after a citizen completed the cursus honorum, and some that existed outside it.

Propraetor and proconsuls: Upon completing a term as a praetor or a consul, a citizen’s imperium was extended for another year so that he could take up a post as a provincial governor. As a governor, the pro-magistrate had almost total autocratic power. Many pro-magistrates used this opportunity to accumulate wealth and pay off debt usually accrued climbing the political ladder. Does it need to be said that generally, this accumulation of wealth was not strictly legal?TribunesofthePlebs: The tribune of the plebs was an office created to protect the plebeians, and the holder of the office had to be a pleb. A tribunes of the plebs was sacrosanct, meaning he could not be physically accosted or abused. This only applied in Rome, as the sentence for attacking a tribune was to be mobbed and killed by the entirety of the plebeian population in Rome. The plebeians of Rome would have a hard time moving en masse to Spain to avenge a tribune harmed there. The plebeian tribune could veto legislation brought forward by any officer or body, but he had to be physically present to do so. The veto was an intercession at the time of legislation, and he could not strike down an act already in force. Delaying a tribune so that he missed a crucial vote was one way an opponent could avoid seeing his machinations ruined by veto. Along with vetoing legislation, a plebeian tribune acted as a kind of ombudsman for the commons, and he could assist a plebeian held by a patrician or intercede in cases to ensure a fair trial.

PlebeianAediles: The plebeian aediles were – essentially – the same as curule aediles, save that the office was held by a plebeian and they were elected by the plebeian council. Distinctions that may have existed between the patrician and plebeian aediles had disappeared by the late Republic.

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How Does This Affect My Game?Because most of these offices had military powers, it is likely your characters are going to encounter some of these guys and/or directly experience their intrigues. While the quaester and the praetor don’t have specific positions within the army’s hierarchy (as we’ll see below), they remain magistrates with legal powers and functions, and with whom your characters will need to cooperate.Well, they’ll need to cooperate if those magistrates are acting in a legal manner and in the interests of Rome. And your characters won’t be able to overtly oppose the magistrates without some really serious top cover, like a praetor or a consul.It is also possible – given that the characters are meant to be exemplary, and perhaps even capable of changing the course of history through their actions – that a character has held one or more of these offices. In order to effectively integrate a group of characters and not create social distance between them, it’s probably wise not to try to claim a character is a consul, praetor, or pro-magistrate. Being a tribune could totally work, especially if the character is a young, inexperienced tribune, who is aware of his weaknesses and has to rely on a collection of veterans and experts. He could provide political protection for the group, pretty much being able to shield them from anyone save the consul or pro-magistrate. His father might even be the patron of the rest of the characters. A word of warning: if you do this and want to maintain group cohesion and ensure everyone has a good time, it is important that the character is played as a powerful, but humble young patrician, willing to learn, and ready to listen to those who have real world experience. Young lieutenants in World War II tended to last longer when they deferred to their sergeants, just as I would expect a young tribune in the Punic Wars to last longer when he deferred to his centurions.

The Structure of the Late Republican LegionsWhile we do not yet have the standing legions that evolved in the Civil Wars period, legions by the time of the Late Republic had a formalized structure and chain of command. Given that you are going to be playing characters or running games set in the legions, knowing a little bit about their organization and rank structure is probably just a little necessary.

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The Manipular LegionsThe original Roman legions fought in the famed phalanx formation, perfected by the Greeks. The Romans adopted the phalanx from their former neighbours, the Etruscans, whom Rome later subsumed in its usual fashion (they got conquered). In fighting the Samnites, a group of people and cities east of Rome, the phalanx suffered for its lack of maneuverability. Samnium was a hilly region, and the Samnites used this to their advantage. The legions, as they always did, adapted to meet the new challenge. Rome adopted the maniple as their basic maneuver unit – a unit capable of tactical movement on the battlefield within the structure of the larger strategic movement of the legion.The manipular legion as it existed in the late Republic is often called the Polybian legion, as most of our knowledge of the legion of the time comes from the writings of the Greek historian Polybios. His 40 volume the Histories is a contemporary account of Rome’s rise to dominance in the late Republic. In his account, Polybios told us much about Rome’s army during the Punic Wars, up to the middle of the second century BCE.The maniple, as described by Polybios, consisted of 120 legionaries of either heavy or light infantry. The heavy infantry of a manipular legion consisted of three types, divided by experience, and each maniple would consist of a single heavy infantry type. The hastati (sing. hastatus) composed the front maniples, generally the first to face the enemy. Ironically, they were generally the youngest, least experienced legionaries. Each legion would have ten hastati maniples, which were formed with a frontage of 40 men, three men deep. By the time of the late Republic, these troops wore leather armour, sometimes with a cuirass of bronze, and a convex wooden shield with a metal boss (bronze or iron), and edged at the top and bottom with iron. They were armed with a gladius (Spanish-style shortsword) and two pila (sing. pilum) – heavy javelins with iron heads that could be used as spears when necessary. The hastati would generally attempt to break the enemy with javelin volleys, and then close to engage with swords. If the hastati could not break the enemy, they would fall back and allow the principes to engage. The principes (sing. princeps) were armed and armoured in a fashion similar to the hastati, though they generally wore mail instead of a cuirass. Maniples

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of principes had a smaller frontage than the hastati, being 12 men across and two men deep. These were generally older men with some experience, and also typically wealthier and able to afford better equipment than the young hastati. They had similar tactics to the hastati. Like the hastati, if the principes failed to break the enemy, they would fall back to allow the triarii to engage.The triarii (sing. triarius) were the oldest and most seasoned soldiers in the legion. They were armed similar to the principes; however, they wielded hastae (spears, sing. Hasta) rather than pila. If a legion required the triarii to engage, it indicated a certain amount of desperation. The legate (or general) had few options if the triarii did not break the enemy. The legate might send the hastati and principes to re-engage, or the cavalry to flank the enemy, but there was no formation to take the place of the triarii should they choose to retire.Lightly armed skirmishers, the velites (sing. veles), were attached to the maniples for administrative purposes, but acted relatively independently of their heavy infantry comrades. They generally had no armour, their name means “cloak-wearers,” though they had shields, and were armed with javelins and swords. Their purpose was not to go toe-to-toe with the enemy, but to engage with their javelins in an attempt to blunt an advance or disrupt a unified front. With their javelins spent, or when an advance threatened to reach them, the velites retreated and the hastati engaged.The cavalry, or equites, constituted a very small portion of the legion. A standard, consular legion would have 300 cavalry divided into 10 turmae (sing. turma) or squadrons. These squadrons would each have three decuriones, the senior decurio commanded and had the same rank/importance as a prefect. Each decurio would have an optio as a second-in-command.The equites legionaries maintained their own horses, as well as its tack and harness. The cavalry came from the wealthiest ten centuries within the Centuriate Assembly, and those that had wealth but were not patrician by birth became the equestrians, a class not known in the early Republic.The cavalry had lighter armour – generally – than the heavy infantry, closer to what the velites wore. They also bore a long spear with a butt-spike. The swords carried by the equites were generally longer, though evidence from the writings of the historian Livy indicates these may have been patterned on the gladius Hispaniensis.

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Positions and RankFor those of you who are not conversant with modern military ranks, and what is sometimes known as military “trades” or positions might not find the linkage of trade and rank in the Roman military strange. For those of you who recognize the difference between a trade and a rank, it’s going to be a little strange reading about Roman ranks and positions, because they were – for the most part – the same thing.Here’s just a little quick example of military rank that everyone should be able to follow. In a modern, Western-style army, a captain is a rank. It is a commissioned rank, but we’re not going to bother differentiating between commissioned and non-commissioned ranks, because those distinctions did not exist in the legions. So, captain is a rank. It tells you who the individual can command, and who the individual must obey. A captain can order around a lieutenant or a sergeant, but must accept the commands of a major or a colonel. That’s a rank. A trade or position is what the individual actually does in the military. The same captain might be an infantry officer. She might be an artillery officer. She might lead a squadron of reconnaissance vehicles, or be a logistics officer. There are a lot of jobs in the army a captain might do.In the legions, the rank and the position were the same thing. The position was the rank. One could not be a centurion who carried the standard, a centurion was always in command of a century. A signifier carried the standard. The following list outlines the various legion rank/positions from lowest to highest, but there are overlaps and places where I’m just not sure where one draws the delineation. Still, this should be clear enough to give you an idea of who gets to order whom around in the legions.Milites (sing. miles): This is the lowest rank in the legion. Milites were the grunts of the legions, the common soldier. Along with gutting and being gutted by the enemy, milites were able to enjoy building forts, building roads, and digging trenches – basically all the back-breaking work so admired by those who didn’t actually have to do it.

Evocati (sing. evocatus): This legionary could retire – he had put in his time – but remained with the legion. In recognition of this, he gets a fancy title,

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and doesn’t have to perform the usual manual labour. Romans of the Late Republic were expected to complete a six-year stint of consecutive service, and then remain available for a further ten years of service, not consecutive, for a total of sixteen years. After the first six-year service, the legionary was an evocati, and could avoid physical labour and guard duties.

Signifer: The signifier carried the century’s standard (signum) into battle. He marched in the front of the century, along with the cornicen and the centurion. This meant he was quite a target, so he needed to be brave and resourceful. He also acted as the banker of the century, in charge of financial transactions, which also required him to be brave and resourceful.

An interesting dilemma in the Late Republic was that each maniple reportedly had one standard, yet there was a signifier for each century, meaning two per maniple. Maybe the signifier’s drew lots, carried it on alternate days, or did rock-paper-gladius for the privilege to carry the standard into the fray.

Cornicen: Lacking radios, orders were passed to the century through blasts on a trumpet called a cornu. The cornu player was an officer under the centurion, and known as the cornicen. He marched at the head of the century with the centurion and the signifier, so he needed rock-solid nerves in addition to some modicum of musical ability.

Tesserarius: The century’s watch commander, the tesserarius, not only commanded the century’s watch but was also responsible for obtaining the camp’s password every night. The tesserarius acted as a deputy to the optio, making him the third-in-command of the century.

Optio: The optio was the second-in-command of a century, and the centurions chose their own optiones. Marching at the back of the century in battle, the optio ensured the century maintained its formation and structure, and got stragglers back in line. He also acted as the quartermaster for the century, purchasing supplies as needed, likely with the money controlled by the signifier.

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Centurion: The commander of a century, the centurion was the backbone of the legion. Generally men of experience and solid reputation, centurions were often selected for their reliability rather than their bravery. It is possible the tribunes chose their own centurions, but it is also possible the century voted for their officers.

Each maniple had a centurio prior and a centurio posterior – right and left centurions – with the centurio prior being the senior centurion in command of the maniple. The centurio primi pili – who would later be known as the primus pilus – was the centurio prior of the first maniple of the triarii, and most senior centurion in the legion. The primi pili would be included among the tribunes for planning and consultations with the consul.

Decurion: The legionary cavalry – as distinct from the allied cavalry – operated in groups of thirty known as turmae (sing. turma) or squadrons. Each squadron had three decuriones (sing. decurio, Anglicized to decurion), with the most senior among them commanding the squadron as a prefect. Each decurion selected an optio to act as his second-in-command and maintain order from the rear rank.

Tribune: Each legion had six tribunes, generally three junior and three senior, though some legions had four junior and two senior as there were a total of fourteen junior and ten senior tribunes spread among the four consular legions. Should Rome raise additional legions, those would have six tribunes as well, though not necessarily voted on by the Centuriate Assembly.Tribunes were responsible for all aspects of command and logistics for their legion, from training to strategy to discipline. They worked in pairs, as was common for Roman magistrates, and two tribunes would act as senior commanders for two months out of every six, drawing lots to decide whose turn it was to command.

Consul: The chief magistrates of Rome, the two current consuls, each commanded two legions. While they were in overall command, the day-to-day administration of the legions fell to the tribunes. Romans did not necessarily choose consuls based on their military acumen, rather these men

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were chosen due to their social standing, and very often they made poor generals. Luckily, even under the command of a bad general, a Roman legion could hold its own in a pitched battle with almost any opponent it might face, as long as that opponent didn’t have a capable general.In addition, while the tribunes had the responsibility of enforcing discipline, only the consul could inflict capital punishment.

Other OfficersWhile the officers listed above were the standard complement for a consular army, there were other officers that might also be included in a legion.Quaestor: By the Late Republic, each legion and each consul had a quaestor who managed financial matters. These individuals would be the legions’ paymasters, for although the legionaries of this period were not paid a wage, they did receive a stipend. The quaestor had no real authority in the legion’s chain of command, so likely he would attend the tribunes, having probably spent time in the position himself at one point. Technically, the quaestor outranks the military tribune, but this likely would not directly affect the functioning of the legion, as the quaestor was not strictly a military role.

Prefect: During the Republic, six Roman prefects would command each ala sociorum – the contingent of allied soldiers from the Latins and Italians – but there were other prefects within the legion proper. These were irregular positions that were generally selected by the consul. The consul would use prefects to fill noted command gaps in his legion, or place them in charge of accompanying allied or mercenary formations.

Praetor: The second highest ranked magistrate in Rome, should the Republic raise more than four legions, a praetor could command one of the extra legions (along with its allied legion, the ala sociorum).

How Does This Affect My Game?Since the characters are going to be in the legions, they need to know how the legions work. The difficulty in Centurion is that the characters generally operate outside the formal legion structure, giving them independence and a variety of possible adventures and actions. As such, they would not have

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a formal position in the legion and, therefore, they would not have a rank – given that legionary rank was tied to positions.It is possible the characters each carry the rank of prefect, which seemed to be a kind of catch-all rank to fill the different positions. Prefects were officers rather than magistrates – like centurions rather than tribunes – and their authority derived from their selection by the commander rather than their election by an assembly or council.The leader of the PC group– though likely not all the PCs – could be a tribune, as consuls had the authority to select extra tribunes alongside the six elected tribunes in each consular legions. I don’t think all the PCs should be tribunes as this cheapens the rank. Imagine a special forces team that were all generals. Prefect is still a very high rank, and perhaps we could assume that the positions of exploratore or speculatore – spies and scouts as discussed in the chapter on the Principate – existed in the Late Republic, which they very well may have. Your PCs would then have the rank/position of exploratores with the leader being a prefect.The PCs might also hold regular ranks and regular positions in the legions. They could be called upon on an ad hoc basis to form a special unit for the consul, or possibly for a particular tribune. The first adventure could be fate throwing the PCs together in on a crucial operation in which they aid, assist or even rescue a magistrate or person of importance, and this leads to their special status and a more formalized existence as a special unit.

The Late Republic as a SettingThis period is much like modern times, but with fantasy elements. It could support games of sword & sorcery or heroic fantasy, and possibly even high fantasy with modern institutions. The government during the Late Republic had a somewhat efficient and effective bureaucracy, with constitutional constraints. While a very limited democracy compared to modern examples, it included a level of representation even for the poor. It is useful to remember, however, that Rome at this time was an oligarchy – perhaps it should be considered a plutocracy with the wealthiest citizens, less than one percent of the population, controlling the government – but there were structural limits on these ruling elite. Opposition elements, formed from segments of the population, more than once shutdown or diverted government programs or plans.

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This is not parliamentary democracy, nor the chaotic Athenian democracy, but a form of participative democracy none the less. There is ample evidence that Romans felt invested in their government, that they felt it was their government. This may have been linked, at least in part, to the nature of the legions themselves – much like the militias that formed the first American military in the Revolutionary War, the legionaries were citizen soldiers, and damn fine ones at that.Important for our understanding of the relative modernity of the period – at least for those of us in Western and European cultures – is the presence of the rule of law. Rome certainly had rule of law in the Late Republic, and they were possibly more litigious than modern counterparts. We might not fully grasp or agree with the legal system, but it existed and the populace accepted it as more or less functional. It provided some level of protection to Rome’s citizens, although widening social stratification definitely harmed its effectiveness.We really won’t see institutions as structurally or philosophically close to our modern institutions again until the 17th century. Most of the periods derived from European history commonly used as inspiration for fantasy settings lack this level of modernity. It is this level of familiarity that allows players to more easily understand and inhabit the setting. The difference between the period and modern times is mostly technological, and that’s what I think interests most players of pre-industrial fantasy. I don’t believe that players enjoy fantasy or pre-modern RPGs because these settings lack modern institutions. In fact, the many games of high fantasy of which I am aware seem to exist in a pre-modern world with very modern institutions.And that, my friends, describes Republican Rome very well.While all this might be of interest, Centurion is first and foremost about the military. This is a game of legionaries. For me, the military is the strongest facet of the romance of Rome. The Republic boasted the first real professional military in Western Civilization. I don’t mean an elite core of soldiers that did not need to till the soil, I mean professional in terms of expertise and discipline. Though citizen soldiers, the legion was no mob. Rome went to war with a well-trained military, though there’s little evidence of military training outside periods of war-readiness in very early Rome. At that time, the nascent Republic used the massed infantry of the phalanx, the formation which evolved in classical Greece. However, once the Republic adapted to using smaller, tactical formations – first the maniple and then the cohort – training became more important and more common.

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Organized training became even more common following the Marian Reforms of 107 BCE. The Dictator Gaius Marius – the first of a long line of dictators that directly proceeded the rise of Augustus and the “first citizen” period of the Empire under the Principate – instituted multiple military reforms that made the formidable legions even more formidable. By then, Rome had an accidental standing army in that legions remained in arms in the provinces and due to almost constant warfare, but before Marius, the institutions remained those designed for a temporary army that stood to when crisis threatened. This accidental standing army conducted regular training. Even as citizen-soldiers, the legionaries drilled. They practiced. They had a strict and consistent chain of command. This was a military that we would recognize today. The conquest of Spain, or Hispania as known by the Romans, helped to move the legions on the road to becoming a professional force. After driving Carthage out, Rome took advantage of Spain’s resources and created provinces, initially poorly garrisoned. Spain’s resource wealth compelled Rome to strengthen its garrisons in order to protect its interests from the indigenous peoples. Garrisons are essentially standing forces, and Rome needed to man its Spanish legions continuously. This requirement changed the complexion of service.Legions could technically be filled through conscription, or compelled service, but it seems that the dilectus – the process of selecting citizens for the legions – rarely included compulsion. Romans generally accepted that service in the legions was both a duty and an honour, so the dilec-tus remained a voluntary process. Roman males gathered at the Campus Martius, or perhaps the Capitoline Hill, to be selected by their tribes or the consuls for service. A citizen’s service in the legions was limited traditionally to six consecutive years at a time, and no more than 16 years of total service. Before the Punic Wars, there may have been men drawn back into service regularly – there are always those who prefer the juxtaposition of structure and freedom offered by the pre-modern military – and some of them may have served their 16 years, but very few would have seen six consecutive years on campaign. The Second Punic War and the garrisoning of provincial possessions led legionaries commonly completing six year campaigns. Those who found themselves in Spain for a full enlistment tended to be those one might refer to as yeoman farmers. These were not the patricians

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or the equestrians, but they had land, property, and enough wealth to be considered leaders of the plebeians. Six years away from land and property, though, often led to situations in which the legionary was bankrupt by his service and lost the very land and wealth that had made him eligible for service in the first place.I highly doubt that the irony of the situation appeared amusing to anyone save those patricians and equestrians exploiting the yeoman’s absence. Those patricians that voted for the wars often profited from the prolonged conflicts, and profited by purchasing – at very unfavourable rates – the land and property of those legionaries forced into full enlistments. This all occurred while these legionaries fought to protect the patricians’ investments in Hispania.One can well imagine the anger and frustration experienced by the returning legionary, and the financial impetus that might lead him to appear at the following dilectus in order to seek service in the legions again – not for honour or duty but for financial reasons. When Rome went to war, the legions would be accompanied by allied provincial forces, known as the ala or wing. These formations were drawn from the Italian and Latin cities under Rome’s control but whose residents lacked citizenship. By the Third Punic war, these allies would also have included other powers aligned with Rome, but not under the state’s direct control. Each legion had an accompanying allied legion of approximately equal size. Therefore, when a legion marched from Rome, it was a two for one – the Roman legion being matched with an allied ala.The legions have remained a benchmark to this day. They represent what it means to be a professional military. Disciplined, effective, and adaptable, the legions – perhaps more so than the bureaucracy – represented a force for change in Rome. It was in the legions that Spanish auxiliaries learned how to be Roman. It was through legionaries campaigning in foreign climes that Rome become aware of other cultures, and learned to accept these cultures, or not.So great an impact did the military have on Roman society that command of the legions gave some men the means to transform the Republic, and it was through the legions that the Republic fell and the Principate rose. One does not have Imperial Rome without the legions. Caesar does not rise without his legions, and Octavius does not become Augustus without them.

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We will not see so professional a military until the 18th century, when we see redcoats and blue, bearing their muskets, firing off cannons. While these later professional armies also exist in a period in which I would wish to play, Rome has the mystique of the ancient and the pre-industrial. Being the fountain from which so much of our civilization has sprung gives it a cachet – at least among some – that those other settings and periods lack.And how could one argue that the legions are not the visual representation of Rome? Say “Rome,” and I would argue that at least as many people think of the legions as the toga. More, perhaps, given the togas link to Greece as well. The legions are Rome.But that’s for later. For now, let’s consider Rome’s great enemy – Carthage. The two Mediterranean powers became enemies as a result of geography – they both had interests in the Mediterranean, and this led to conflict over Sicily, which led to everything else. Carthage had the wealth but Rome had the will. Rome won the First and Second Punic Wars by never surrendering. Its mobilization capacity outstripped anything seen to that time. No other state would willingly risk so many of its citizens. No other state has citizens so willing to sacrifice. The mobilization capacity of Rome is only matched by what we have seen in the Industrial era. Rome truly understood total war.When Rome lost a legion (and it did, multiple times), it mobilized a new one. During the Pyrrhic and Punic Wars, Rome mobilized the majority of its male population, and lost many of them. Others have said that war is in the will, and Rome had that will. This led them from a small city-state to ruler of the Western world. It could not be defeated because it never accepted defeat. An enemy would need to destroy all of Rome and its people, and no enemy proved capable of doing so.In contrast to Rome, Carthage had a professional military during the First and Second Punic Wars; however, by the Third Punic War, it had lost its army to Rome’s professionalized force. Mercenaries composed most of Carthage’s military, in contrast to Rome’s citizen legions, though Carthaginian officers continued to lead this professional force.A modern reader might not recognize the military of Carthage as mercenary force, exactly. Carthage had established agreements with specific states, peoples, and ethnic groups to provide troops when requested. These partners had some degree of loyalty to Carthage, and so the troops were more like paid allies than pure mercenaries. It’s very similar to mercenaries of the Medieval or Renaissance period – a contractor supplying the troops

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to Carthage would have various relationships and agreements with captains who actually raise the troops. Carthage would go to their contractor and say: “we need 100 cavalry.” The contractor would have contacts with tribal leaders – his captains – in various regions who would raise and command the required troops. Many of the states and peoples who supplied Carthage with its forces had defined specialities that informed Carthage’s decisions on which people to recruit in order to fill specific billets. In general, the Punic military – Punic meaning of or from Carthage – included elements composed of Numidians, Libyans, and other North African nomadic tribes (think of the Berbers of history or the modern Tuaregs) Libyans generally supplied heavy infantry, while the Numidians were famed as light cavalry. After expanding its dominions in Spain starting in 264 BCE, Carthage also began to recruit Iberians and Gauls.The armies fielded by Rome and Carthage seemed evenly matched. Victory generally went to the side with superior numbers, though leadership proved exceptionally important at many points during the Punic Wars. Generals needed to understand not only tactical and strategic maneuvering, but also logistics. Under a commander such as Hannibal Barca, the mercenaries of Carthage proved superior to Rome’s legions.Like Rome, Carthage was essentially an oligarchy, with a wealthy and powerful elite ruling a government that was nominally representative of its populace. Unlike Rome, however, the government of Carthage considered trade far more important than war, and freed its citizens from military obligations in order to allow them to pursue trade. The wealthy state could afford its large military.One could certainly play in a campaign as a soldier of Carthage (read: mercenary). The Aspects of a Carthaginian mercenary would be absolutely different than those of a Roman legionary, save perhaps Valour. Greed could be an Aspect – these are mercenaries – as could Discipline – which would be different from Duty, which tends to imply an internal motivation rather than the result of training.There are many reasons to run a game set in Republican Rome, especially in the Late Republic. It is close enough to our own period that the players will have useful frames of reference, yet archaic enough to host a game attractive to players of fantasy role-playing games. And there’s Carthage too, because . . . killer elephants!

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CharactersAll characters in Republican Rome will have a patron, and this provides the easiest means of getting a group together. All characters could share a common patron, and any request by this patron pretty much is an obligation for his clients. There are references to clients following their patrons into war, but the process of recruitment generally seems divorced from the patronage system. This does not mean that a patron participating in a military campaign could not be accompanied by a group of clients to serve as a special force of scouts, spies, or trouble-shooters. In fact, that would be awesome and such a great way to assemble a group of PCs. Perhaps not as epic as meeting up in a local tavern, but certainly high up on the list of good ideas.But what of your kit? What will your character be wearing and bearing? The citizen soldiers of the Republic were originally expected to pay for their own armour and arms, though there is evidence that the state had begun to supply the required equipment by the Third Punic War. Legionary armour and arms, even before they became rewards from the state, were standardized, and Rome provided training in their use to its citizens. One’s position in the legion was based on property ownership. The wealthiest and most powerful Patricians were appointed the commanders of legions – the legates or generals. In the early days of the Republic, they also supplied the cavalry. The Patricians held the best positions amongst the ranks of the legions, and their wealth bought them the best armour and arms. If your character comes from Patrician stock, he is likely an important officer or – at the very least – a cavalry legionary.Those characters who meet the property qualification to become a legionary, but possess insufficient wealth to be a Patrician, would be in the heavy infantry – the shortsword wielding soldier most of us imagine when we think of a typical legionary. The equipment used by the various types of heavy infantry is discussed in the earlier section on The Manipular Legions. If the character is wealthy, for example the son of a successful farmer (what would be called a yeoman farmer in medieval England), he would be expected to possess a suit of mail, known as the lorica segmentata. The breastplate and greave armour that marks the legionary for a modern audience comes later. This equipment is the property of the character, stored and maintained by him, ready to pack up and move out when the call comes. They will have

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also used this equipment during the drills in which he would have regularly participated.And for those who only barely meet the property requirement could be a veles – a light infantry skirmisher. The velites lacked body armour, but they were not expected to engage heavy infantry in melee, and for a player interested in a character who is nimble and relies on his speed and agility, a veles could be a fun choice.The variety of roles and equipment possible during this period works well with a PC party. The patrician commander might have a young equites, two or three different legionaries and a couple of velites as his clients. You’d have your cavalryman, the heavily armed princeps, the heavy infantry tank of the triarius, a veles scout, and possibly a thief-type veles. As an example of organizing a PC party, let’s say that Patrician legate Publius Cornelius is everyone’s patron, and he brings the group together to act as his scouts and unofficial “trouble-shooters” for a campaign in Spain. You can have all these various characters archetypes – heavy infantry, cavalry, velites, Romans, Latins, provincials – together in one group with each serving a different role.The provincial soldiers would be counted as allies. Characters with origins from amongst Rome’s allies could be included in the group using a shared patron, just as Roman PCs could. Many people from the Latin and Italian allies had patronage ties to Rome. And, of course, if the allied character belongs to the same military formation as the other characters, even if the allied character belongs to the ala rather than the legion, the characters would all be under the same overall commander, and could be drawn together under purely military auspices. Allies marching with the legions could be incorporated into any scouting or other special mission to which the PCs might be assigned.If the PCs come from Carthage, they still have the choice of being cavalry, infantry or special troops. Given Carthage also had a professional military, the PCs would likely have the military as a career. The structure of the Carthage military was no more complex or concrete than that of Rome, it merely remain standing even when Carthage was at peace. These various peoples would allow a quite diverse PC group. If a player wanted to play a Gaul in a campaign based on Carthage, one certainly could.

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However, after the Second Punic War, Carthage lost control of Spain, and Rome forced it out of the Mediterranean. Carthage no longer threatened Rome and could not maintain its standing force. The once power Mediterranean power became a shadow of its former self. The Third Punic War was more about Rome extinguishing a rival that once posed a legitimate threat rather than a war of necessity.

AdventuresIn the late Roman Republic, there was no standing army per se, which makes military-based adventures problematic. However, as mentioned above, the one place where a collection of legionaries might find themselves serving together over a long period of time would be Hispania. Adventures set around the Roman conquest of Hispania, followed by garrison duty in the newly conquered territory could potentially run for five and a half years of game time – with an extra half a year getting to and from Hispania. Hispania also offers plenty of adventure-worthy situations, from politics – both internal Republic affairs and dealing with the tribes of Hispania, those allied to Rome and those opposed – to exploration. There would also be numerous opportunities for a good fight. The Iberian campaigns included open warfare, spying, negotiations and treaties, betrayals and war crimes (as we would know them today), and that’s just the Romans. Imagine trying to deal with petty politics while simultaneously fighting a very capable and well-trained barbarian force. The characters could be trapped in the middle of competing Roman factions along with their patron, while also trying to make headway against Punic influence. There may be a tribe or tribal leader who got burned by Rome (or at least a representative of Rome) and is now double-dealing to satisfy his grudge against his former Roman ally, causing problems for the characters’ legion. These barbarians may even have a political ally or patron in Rome, providing them with political cover.Now that’s a challenge.Other than Hispania, a cursory glance at the vast number of conflicts in which Rome participated should provide a variety of adventure ideas on which the PCs could embark. The time between enlistments and between the various wars, could be downtime for narrative and growth opportunities. This could be out-of-game time, done through emails or telephone calls between sessions.If one considers Carthage, there are many interesting choices and

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opportunities for characters and adventures. The characters could seek an employment contract with Carthage’s standing mercenary army. The whole contracting process is really a role-playing extravaganza, with the PCs trying to get employment with Carthage, and perhaps trying to forge an alliance with a particular captain or higher level contractor.By setting an adventure or longer campaign during the Punic Wars, there are many playable events that occurred in Hispania while it was still a Punic colony. Rome conquered Hispania not because it particularly desired another province, but because Rome needed to cut Carthage off from its Iberian resources. Players with Carthage mercenary characters could be involved in the Punic opposition to Roman encroachment, be it political – undermining Roman efforts to create relationships with the Iberian powers – or military – such as scouts following the legions and ambushing Roman forces.Remember, legions are very good at set-piece battles in a straight, stand-up fight, but not nearly so good at what would be called counterinsurgency today. Without strong leadership and guidance, the legions tended to falter in the face of guerilla tactics. Expeditionary legions had incredibly long lines of communication and supply that even a small force could easily disrupt.The characters could even be with Hannibal Barca when he invades Italy in the Second Punic War. He won the battles but lost the war. It’s almost like the Trojan War in that Hannibal’s invasion of Italy lasted roughly fifteen years (218 – 203 BCE). During his time in Italy, Hannibal is mostly marching around kicking everyone’s butt, but never actually gaining the ultimate strategic victory that would force Rome to capitulate. Fifteen years of campaigning can provide a lot of role-playing opportunities. Think of the Anabasis, with the 10,000 Greek mercenaries fighting their way out of Persia. It’s very similar – an independent and demonstrably superior force in enemy territory, continually fighting for survival.

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late republic NPCsQuintus Pontius VERUSValorous Centurio Primi PiliPhy 2, Men 1, Soc 3Military Training 3, Commanding Presence 2, Inspires Trust 2Pivots: Inspire. The character gains a Duty die when his leadership leads to a stunning victory without costLead from front . The character gains a Valour die when he gains a victory while putting his self at extreme in.

Lucius Neratius SILANUSDutiful Plebeian CenturionPhy 3, Men 1, Soc 2Military Training 3, Humble Origins 2, Scrounging 2Pivots: Takecareoftheboys.The character gains a Duty die when he puts his group’s needs above his ownEarned the rank . The character gains an Honour die when his advice or counsel leads to a stunning victory wihout cost

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The Civil WarsThe period I’m calling the Civil Wars might also be called the denouement of the Republic. The Republic did not come crashing down when Caesar crossed the Rubicon, but had been in steady decline through the Late Republic, as evident in careers of the Gracchi brothers. The problems that had developed through the Late Republic blossomed into real crises during the Civil Wars.To explore the history of this period and do it any justice would take far more pages than I can readily fit into this book. So let’s try to hit the highlights and provide you with some background regarding the people and conflicts of the period.It all starts with Gaius Marius. He was a new man, the first in his family to be made consul. He had proved himself a capable military leader in North Africa while fighting the Numidian king, Jugurtha, in 109 BCE. Gaining his consulship in 107, Marius went on to successfully defeat Jugurtha. As it turns out, the victory was engineered by Marius’ quaestor, one Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, and involved bribery and betrayal rather than force of arms.We’ll see this Sulla again.The legions Marius took with him to Africa were different than any that had previously marched from Rome. In order to raise the legions, Marius made changes to the laws regarding military service, allowing any Roman citizen to serve. He re-organized the legion, making it more efficient and more effective. This is the period where the legions truly become professional.After their victory against Jugurtha, Marius and Sulla returned to a panicked Italy. A combined force of Cimbri and Teutones – two of the original German tribes out of Scandinavia – had defeated every Roman force sent against it. Only the barbarians’ apparent disinterest in plundering Italy had saved Rome. Marius had already been re-elected consul in absentia. This was unprecedented both because a citizen was not permitted to stand for a subsequent consular elections until ten years after holding an office, and one simply could not stand for election without being present in Rome.But as we saw with the Gracchi brothers and the tribune of the plebs sacrosanctity, respect for magisterial offices was in decline.

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Marius had time to train his army before facing the German threat in 102. Over the next two years, Marius defeated the Germans, receiving his fifth consecutive consulship in 100. His victories against Numidia and then the Germans cemented his reputation in Rome, and he retired in honour.Both Marius and Sulla (remember him?) saw action during the Social Wars (91 - 88). One of Rome’s Latin, and most of their Italian allies, rebelled after another tribune of the plebeians failed in his attempt to enfranchise their population. The attempt led to the assassination of the tribune – an echo of the fall of the Gracchi – and war with the allies. While the rebellious allies were defeated, Rome finally did extend the franchise. The character of the legions would change yet again, as all of Italy suddenly became Rome’s recruiting ground.Sulla gained the consulship in 88, and the Senate voted to send him and his legions against King Mithridates of Pontus, who had invaded Roman territory. Marius sought the command, and his political machinations to secure it led to a showdown for control of Rome. Sulla marched on Rome and defeated Marius’ hastily assembled militia. The defeat of Marius by Sulla was of far less consequence than his marching on Rome with his legions. The laws barring men under arms from entering the Pomerium, the sacred boundary of Rome, now held as much force as the sacrosanctity of the tribunes of the plebs.When Sulla set out again on his expedition to Pontus in 87, Marius returned and conquered Rome. Marius and the populares – the political faction which sought support among the plebs and proletariat – began a program of proscriptions, in which enemies were exiled or executed and their fortunes confiscated.Seventeen days after gaining yet another consulship, Marius died and left the populares leaderless.By 85, Sulla had defeated Mithridates. The resulting treaty was rushed due to Sulla’s desire to return to Rome, and Mithridates lost none of Pontus. Sulla arrived in Italy in 83, and quickly defeated the populares forces, conquering Rome again and instituting his own proscriptions. A young Gaius Julius Caesar was almost caught up in these proscriptions, but relatives of his who supported Sulla intervened on his behalf.Sulla sided with the optimates – the political faction seeking to protect the prerogatives and power of the patricians – and did his best to damage the

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influence and political power of the equestrians and plebeians. When he had seen his reforms enacted as laws, he resigned as dictator. He was elected as consul in 80, then retired from politics. He retained the power to influence legislation, but generally avoided direct involvement in the bureaucracy of Rome and its growing empire.The next to make his mark on Rome in this period of dictators was Pompey, who rose to prominence during the time of Sulla. The interesting thing about Pompey was that his early military successes, battling populares in Sicily and Africa in 81, were achieved with legions he had raised using his own finances. They were, quite literally, his personal legions. He demanded a triumph on his return to Rome, which Sulla finally allowed, sarcastically referring to him as Magnus – the Great.After Sulla died, Pompey requested the Senate grant him proconsular imperium – the power of a proconsul – and send him to Hispania to defeat the last of the populares. The Senate initially refused, but Pompey didn’t disband his legions until the Senate relented. He became a de facto proconsul before he even became a de jure tribune.The cursus honorum was apparently for citizens who lacked their own legions.Pompey found Hispania a touch more difficult than he expected, and he campaigned there from 76 to 71. During times of peace, he proved he could be a fair and able administrator as well as a great general. Pompey returned to Italy only at the tail end of the Third Servile War – the famous slave revolt of Spartacus. While the wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus had completed the lion’s share of the military operations against the slave force, Pompey swooped in to capture a small band that had broken off from the main force, claiming credit for ending the war. This drove a wedge between Crassus and Pompey, while also increasing Pompey’s popularity in Rome.Pompey received another triumph, as illegal as his first, and in 70 he was elected consul – at the young age of 35 without having held previous offices in the cursus honorum – alongside Crassus. His ambition and disregard for those tradition and law that impeded his rise to power annoyed the optimates, whose interests Pompey claimed to be protecting.In 68, Pompey sought command of a taskforce to end piracy in the Mediterranean. The extraordinary powers proposed by the tribune of the plebs worried the optimates, and they opposed his ambitious project.

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Pompey, in his normal fashion, bulled his way through the resistance and his taskforce, commanded by thirteen legates, reportedly cleared the seas by 67. Modern historians have voiced scepticism over the claims of rampant piracy, and the campaign may have been an elaborate extortion plan intended to gain for Pompey and his subordinates war indemnities and new clients.Almost immediately after declaring victory over piracy, Pompey gained command of the Roman forces opposing King Mithridates of Pontus, the opponent to whom Sulla provided such lenient treaty terms. Mithridates had continued to oppose Rome, and the Third Mithridatic War – as it’s known –began in 73. Pompey arrived with his forces to relieve the previous commander in 65, marching through Greece, the Caucasus, and the Near East. He succeeded in conquering further territories and adding them to Rome’s increasing number of provinces. He received yet another triumph on his return to Rome in 61.While Pompey had been grabbing whatever political or military office struck his fancy, Gaius Julius Caesar had struggled to climb the cursus honorum. He did not have the wealth that had provided Pompey so many opportunities. While Caesar’s noble family had a storied history, Pompey’s “humble” (in comparison) origins included substantial wealth. Caesar gained election as a military tribune around 73, a quaestor in 67, an aedile in 65, and praetor by 62. Caesar was able to meet the costs of these offices – for which the state did not provide funds – by running himself deeply into debt, including a large debt to Crassus. Caesar was sent to Spain as a propraetor, or governor. His military conquests in Spain allowed him to pay off many of his debts, and he returned to Rome hoping to stand for consul. Upon being given the choice of a triumph (for which he would need to wait outside Rome) or stand for consul (which would require his entry into Rome), Caesar chose the consulship. Winning an election that was renowned for its corruption, Caesar attempted to create a faction with Crassus and Pompey. All three of whom sought to pass legislation of some sort. This compact became known as the First Triumvirate. The three men ruled Rome even when not all of them held elected office. Upon completion of his term in office, Caesar gained a proconsular post that included Cisalpone Gaul, Transalpine Gaul, and Illyricum. The position provided him with four legions to command, and immunity from prosecution (at least while his proconsular imperium continued). Caesar was facing possible prosecution for the irregularities

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during his year as a consul, so he needed the protection of immunity.Crassus died fighting in Parthia along with his son in 53. By this point, Pompey and Caesar’s relationship had been strengthened by Pompey’s marriage to Caesar’s daughter Julia. Yet, it began to fray after Julia died in childbirth. Pompey’s actions in Rome suggest he entered into some form of compact with the optimates. Caesar, on the other hand, had sided with the populares in support of his political ambitions. Pompey demanded that Caesar relinquish his troops and imperium, which would leave Caesar vulnerable to legal attacks at the very least. Like Sulla and Pompey before him, Caesar marched on Rome.The civil war between Caesar and Pompey might have gone differently if Pompey had been in his prime. He often seemed indecisive while Caesar threw himself into the war, realizing it was victory or death. Caesar’s will, if not always his generalship, overwhelmed Pompey. Pompey fled to Egypt. There he was unceremoniously murdered, reportedly by a tribune and centurion of the Gabiniani. This group of Roman legionaries and auxiliaries had been left in Egypt by Aulus Gabinius, the proconsul of Syria, when he restored Ptolemy XII to the throne of Egypt. The Gabiniani are a very interesting part of the Egyptian-Roman dynamic, as they had “gone native” and were really serving Ptolemy XIII and his advisors.Caesar had won that civil war, but his assassination four years later led to a second civil war. The conflict pitted Marc Antony and Caesar’s heir – his nephew Gaius Octavius who was known as Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus after his adoption by Caesar – against those optimates who had conspired to assassinate Caesar. One of Caesar’s loyal generals, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, joined Antony and Octavian to form the Second Triumvirate. After the defeat of Caesar’s assassins at Philippi in 42, Octavian quickly found a pretext to sideline him.The Republic, at this point, was dead. All that remained was to establish who would become the First Citizen – never a king, and at this point not an emperor either – and lead Rome’s Empire. Octavian won out against Antony through the help of Octavian’s loyal general, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Octavian and Agrippa defeated the forces of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31, paving the way for final victory.Octavian became Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus – conquering General Caesar, the Majestic Son of the Divine – and the Principate began.

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The Structure of Society and Government in the Civil WarsWhile society and government changed during the period of the Civil Wars, its structure didn’t. Patronage, while still the network that bound Roman society together, became less structured. Patrons were less willing to spend their political capital in the interest of their clients, leading clients to seek multiple patrons in order to insulate themselves from a loss of protection.The offices of the magistrates remained, but rarely functioned as they were intended. They instead became pawns for patrician powers. The sacrosanct nature of the plebeian tribunes died with the Gracchi, and reverence for the offices faded until they became mere tools of the patricians.During the dictatorship of Sulla, the Senate gained influence while the Plebeian Council and its tribunes were hamstrung. The tribunes of the plebs lost their ability to introduce or veto legislation, while the Plebeian Council could only consider legislation passed to it by the Senate. Along with this new control over the deliberation of the Plebeian Council, the Senate was given control of the courts, and with it, unprecedented power and influence.Sulla increased the size of the Senate along with its power. The number of senators increased from 300 to 600, and any citizen elected to the office of quaestor became a senator. The patricians increased their power and influence, while the plebeians and equestrians saw theirs decay.All this led to the growing alienation of the majority of the population. Though they were the wealthiest and most powerful, the patricians were an extreme minority. The optimates’ efforts to shore up the failing influence of the nobles, sowed the seeds for the demise of the Republic. This is not necessarily to be lamented. The Republic was never a real democracy, and the plebs had to fight for every modicum of political influence they wielded. The dictatorships and the final evolution of the Republic into the Empire was not necessarily to the detriment of the majority of the population.

The Structure of the Legions in the Civil WarsGaius Marius changed the legions dramatically. Not only were the legions now able to expand recruitment to the larger population, their formation evolved to counter new threats to the Republic.

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Rome had a serious manpower problem as it faced continued threats both from Africa and Europe. In order to fill the ranks of the legions, Marius legislated the inclusion of the capite censi into the legions. The proletariat did not join the Servian classes, eligible for the dilectus, but instead Marius made it legal for all Roman citizens to volunteer for military service. As we saw in the Late Republic, those who did not qualify for the dilectus still found their way into the legions, and some made a career from military service. Marius made it legal and official.Marius was not the first to recruit from the capite censi. In previous crises, Rome had turned to anyone willing to march against the enemy, including slaves. It’s true that Marius created an expediency law, but it certainly made sense given Rome’s growing number of conflicts. The numbers of eligible citizens for military service was declining due, at least in part, to military service. Those that had been on the edge of eligibility before joining the legions often lost property during extended enlistments, meaning that they and their children couldn’t stand for the draft in the future. The wealthy of Rome certainly liked being able to field a significant army, but apparently they liked exploiting the legionaries absences even more.Gaius Gracchus’ legislation allowing the state to arm legionaries provided Marius with the means of equipping his new recruits. Rather than just providing the necessary arms and armour to the poorest among the legions, the practice came to include all legionaries. Any need to differentiate by wealth or class vanished.Along with ensuring the legions would have no issues filling their quotas for the next few centuries, Marius changed how the legions would face their foes. Out were maniples, and in were the cohorts. Each cohort had six

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centuries, and there were ten cohorts per legion. The manipular formation had worked well against the slow-moving, relatively static phalanx, but Rome now faced the Gauls and the Germans. These barbarians charged into battle, their greatest weapon shock contact. If a force could withstand that initial charge, the barbarian forces generally tired quickly and withdrew. The greater depth of the cohort formation compared to a maniple allowed the legions to hold their position against these charges.Maniples did not disappear entirely, but rather remained as an administrative unit. The terms for the heavy infantry types used under the maniple system remained in the grades of the centurions, but the lines of hastati, princepes, and triarii disappeared. With the state equipping the legionaries, arms and armour could be standardized, and this allowed greater flexibility for the movement of legionaries and interoperability among the cohorts.

Positions and RankThe change from a manipular to cohort, or Marian, legion had minimal impact on ranks/positions. With the introduction of a new structural organization, some new positions would of course be created, but most of the pre-existing positions from the manipular legion remained. This was because they were based on the century, which also remained.An entirely new position was that of the aquifilier – the senior standard-bearer. Unlike consular legions, which were expected to disband each year, Marian legions remained together. This continuity provided them with a corporate identity. Marius attempted to create an espirit de corps within the legions by providing each with a single standard topped by a silver eagle – the aquila. The aquifilier bore the aquila and was only outranked by centurions. The centurions of the legion evolved slightly with the introduction of the cohorts. Centurions gained a relative ranking based upon their numerical position within the cohort; centurions of the first cohort outranking those of the second, who would outrank the third cohort centurions, etc. Within a cohort, the centurions were divided into senior centurions – prior – and juniors – posterior. The senior and junior centurions were further divided into pilus, princeps, and hastatus. So, within a cohort, the ranking of centurions, from most senior to most junior, would be: pilus prior, princeps

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prior, hastatus prior, pilus posterior, princeps posterior, and hastatus posterior.Along with the command structure at the centuriate-level, command of the legions also changed; however, this was an evolution of practice rather than an imposed organizational change. Between the time of Marius and Caesar, the use of legions changed from the consular model, in which each consul commanded two legions, to a system in which a single commander – and generally not the consuls – would have an army of six to ten legions. Delegation of command became a problem.While the six military tribunes remained part of the legion, these were political appointments rather than men with the experience and knowledge to lead a legion into combat. What evolved was a tradition in which the commander – usually the proconsul or propraetor in the area where the army operated – delegated authority to a representative or legate. As an example, when Caesar marched against Ariovistus of the Suebi, he had five legates and a quaestor commanding his six legions. These legates did not stand for election and were personally selected by the commander, so could therefore be chosen for capability or loyalty. There was typically some kind of social link between a legate and the commander who chose him, but choosing a legate based solely on nepotism could have disastrous effects.

The Civil Wars as a SettingThe period that I’m calling the Civil Wars period was one of huge changes for Rome. It saw the fall of the Republic and the rise of the Empire. Government shifted from a pseudo-democratic republic ruled by an oligarchy of plutocrats to a de facto (though absolutely not de jure) monarchy, which lacked a crown and was not officially hereditary.These changes make for interesting role-playing opportunities and exciting military adventures. The many political, social, and military changes that took place during a relatively short period altered the way the Romans saw themselves and their place in the world. This period witnessed the fall of the old order and conflict between the populares – who sought power by appeasing the plebeian mob of Rome – and the optimates – who sought power by protecting the privileges of the patricians. Despite the populare challenge, it still remained a time of patrician leadership. Even though

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Caesar might have been a popularis, he came from one of the oldest and most conservative patrician families in Rome – the Julian gens.This is also the time of the Marian reforms, when the military evolves from an army of trained amateurs to true professionals. One could now have a career as a soldier, making this period a good choice for a military-focused role-playing setting. Certainly, one could volunteer for the muster in the late Republic, but after Marius, and especially by the time of Pompey and Caesar, one could remain in the legions, as they became standing armies with institutional histories and loyalties.The Social War changed the composition of the auxiliaries. Following this war, the allies from the Italian peninsula became citizens, and so eligible for the legions. The ala became the auxiliaries, and these were then drawn from the provinces outside of the peninsula. The auxiliaries, as we now understand the term in reference to the legions, come into existence during this period. Generals like Pompey and Caesar exploited the populace of the newly conquered territories and the kings with whom they allied to acquire the skills and specialities generally lacking in Rome and Italy – such as Numidian and Gallic cavalry or Cretan archers.Before the Social Wars, Rome’s Latin and Italian allies – or socii, hence Social Wars –provided troops to march with the legions. The allie provided most of the legionary cavalry, and their formations were known as alae (sing. ala) or wings, since they were positioned within a legion on the flanks of the Roman heavy infantry. Following the Social Wars, the allies became citizens, and the role of the alae fell to the newly formed auxiliaries. These auxilia – meaning assistance or help – formed their own commands, similar in many ways to the legions. Under Augustus, this was formalized and evolved into a twin of the legion, filled with specialists, to support the main legion. This period includes some of the most memorable and well-known figures of Roman history. One does not have to be a student of ancient history or the classics to be familiar with Caesar and Augustus. Many know of Pompey Magnus – Pompey the Great – though they may not recognize him as a contemporary ally of Caesar or his later adversary. Students of history will know of Marius and Sulla, two dictators – in the Roman political sense as well as the more modern pejorative sense – who changed the flow of Roman political fortunes. While the entire Roman military did not become a standing army, many

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legions did not disband, continuing to recruit to fill vacant billets. Generals or governors would often recruit en masse to fill a legion, and those recruited together would likewise be demobilized together – should they live long enough. The Spanish legions, for example, remained at arms through this period, and both Pompey and Caesar looked to the Spanish legions to provide the backbone of their personal armies. Characters in one of these standing legions would have history together, and may have come to prominence and notice through their time with that legion.

CharactersSo, what kind of characters can you play in this professionalizing army? Like Republican Rome, we’re generally looking at Roman citizens, though this now also means Latins and Italians due to the changes brought by the Social Wars. A character could also be a provincial or the subject of an allied king. The provinces at the beginning of this period, include Spain, what we now call southern France, Greece and the Balkans, parts of modern Turkey, and a sliver along the North African coast. That’s a pretty wide swath of territory and cultures from which to gather characters. Along with this, there are the allied kings, such as those of Numidia or Armenia.Rome experienced almost ceaseless conflict from the time of Marius to the rise of Augustus and the Empire, an environment that permits characters the option of becoming battle-hardened soldiers and officers of the legions. Officers remained – save for centurions – patrician and equestrian for the most part, and so a character from this background might be a prefect or a tribune. The lowborn plebs would be the regular grunts – the heavy infantry – and a talented pleb might find himself a centurion in due course. With varying grades, the centurion from the legions would be the most similar to the non-commissioned ranks of the modern military, though with a level of responsibility more in keeping with the modern captain – a commissioned rank today.A character can, of course, be any type of Roman citizen – which now includes those known in the Republican period as the socii – the Latins and Italians. A character in the legions could come from the lowest of the low in the streets and alleys of Rome, an urban member of the famed Roman mob of plebs. A legionary may have once been a labourer, working hard, barely surviving until one bad economic turn made the legions seem like a sound choice.

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While a legionary might never truly expect a “regular” paycheque, legionaries did get paid – though certainly not regularly – and rarely starved. That, in itself, might be a powerful inducement for some to seek service in the legions.The patricians and the equestrians of the Civil Wars period continued to serve in the legions as a means to advance their personal careers. The military and political career paths of the cursus honorum remained the route of advancement for patricians, and service in the legions remained important for ambitious equestrians. Even those patricians who never made a name for themselves as a general had to spend time in the legions to be taken seriously as a senator. Such men did not consider the military a career.It is not yet possible, at this period, for a low-born soldier to rise through the ranks of the legions to become a legate, let alone an emperor. While in later periods the legion became a ladder to reach the highest offices, and there were a fair number of emperors who reached the purple through a career under the eagle, the highest rank for which a plebeian could achieve in this period would be primus pilus – the first spear, the highest ranking centurion in a legion. This did provide for limited social mobility, as one who reached the rank of primus pilus gained equestrian status. It is not yet hovel to palace, but it is mobility. That rise to equestrian status would eventually mean great things in a generation or two. Pompey the Great’s family proved how far an equestrian could rise. His family had wealth, but came from the provinces, and although his father became the first of his branch of the gens Pompeia to reach senatorial rank, Pompey was an equestrian. Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompey the Great, gained prominence through military success, and young Gnaeus Pompeius gained important experience marching with his father. Just as Pompeius Strabo used his military prominence to embark on the cursus honorum and become consul, Pompey the Great used his military success to drive his political career. Pompey gained the notice of powerful allies through his self-financed – as mentioned, wealthy family! – military successes, and these allies provided him with political leverage. If the Senate declined to give him what he wanted, Pompey would simply refuse to disband his legions until the Senate capitulated, which generally did not take long.All this to say: it is possible for a character to rise to comparative greatness from humble origins. Perhaps not from freed slave to emperor, but at least

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from day labourer to primus pilus, or from wealthy provincial equestrian to one of the most powerful men in Rome.

Spying and Scouting in the Civil WarsThis period also introduced two of the most useful military roles for characters – the speculatores and the exploratores. These are spies and scouts, legionaries involved in reconnaissance and intelligence. Playing speculatores and exploratores would allow characters to be detached from the regular chain of command, apart from the legions and acting independently. There are no hard and fast rules that divide the speculatore from the exploratore. In Caesar’s Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War), he appears to use speculatores and exploratores interchangeably, sometimes using speculatores for scouting, and sending exploratores to verify their information. This fluidity of roles is unsurprising, as this predates any consideration of a dedicated intelligence branch within the military structure, or even the government in general. For player characters, fluidity is a definite benefit, as it expands possible adventure themes. While Caesar seemed to use the terms interchangeably, that there were two distinct positions suggests differentiation of some sort. For our purposes, espionage is best understood as the purview of the speculatore while scouting the role of the exploratore. The term exploratore seems to have generally referred to a legionary scout whose primary function was the gathering of tactical intelligence, such as the size, location, and disposition of enemy forces. These scouts generally didn’t attempt to hide their affiliation with the legions, operating armed and armoured, though there are indications that legates sometimes used them in a covert or clandestine manner to undertake espionage activities. The evidence is slight, but there are references to exploratores travelling in civilian clothing or disguised as enemies. Once disguised, these legionaries would mingle with the population to gain local knowledge – what is sometimes now referred to as the ‘truth on the ground.’The stories of the civil wars include mention of scouts moving through siege lines, and passing information and instructions to and from the besieged. These stories speak to the possible covert nature of the exploratores. If these scouts could get information in and out of a city under siege, it is likely they

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could do the same with people, and that could certainly make for an interesting adventure. Throughout this period, legions not only besieged foreign cities – in places like North Africa, Greece and Asia Minor – but also Roman ones, as Sulla turned against Marius, Caesar against Pompey, and Augustus against Antony.Along with sneaking past the lines of a besieging army, exploratores allegedly worked inside enemy camps during the civil wars. One example of this comes from the war between Caesar and Pompey, when exploratores would enter the camps of the adversary to gather intelligence and foment unrest. In one case, Caesar reportedly knew Pompey’s exploratores had entered his camp, and he allowed them to mingle with his men. Caesar knew his position and supply situation were much better than Pompey’s, and he hoped that when the scouts returned to camp their reports would damage the morale of Pompey’s legions. These days, we’d call that a psychological operation. It was just one of the aspects of warfare at which Caesar excelled.For our purposes, we’ll categorize speculatores as spies. They would travel in disguise, dressed as local civilians, travellers, or foreign merchants. These spies would attach themselves to enemy forces or attempt to infiltrate enemy camps. There are stories of speculators who acted as double agents, pretending to spy for Rome’s enemies when really they maintained loyalty to Rome, or –during the Civil Wars period– to their commanding general.We know of at least one speculatore who had risen in the legionary ranks of one of the First Triumverate before being discovered. He escaped and returned to Caesar, bringing with him extensive intelligence. Speculatores really are spies as we understand the term.

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During Caesar’s Gallic campaigns – when he conquered all of Gaul and greatly increased the size of Rome’s (still Republican) empire – his speculatores infiltrated the ranks of his barbarian enemies by pretending to be deserters turned mercenaries. They also joined German tribes as Gauls – and some may have in fact been Gauls who had aligned with Caesar. Later, when Augustus sent his legions against the Germans, speculatores travelled with allied Gauls and Germans to infiltrate the enemy tribes, pretending to be deserters or mercenaries. These events provide historical examples of how a player can play a “barbarian” and still remain relatively faithful to the time period. In the group’s first adventure, a loyal Gallic and/or German speculatore could be assisting the team to infiltrate a barbarian camp to gain intelligence on their strength and intent. During the Civil Wars period, the characters might be loyal to Caesar and have the assistance of a Spanish spy to help them infiltrate Pompey’s camp. In another instance, the characters are loyal to Mark Antony, and are assisted by a Greek speculatore when ordered to sneak into Augustus’ camp, maybe while acting as double agents in the pay of Augustus.These spies and scouts did not just acquire information, they also provided it – at least they provided something their enemies thought was information. Commanders like Caesar and Augustus (through his skilled general, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa) undertook information operations, providing disinformation to the enemy or trying to influence their leaders and the local population. While either exploratores or speculatores could be involved in such an operation, this generally fell to the speculatores. They might plant false rumours, painting their force as weaker or stronger than reality, depending on whether their commander wished to trick the enemy into a fight or avoiding one. If one follows Sun-tzu – whose work would likely not have been available to Roman commanders, but whose lessons are universal – “All warfare is based on deception. Hence, when we are able to attack, we must seem unable; when using our forces, we must appear inactive; when we are near, we must make the enemy believe we are far away; when far away, we must make him believe we are near.” A fine summary of a disinformation campaign.

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AdventuresIn this period, characters can pretty much do anything: scouting, special tasks, or espionage. If you have not yet seen HBO’s miniseries Rome, do yourself a favour and go do so. It is a quality series and a great representation of adventures and intrigue in the time of the Civil Wars. It portrays the fall of the Republic and the rise of Augustus. The series concludes soon after the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra. It only aired two seasons, the first following Caesar from his success in the Gallic Wars to (spoiler alert!) his death on the Ides of March. The second season follows the rise of Augustus, from being the isolated and threatened heir of Caesar to being the first citizen and de facto ruler of Rome.The main characters are two legionaries – one of whom is a centurion and the other a regular grunt – from the 13th legion. The names of these two characters – Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo – are taken from Caesar’s Com-mentarii de Bello Gallico, though in that historical account they were both centurions. The miniseries takes these two characters and inserts them into every important event of the period. The miniseries doesn’t follow history exactly, but provides a really good template for an ongoing campaign in that era.As a GM, you might also decide not to actually follow what happened historically, even in a historical campaign. If that’s so, you will probably want to inform your players, and let them know that their actions may change the course of historical events as they know it. This is a good way of avoiding the player’s belief that their characters cannot influence the actual outcomes of important events. Players are often more invested in a campaign if they feel that their actions have an impact on the outcome of a particular event and, more importantly, the course of history. After all, heroic actions should have heroic results. In a Civil Wars campaign, the characters might be speculatores in Pompey’s pay who agree to a daring mission behind enemy lines in order to acquire the information that eventually helps Pompey defeat Caesar. Perhaps this still leads to the founding of the Empire, but it may take Augustus longer to gain power, or it might be Marc Antony who finally gains ascendancy. Given that Pompey was an optimate, fighting for the interests of the patricians, the Senate might hang on a little longer. Alternate history campaigns can be a lot of fun, especially when it is the player characters that cause the deviation from known events.

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It’s also possible to play a subtly alternate history, one in which the player characters are involved in significant moments in history. Although unlike the alternative history scenarios described earlier, those great historical moments do not change and the flow of history is, in general, not affected. HBO’s Rome miniseries did this with its main characters, Pullo and Vorenus. One example of this is the series’ take on the Senatorial demand that Caesar surrender his forces, the ultimatum that historically sent Caesar marching on Rome. In the series, Marc Antony, now Tribune of the Plebs, plans to veto the Senate’s demand for Caesar to surrender his legions, protecting Caesar and averting civil war. The protagonists, Pullo and Vorenus, escort Antony to Rome in order to cast the veto. While there, Pullo gets into a drunken brawl and kills a thug with whom he had diced. In the Senate, Antony attempts to veto the proposal to demand Caesar surrender his forces, but a scuffle breaks out and Antony’s veto is not recorded. Pompey actually wants Antony to veto the legislation, as he does not want to provide Caesar with a casus belli – an excuse to go to war. With the veto unrecorded, Pompey calls for the session to be extended another day so that Antony can veto the proposal. Knowing he is at risk, Antony calls on his loyal legionaries – which includes Vorenus and Pullo – to escort him to the Senate house. Pompey has told his supporters to intimidate, but not harm or obstruct Antony. Unfortunately, the friend of the man Pullo had killed prior recognizes Pullo, and attempts to murder him. The attack on Pullo is perceived to be an attempt on Antony’s life, which ignites a street war. Antony is never able to veto the proposal, and Caesar now has his casus belli.Our understanding of the actual historical events is that Antony and the other Tribune of the Plebs vetoed an initial Senate motion for Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome before his term as proconsul of Transalpine Gaul, Cisalpine Gaul, and Illyricum expired. After the veto, the optimates – the conservatives in the Senate protecting the rights of the patricians and defended by Pompey – forced Antony and his confederate out of Rome as a result. With Anthony and his allies removed, the Senate later passed the motion, with neither tribune present to veto it.The specifics surrounding the Senate vote are different, but that’s unimportant, as the greater historical significance and effect remains true to history. The actions of the Senate forced Caesar to march on Rome. If he

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didn’t move on Rome he would face innumerable prosecutions and political censures brought by the optimates and their supporters. The events as interpreted by contemporary historians and the screen writers at HBO both ignite a civil war, except in the case of the HBO miniseries the actual cause is Pullo’s drunken violence in response to being cheated in a dice game.A GM could do something similar. Inject the characters into important events in history, but twist and tweak the outcomes so that the general flow of history is preserved. And, honestly, the “general flow” only relates to your gaming group. If they know very little of Roman history outside of media representations, the general flow of history could simply mean Rome remains an Empire. When did Rome lose the province of Dacia? When did Rome separate into the Gallic, Roman and Palmyrene Empires? When did Diocletian create the Tetrarchy? None of this really matters to those who are not schooled in Roman history. In the Civil Wars period, the general flow includes Caesar’s march on Rome, his overall strategic (though not always tactical) success, and his eventual assassination. The fall of Caesar eventually leads to rule by Antony and Augustus (poor Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, a member of the Second Triumvirate, just doesn’t track on most people’s radar), and finally Augustus. That’s a pretty general flow, and like the HBO series, it allows a lot of wiggle room for the characters to be involved in important events that shape history.

Aspects of the Civil WarsThe Civil Wars period was a time of shifting power bases, with generals raising their own armies, sometimes financed from their own treasuries. With the rise of the professional soldier, pay becomes an important consideration, and those that paid the troops expected loyalty. This loyalty allowed men like Marius, Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar to exert their will on the Republic, and to eventually make it their own. Generals expected loyalty from their legions and generously rewarded those that remained so. Loyalty became a virtue that generals expected from their legions.Honour remains important among all strata of Roman society. Even men who come from the property-less classes considered their family honour, and worked to increase their family’s reputation and distinction in society.

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Valour also remains as a constant Aspect. What good is a Roman legionary who fears sacrificing his life to bring victory to Rome?For a legionary in the Civil Wars period, the Aspects and their definitions are:

Loyalty: This can be considered the explicit expectation of loyalty to the general and/or paymaster of the legion. This personal loyalty can often be at odds with oaths or orders, and may set legionaries against their comrades. This represents the character’s will to protect, preserve and promote his paymaster.

Honour: This can be considered the implicit expectations of society and family. This represents the character’s sense of right action, which reflects well on family and clan.

Valour: This is the character’s bravery in the face of danger. This represents the character’s willingness to engage in dangerous activities – both physically and otherwise – and to accept the consequences.

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CIVIL WAR NPCsGaius Septimius SenecaHonourable Italian Plebeian Recruit 1Phy 3, Men 1, Soc 2Military Training 2, Clear-Eyed Enthusiasm 2, Preternatural Awareness 2, Farmer’s Son 1Pivots: I’llNotStainmyFamily. The character gains an Honour die when he refuses an offer or opportunity that could enrich or otherwise advantage him if it is not in the interests of Rome or the legionsThelegionsaremyhome. The character gains a Loyalty die when he rejects the opportunity to escape a dire situation in order to remain with his unit or commanderBlooded . The character gains a Valour die when he gains a victory after taking extensive amounts of damage.

Quintus VitelliusValorous Young Patrician Tribune 2Phy 1, Men 2, Soc 3Educated 2, Connected 2, Military Training 2Pivots: Leavenomanbehind. The character gains a Valour die when he retreats last from an overwhelming opponent or ChallengeYou can count on me . The character gains a Loyalty die when he rejects an opportunity in order to protect or advance his commanderVirtuous . The character gains an Honour die when he rejects or roots out corruption

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The PrincipateThe Principate is the early Roman Empire. The emperor was touted as the social equal of the nobility of Rome during this early period of the Empire. Oh, sure, he was more powerful than all of them combined, but in response to Rome’s rabid anti-monarchial attitude, the structural monarchy of the emperor’s rule maintained the façade of him simply being the first citizen – the first among equals. He did not technically occupy a position called “emperor,” with a collection of legal powers unique to his position, Rather, he was the first citizen, and enjoyed the powers of other offices without needing to actually get elected to those offices.The actions of the emperors in this period maintained the façade of SPQR – Senatus Populus Que Romanus, the Senate and People of Rome. The magistrates, councils, and assemblies of the Republic might still exist, but they really didn’t mean anything unless the emperor wanted them to. And generally, the emperor did. These bodies provided the bureaucracy necessary to run the empire, something an emperor could not do on his own. The bureaucracy that eventually evolved during the Principate proved so resilient that even after the Crisis of the Third Century, the government continued running. Split the empire into three separate territories, and then stitch them back up again? No problem. The taxes were still being collected and the courts continued to function.The Principate began with Augustus’ victory over Marc Antony and Cleopatra. It left Augustus as the only remaining warlord of the Republic. With no real opposition, Augustus was able to take on the powers of various magistrates in order to create a position of power that still used the tools of the Republic, but just in a way they were never intended to be used. He combined consular authority (consular imperium), the powers of the tribune of the plebs (tribunicia potestas), the censor’s control over the composition of the Senate, and specific powers over all the provincial governors. The Senate provided him – as Princeps – with control over the frontier provinces, creating imperial provinces. The nice quiet provinces became senatorial provinces. Not all provinces were treated the same, with Egypt becoming a special province. It had always been the main source of grain for Rome, and now that it lay under Rome’s control, Augustus made it his province. No citizen

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with the rank of senator could visit Egypt without his express permission. This meant it was not governed by a proconsul, but rather by an equestrian prefect.The taxes from the provinces were likewise divided, with those from the imperial provinces filling the personal treasury of Augustus (and later his heirs) known as the fiscus. The taxes from the senatorial provinces went to the aerarium, the traditional Roman treasury. Augustus normalized the military structure and the number of standing legions, demobilizing many legionaries and confiscating lands in order to provide them with retirement bonuses. He maintained twenty-eight legions under arms – a significant military and far larger than anything even considered during the Republic. The legions continued to evolve through the Principate, formalizing their structure and function by 100 CE. But it was in Augustus’ time that the professionalization of the legions truly occurred. He needed the loyalty of his military, yes, but he did not go to great lengths to placate them. If they didn’t like their job, there were others who would.

Roman Empire, 45 BCE

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And thus began the Julio-Claudian Dynasty. Out of its five emperors, there were two that I believe we have to recognize as good emperors – capable men who were likely self-serving to some degree, but seemed to truly legislate for the greater good of the Roman populace. The other three can be described as inflicted with varying degrees of crazy – Tiberius’ paranoia, Caligula’s out and out lunacy, and Nero’s egoism all caused damage to the people and the state. That’s not a great track record, but again, the bureaucracy saw that the wheels of government continued to turn. Ruling for 95 years – from Augustus’ ascension to princeps in 27 BCE to 68 CE when Nero commits suicide – it is arguable that the Julio-Claudian dynasty left Rome better than they found it, given that they found it in the middle of a brutal series of civil wars. The problem with the Principate not being a monarchy was that it was not hereditary. There were no real laws regarding the succession of the conglomeration of powers that made the princeps the first among the Senate. Famously, the Praetorian Guard chose Claudius after their dispatching of Caligula, and hailed him imperator. Claudius had no other real legal pretext to become princeps. Before his suicide, we do not hear of Nero designating a successor, and even had he it is questionable whether the mutinous legions, with their own claimants to the non-existent crown, would have accepted a designated heir.And so, in 68 and 69 CE, a collection of generals and politicians attempted to capture or purchase rulership of the empire. The princeps Galba, Otho and Vitellius all made their mark on history. Yet, their rule was short lived, with Otho only princeps for three months. In the end, the Year of the Four Emperors ended when Titus Flavius Vespasianus’ defeated Vitellus, ushering in the Flavian Dynasty.Vespasian’s son Titus, proved a capable princeps and gave us the Flavian Amphitheatre, known now as the Colosseum – one of the landmarks of Rome. He died after just two years in office, leading to the reign of Domitian. Domitian’s alleged autocratic tendencies made an enemy of the Senate and patricians, but he was reportedly popular among the common people. He was assassinated in 96 and the Senate attempted to remove him from all public records and statuary. Nerva stepped into the political void.Marcus Cocceius Nerva may have been involved in the plot to assassinate Domitian, but this is not something we can ever truly ascertain from the

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sources available to us. What is certain is that Nerva chose Marcus Ulpius Traianus, whom we now know as Trajan, as his successor. This set in motion the Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty, which included the Five Good Emperors and may have been perhaps the pinnacle of the Roman Empire.Nerva lasted only fifteen months, but the Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty lasted from 96 to 192, with seventy-one of those years encompassing the period of the Five Good Emperors, a time that can be said to truly epitomize Pax Romana. Beginning with Trajan (whom the Senate declared optimus prin-ceps – “the best emperor”), who became princeps in 98, Rome was ruled by five talented men of principle who prosecuted moderate policies, protecting and expanding the interests of the empire – the emperors Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pious, and Marcus Aurealius. It is certainly easier to ensure competent leadership when successors are chosen and legally adopted rather than relying on natural born children. The problem with limiting succession to natural-born sons is made evident once we encounter an emperor who has a natural heir – Marcus Aurealius’ son Commodus.It’s also interesting to note that the period of the Five Good Emperors actually included six emperors. Poor old Lucius Verus, who was a co-ruler with Marcus Aurealius from 161 to 169, never gets included. While the two were said to have had a fractious relationship, Lucius Verus was certainly as capable and competent as the rest, and his relationship with his co-emperor does not seem to have harmed the empire in any lasting way.The Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty fell with the assassination of Commodus, the son and heir of Marcus Aurealius. I feel compelled to write a few words here about the movie Gladiator. It’s a great movie. I love it. I own a copy of it. But, like Braveheart – which is also awesome and of which I also own a copy – it is really bad history. Marcus Aurealius loved his son and had no recorded compunctions regarding his ascension to princeps, especially considering they co-ruled together for some years before Aurealius’ death. While Commodus did fight in gladiatorial combats, he was killed in his bath rather than in the arenas. He ruled as princeps for twelve years, and while the Senate certainly did seem to hate him, he as reportedly beloved by the people.Much like Caligula and Nero, Commodus’ grip on reality declined during his reign, and his assassination is no more surprising than that of Caligula’s. Given this, Rome – as I hope you are aware – did not return to Republican principles in 192, on the death of Commodus.

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Just as the fall of Nero had led to confusion and civil war, so too did the fall of Commodus lead to a period of uncertainty known as the Year of the Five Emperors. By194, Septimius Severus was the last princeps standing, founding the Severan Dynasty. If it gives any indication of the quality of leadership in the Severan Dynasty, the dynasty led directly into the Crisis of the Third Century. Septimus Severus was a capable ruler, but his children proved less so. Caracalla assassinated his own brother, Geta, and gained a reputation for cruelty. He took to heart his father’s reported advice about taking care of the legions and not to worry about the politicians or the populace.While Caracalla participated in some lavish public works projects and extended citizenship to all freemen in the Empire, I believe we have to rate him as a bad emperor alone on his indifference to the well-being of the populace, and his willingness to execute those he viewed as opponents – including his own brother! Caracalla was assassinated in 217 by one of his Praetorian Guard – I’m sensing a theme – and replaced by the prefect of the Praetorians, Macrinus.

Roman Empire, 125 AD

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Macrinus did not last long. He alienated his eastern legions, and they backed a nephew of Caracalla – Varius Avitus Bassianus, also known as Marcus Aurelius Antonius. He is remembered in history as Elagabalus, after the solar deity of whom he was a priest. The few historical sources we have about Elagabalus relate stories of his decadence and cruelty, but we really can’t verify how accurate these tales might be. He was only fifteen or sixteen on his ascension to princeps, and providing such a young man with near limitless power, unless he is under the influence of some very moral and powerful advisors, is a recipe for disaster.And this particular recipe turned out pretty much exactly as one might expect. On the advice of his grandmother – Julia Maesa, who allegedly ran the bureaucracy of the empire – Elagabalus took his cousin Alexander Severus as his “Caesar,” his co-ruler and heir. Alexander proved more popular with the population and the legions. When Elagabalus tried to remove him, the legions and Praetorian Guard revolted. In the end, eighteen year-old Elagabalus was killed, and Alexander Severus became princeps. The guard despised Elagabalus so much, they cast his remains into the Tiber River.Alexander Severus had a relatively long reign that seems to have begun well enough. The relative stability of his reign allowed the empire to prosper; however, his military record was spotty. Historical sources suggest the willingness of some legions to turn on him was due to his bribing the Germanic tribes to obtain peace even though his legions believed they had the upper hand. The Rhine legions chose Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus – known to history as Maximinus Thrax, which is a pretty awesome name – as imperator. This naturally led to the assassination of Alexander Severus, which brought an end to the Severan Dynasty and the Principate.The death of the Principate, much like death of the Republic, should come as no surprise. Certainly for those living at the time, when such neat categorizations did not exist, these rapid changes in the fortune of Rome and its elite may have been a surprise. But for those of us looking back at history, the decline of the Principate should be as evident as the decline of the Republic. The period we’ve called the Civil Wars, which killed the Republic and birthed the Principate, featured a series of dictators and generals willing to ignore the laws and traditions of Rome in order to increase their own power. I would argue we see the same happening in the Severan Dynasty. Really, other than the Five Good Emperors, we see the continuous lowering

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of the bar set by Augustus. Claudius did not have his own Agrippa or even his own Maecenas. Vespasian was too much a military man to possess the consummate political skills that allowed Augustus to always get his way.And through all these assassinations and civil wars, and periods of prosperity and decline, the bureaucracy remained. The work of the state continued. This continued functionality, despite the uncertain political environment, may be an important reason why Diocletian was able to resurrect a single empire from the three that came out of the Crisis of the Third Century. The legions, in a large part, were a facet of this bureaucracy. Under good generals or bad, the legions remained, their legionaries and officers now as professional and pragmatic as the bureaucrats they often despised.

The Structure of Society and Government in the PrincipateBy the time of Tiberius, the second emperor, the legislative assemblies had lost all their powers. The Tribal Assembly, the Centuriate Assembly, and the Plebeian Councils all existed in the Principate, but their only function was to ratify legislation. Even this function eventually became perfunctory. All the powers that had resided in the assemblies had been passed to the Senate, increasing its stature and power, though still relegating it to secondary status behind the emperor’s staff.The Senate and the magistrate offices were still useful in feeding the empire’s growing need for bureaucrats, leaders and governors. The bureaucracy grew slowly through the Principate. By the Year of the Four Emperors the government could continue to run efficiently even without direction from above. This became apparent during periods lacking a central leader, or with a leader with little interest in actually governing, like Elagabalus.

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The question of patronage in the empire is problematic in that there is evidence from historical sources to support both the decline and the continuation of patronage. It is true that logically, one would expect patronage to fade in importance since the supporting votes of poor clients were no longer required or desired by rich patrons, as the assemblies had lost their power. The answer to the change in political power and the functionality of the patronage system in Centurion is quite clear: if you enjoy the function of the patronage system, keep it going in the Principate. Aristocrats may still appreciate the reciprocal relationship of the patronage relationship for appearances sake alone. The benefit of having large numbers of individuals beholden to oneself may also have had benefits during the less stable times of the Principate.

The Structure of the Legions in the PrincipateAs with so many things, Augustus regularized and standardized the legions. The first emperor’s penchant for organization served him well when addressing the issue of the military. One of the changes made to the legions included was an increase in a legionary’s period of recruitment. A typical term of service changed from sixteen to twenty-five years. On retiring, a legionary could receive a bonus equal to thirteen years wages, an incredible sum that allowed a retired legionary to set himself up with a farm or business. Of course, the legionary would need to survive twenty-five years in the legions.And surviving became easier with the new armour adopted by the legions early in the Principate. This was the lorica segmentata, the armour made of bands of iron or steel (steel was, of course, preferable but more expensive) that most people imagine when they picture legionaries. There’s no real certainty, but it is likely the auxilia still wore chain armour similar to that worn in the Republic – known as lorica hamata. The segmentata was lighter and stronger than chain armour, but it required constant and careful maintenance as it was very susceptible to rust. One could load chain armour into a barrel filled with sand and roll it around to clean it, but the segmentata needed individual attention for each of its 34 segments.Throughout the Principate, there were generally around thirty legions under arms, with an equal number of auxilia. The system of legates didn’t

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totally help Rome avoid military disasters, as was evident when Germanic barbarians wiped out three legions in the Teutoborg Forest in 9 CE, but it did allow for a greater professionalization of the command function. Along with standardization, Augustus created the Praetorian Guard – a military organization designed to maintain order in the capital and protect the imperial family – and the vigiles – primarily a firefighting body that also had some policing functions. There was no real overlap of vigiles and the legions – though in at least one instance, the prefect of the vigils became the prefect of the Praetorians. Although it is important to note that the Praetorians recruited separately, they still recruited in the same fashion as the legions. Praetorians were paid better and were expected to serve for sixteen years rather than twenty-five. It was a plum assignment, if one could get it.

Positions and RankThe rank structure as it was known in the Civil Wars continued into the Principate with some structural changes. With the legionaries now being paid, their wages differentiated them as much as their positions or roles might. For instance, a duplicarius was a legionary on double pay, while a ses-quiplicarius was a legionary earning one and a half standard pay. In general, legionaries didn’t like doing the physical chores to which they were usually assigned when not defending Rome or punishing her enemies. There was a specific class of legionary that likely existed since the Republic, but which became formalized during the Principate, known as the immunis. Immunes possessed specialized skills exploited by the legions. Because of these skills, the immunes were exempt from manual labour duty and some of the less desirable duties of a legionary, like guard duty. An immunis might be a blacksmith, a clerk, a butcher, a horse-trainer, or any other amongst a plethora of jobs required in the legions other than sticking sharp things people on the other side of one’s shield.If a legionary did not have the kind of skills that would permit him to become an immunis, he could always seek training. A legionary in training to become an immunis was termed a dicenis (pl. discens). As a dicenis, a legionary could be trained in a wide variety of skills the legions demanded, such as musicians, engineers, and surveyors. To gain other positions, such as signifier or aquifilier, positions that didn’t require skills generally found

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outside the legions, a miles – or regular soldier – also to spend time training as a discenis. Basically, we could translate discenis as a trainee. Until the trainee became an immunes, he continued to be paid as a miles, which meant regular wages.In his book The Roman Soldier, George Ronald Watson recounts a letter sent from one Julius Apollinaris back home to his parents that notes he gained his immunis status almost immediately upon reaching his legion in Egypt. Being literate, he brought this less than common skill to the attention of the local governor. The governor didn’t have an available position for a clerk, but referred him to the cornicularius – the master clerk – who made him a librariuslegionis. Later, this same legionary wrote that he had become a prin-cipalis, and did nothing all day.Roman records do not mention the rank or position of principalis until the reign of Hadrian, although unofficial documentation – such as the clerk’s letter in Watson’s book – mention it. Certainly it overlapped with some of the positions considered immunes, such as the librarius legionis, but some modern historians consider it a class of officers below the centuriate but protected by their privileges. In a century, the optio, tesserarius, and signifer would all have been principales.The beneficiarii (or later, officiales) were principales that worked in the legion’s bureaucracy. These were the clerks and accountants attached to the headquarters and doing work for the legate, the tribunes, and the camp prefect. Each staff officer would have his own headquarters staff, together called his officium. There were many different roles in the headquarters, but given that you probably don’t want to play a game of quill-pushers in the rear echelon, let’s just refer to them all as: librarius legionis, a legionary clerk.Part of the headquarters general staff in the imperial army was the camp prefect (praefectus castorum). This seems to have been an innovation from the time of Augustus. The camp prefect was the third in command of the legion, after the legate and the tribunus laticlavius. An individual generally reached the lofty position of camp prefect after rising through the centuriate. A successful primus pilus could gain promotion to camp prefect. He was a kind of sergeant-major, with responsibilities that included the training of the legion and discipline, and his experience was a major asset during the planning of operations. The camp prefect would have command over five of the legion’s six tribunes,

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but the second in command of the legion would be the tribunuslaticlavius. The name literally translates to the broad-striped tribune. This was the senatorial tribune, that first step up the cursus honorum that still existed in the Principate. This tribune would not have extensive military knowledge or experience, though the luck of birth made him second in command. Hopefully, he would be smart, listen to the camp prefect and other tribunes, and learn strategy and command.The other five tribunes were the tribuniangusticlavii, or thin-striped tribunes. They were generally equestrians who had already spent four or five years as a prefect in the auxiliaries, and so had some experience in command. Over time a form of cursus honorum had evolved for equestrians, beginning with the command of a 500-man auxiliary infantry unit as a prefect for four or five years. The equestrian could then become an equestrian tribune in a legion for an additional four or five years. Finally, the equestrian could become prefect of an auxiliary cavalry squadron. This was known as the tres militia.The practice of having legates command legions became the norm during the Principate, as no emperor wished to provide any proconsular governor of a province de jure command of multiple legions. Emperors learned it was best not to put temptation in their way. This did not – as the history of the Principate shows – necessarily deter everyone who wished to use legions to become emperor, but it did the trick when the emperor was strong or, at least, competent.

The Principate as a SettingMuch of what Centurion has to say about early Roman periods equally applies to the early Imperial period, known as the Principate. The institutions, society, and concepts we understand from the Republic period are present in the Principate. While they would have been recognizable to a citizen of the Republic, they had to evolve to meet the challenges posed by a larger population and the size of the empire. This period also still exhibits a strong belief in the supernatural and magic, so if you want to include ghosts and curses in your game, that will fit fine in the Principate. One could easily run a fantasy campaign on the edges of the Empire, where monsters certainly could have roamed, without changing the atmosphere and character of the time too drastically.

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This is also a time when the “Mystery Cults” were introduced into Rome. Many of the citizens and soldiers of the early Empire embraced the religions of Osiris & Isis, of Mithras, of Dionysus, and of Christ. There were Christians in the Principate, but unlike what Hollywood might tell you, the cult made little impact on Roman society until the Dominate – the resurgence of the Empire after the anarchy of the Crisis of the Third Century. For a society brimming with a variety of gods, the Mystery Cults offered something different. These were exclusive societies with special rituals kept secret from the general populace, hence the mystery. The pantheon of Roman gods, which came to include deified emperors following their deaths, remained the official religion of the Empire. Roman citizens certainly could get into trouble if they did not sacrifice to these recognized deities and protectors of the State, but many still dabbled or immersed themselves in new practices and in the mysteries of new and foreign gods.Is this not the Rome we know of from movies and television? Sword & Sandal movies are almost always set in the Principate. Heck, the movie version of the Fall of the Roman Empire was set during the Principate, even though the Roman Empire would last another 300 years. And let’s face it, the Principate makes sense. Although the Emperors had dictatorial powers, the Senate and the patricians were not yet wholly neutralized. Since political and military careers remained intertwined, Rome still had a ruling martial class. This allows for characters to come from noble families and lineages – even though most would be plebes if not slaves in the Empire. The collection of mad or indifferent emperors and governors provide easy, stock villains. Conversely, there are also good or outright great emperors, who potentially could be powerful patrons to the player characters. That, as the movie Gladiator illustrated, has its own inherent risks.Hollywood has also shown us that when it comes to the Principate, you can be totally ahistorical without taking away from the historical nature of Cen-turion. Remember what I wrote about the movie Gladiator above? And yet I still own a copy of the movie. Is not alternative-history much more common in Hollywood than actual history?Because we are talking military campaigns, the characters will most likely belong to the military. The greatest advantage to playing a campaign in the Principate is that this is the period in which the legions are the most professional. This period offers players the first chance to have characters in a professional, standing military. A military that is complete with training,

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drills, and opportunities for promotion. That seems to be pretty much what we would expect of a military. The casual careerism of adventurer-soldiers that we saw in the Late Republic has evolved through the Civil Wars into an actual career. One could join the legions and remain under arms, retiring with the hope of a parcel of land. Legions developed distinct identities that are revealed in their traditions and institutional memories. The legionaries in Legio XII Fulminata, fighting the First Jewish-Roman War, would have the corporate memory of its service under Caesar, and its two campaigns against the Parthians (the first under Marc Antony), even though none of its legionaries served at that time. The question becomes: what kind of campaign do you want to run in the period that is perhaps the most representative of Rome in the minds of the modern public? A group can use the Principate as a setting, but they do not need to restrict themselves to playing a rigidly historical game. For example, in some of my fiction I use a stand-in for the Roman Empire called the Aeolean Empire. It’s Rome with the serial numbers filed off. In such a setting, one can have a period like the reign of Augustus, or the flowering of Pax Romana under the Five Good Emperors. You can change up this setting by including a professional military that is mercenary, made up mostly of barbarians or allied peoples – more like the army of Carthage than of Imperial Rome. Perhaps in your setting, the entire military is more like the auxiliaries, recruited from allied peoples or provincial, offering citizenship as a reward for completing service.

CharactersWith a standing, professional army, characters in a legionary campaign will almost certainly be making a career out of the military. So who are these military careerists? A PC could be a patrician, maybe a senator. Such a character could be a legate, the general of a legion and sometimes also the proconsul or propraetor governing a province. Commonly, though, a governor would have control over more than a single legion, and so would have multiple legates beneath him. He would, therefore, have command over multiple generals. Throughout the Principate, the practice of bundling political and military power in a single position deteriorated. Still, as a holdover from the Republic, in the early Principate individuals could not aspire to political office without

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military experience. This link was cemented by the cursus honorum. Some positions and offices required candidates to reach a minimum age to qualify, and this restricted senate seats to those with specific experience. A younger son of a patrician family in the Principate could not be a proconsul without sitting as a consul, and could not be a consul without first starting as a senatorial tribune.An equestrian who completed the tres militia, which would likely have taken him 10 to 15 years, might gain administrative authority over one of the political prefectures. This could include the prefect of the food supply in Rome or Prefect of Egypt – a special province under the direct control of the emperor. An equestrian character could hold the rank of either centurion or prefect while still relatively young, and possibly even a tribune at the age of 25 or 30.Though as we’ve already discussed, that equestrian tribune, who could easily be in his mid-twenties and still rather green, did not have the same level of command as the senatorial tribune. In fact, the camp prefect outranked the equestrian tribunes,

and the camp prefect was promoted from the ranks, meaning he was likely a plebeian (though having been a primus pilus, he likely had become an equestrian himself). A camp prefect might have begun his service as a grunt, who worked his way through the ranks to centurion. From there he may have advanced through the various levels of centurion to primus pilus – the first spear, the senior centurion – and then to camp prefect. The plebeian grunt might command the sons of privileged patricians, even the son of a consul. It’s even possible the camp prefect joined the legions as a freedman, the lowest class in Roman society other than slaves. Can you imagine being the son of a wealthy, powerful family, and you are being bossed around by a guy whose father was a slave? It could happen.

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So, a character’s rank is dependent upon that character’s social class and experience. The lowest of the low might rise high; however, in the Principate that did not extend to the imperial throne. It was not until Maximinus Thrax and the “barracks emperors” of the Crisis of the Third Century that a plebeian could rise to become emperor through military prowess and promotion. And of course he had to have the backing of the legions themselves. While legionaries during the Principate remained citizens of Rome, if a player wishes to play a non-Roman character, there are always the auxiliaries. Since each Roman legion marched with an auxiliary legion in this period, there is no problem with some of the PCs being auxiliaries. It’s almost certain that auxiliaries were trained as well as legionaries, and presently most sources agree that they were paid almost on par as well. The auxiliaries generally still had Roman officers in this period - equestrian prefects of the cohorts as mentioned above for example.An interesting combination in a PC group might include an equestrian prefect and his auxiliary centurion operating alongside an equestrian centurion and legionary from the Roman legion. The auxiliaries might be cavalry – for example, the “Scythian” tribe of Sarmatians – while the Roman centurion and legionary could be speculatores or exploratores operating well beyond the northeastern borders, in barbarian territory. Auxiliaries could also be German cavalry, Cypriot archers, Spaniard heavy infantry or Berber scouts.If you have seen the movie King Arthur directed by Antonie Fuqua and starring Clive Owen and Ray Winstone (and Ray Stevenson, who starred as Titus Pullo in HBO’s Rome), you have seen a cinematic version of the Iranian tribe of Sarmatian nomads. This was quite a fun movie, but as with most Hollywood films, especially those who boast of telling you the real story behind a historical event or legend, it’s really weak on its history. It still imagines a Roman officer commanding auxiliary troops in a period when the legions were almost entirely barbarian. King Arthur’s knights in this movie are supposed to be Sarmatian cavalry, though they really act more like dragoons, riding into battle but dismounting for actual combat. Historical accuracy matters little if you choose to use the film’s characters as inspiration for your own cool auxiliary cavalry. Changes to history that make good movies can also make for a good role-playing campaign.

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Along with the option to play awesome auxiliary characters, the Principate is the time when the positions of speculatore and exploratore – the scouts and spies mentioned earlier – become official positions within the legion. Prior to this period, the terms were primarily ad hoc labels for those doing the job rather than recognized positions. This allows for the kind of independent group action that most games require. These scouts can do both the exploration one might expect of a military scout, but also the clandestine or covert reconnaissance more akin to the work of spies. This leads to a world of opportunities for role-playing.By the time of the Five Good Emperors, and specifically around the time of Hadrian, who reigned from 117 to 138 BCE, the Empire had what can best be described as a kind of secret service. Hadrian took a minor provincial post (frumentarius) with responsibilities for the distribution of corn and wheat (or possibly organizing legionary supplies, the sources I read didn’t actually agree on this), and expanded its responsibilities to include a special clandestine duty – to gather intelligence and deliver that to the Imperial bureaucracy. The choice of the frumentarii is an interesting one, given the rather pedestrian nature of their initial responsibilities. Yet, these officials did travel widely and encounter all levels of Roman society, especially the military. The emperors had a well-founded fear of conspiracies, and had already used many confidential informants. There were ad hoc arrangements for intelligence collection and secret prosecutions, but Hadrian’s adoption of the frumentarii was Rome’s first official and organized effort. Rome already had a credible defence against external threats, and now it had gained a defence against internal threats – perceived and otherwise. As with many internal security services, the frumentarii made themselves less than popular; however, it remained an active institution in the service of the emperors into the Crisis of the Third Century.

AdventuresThe most common activity of a legionary in the Principate was to fight barbarians on the frontiers of the Empire. There were almost constant military campaigns against the Germans and the Goths along the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Even during the otherwise peaceful reign of Antoninus Pius, the legions saw regular action. Their skills did not atrophy in this high water mark of Pax Romana because that peace did not extend to the barbarians.

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The early Principate was a turbulent time, and the first five emperors, from Augustus to Nero, waged almost constant warfare against the Germans across the Rhine River. Nero’s suicide in 69 BCE, and the Year of the Four Emperors it precipitated – which ended with Vespasian as emperor – gave the barbarians renewed confidence to go on the offensive, This change left Vespasian’s Flavian Dynasty with a legacy of disrupted frontiers.This endemic warfare continued into the second century. The opening of the movie Gladiator depicts a Marcus Aurealius in his final days, still fighting the Germans. It’s important to remember that Rome never solved the barbarian problem – honestly, recruiting them into the legions and turning the legions into just another tribal war band was no solution – and this was one of the myriad reasons for the fall of the Western Empire in the fifth century.And, let’s face it, when you are fighting a force of barbarians, who do not generally have the military discipline, organization, or roads of the legions, finding and understanding your enemy is an important part of warfare. This means the scouts and spies were valuable assets in a Roman military campaign.Given that the barbarians literally threatened every Roman frontier (if one is to count the Parthians as barbarians, which the Romans reportedly did), the game master has a wide variety of geographic and climactic zones from which to choose when designing adventures.Should the characters be part of the unofficial intelligence community in the early empire or the frumentarii of the later Principate, they will likely be involved in seeking out and uncovering conspiracies against the emperors. The emperor was likely the most powerful person in Europe and the Mediterranean world, and unsurprisingly ambitious nobles desired that position for themselves. They naturally believed they were imminently qualified for the job, all evidence to the contrary notwithstanding.Many of those emperors – especially less than stellar leaders like Caligula and Nero – believed there were conspiracies where none existed. An emperor’s paranoia could create difficulties for the characters when they are ordered to find and arrest conspirators that may not exist, or to disrupt illusory plots.Oddly enough, while Caligula and Nero should have been the target of conspiracies given the credible reports of lunacy, it was Claudius, a competent and capable man, who had to face multiple conspiratorial threats against his rule. It might be fun to play characters that are members of a

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cabal dedicated to Claudius’ protection. Such an adventure would combine both loyalty to the emperor and a dedication to the well-being of the empire. And perhaps the well-being of the empire necessitates the characters participate in the very conspiracies they are tasked with uncovering. Rome may have seemed very forgiving of tyrants during the empire, but history informs us that the populations would respond when pushed too far, they could echo Brutus: “Sic semper evello mortem Tyrannis.” (Thus I will always rip away a tyrants’ life)There is no possible way that near the end of their reigns, the continued health of either Caligula or Nero could be considered beneficial to Rome. The characters wouldn’t be alone in working to protect Rome from its rulers. Consider Caligula, whose madness and poor governance led the Praetorian Guard to remove him . . .violently. Claudius became emperor because he was the first male member of the imperial family found by the Praetorian Guard, and because he was the last of the Julio-Claudian imperial line. They may have thought he would be easy to control. He proved otherwise.An interesting adventure might entail the characters becoming trusted confidants of Claudius during the reign of Caligula. They might be asked to infiltrate the Praetorian Guard both to protect their patron and eliminate the biggest threat to his life – Caligula of course.Removing a tyrant may not always result in the intended outcome. Consider the chaos of the Year of the Four Emperors. It was the removal of the protection of the Praetorian Guard that allowed the Senate to move against Nero, who committed suicide rather than face “justice.” But the man who had persuaded the Praetorians to betray their emperor – the man who would become the second emperor of that year, Galba – proved no better than Nero. He was worse in some ways, as he tried to shore up his authority by removing as many possible challengers as he could.The Year of the Four Emperors also illustrated the consequences of the growing influence of the legions that had arisen since the Civil Wars. Legions acclaimed their legates as the ruler of Rome, while other legates coaxed their legions into joining them in a march on Rome. Just as the Praetorian Guard, the legions continued to act as kingmakers. There was never again a time when the legions couldn’t choose an emperor, there were just times when they didn’t.

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Should the characters march in the legions, they may find themselves part of a legate’s quest for the imperial laurels, or perhaps attempting to avert a legate’s quest. Just remember, you might get rid of Claudius only to find yourself with a Nero.

Aspects of the PrincipateBy the time of the early Empire, the state’s expectation – which, let’s be clear, means the emperor/imperator’s expectations – for their legionaries had evolved yet again. Every legionary, from the recruit milites to the commanding legate, swore fealty to the emperor (and sometimes the emperor’s family as well). Loyalty was a commodity prized not only by the emperor, but also by the legates. Unlike the Civil Wars period, power in Rome was not constantly up for grabs. But like the Civil Wars, sometimes the centre lost its grip on power. Perhaps the emperor is mad, or perhaps he dies without an heir. Once central power became a prize to be won through military might, the legates used their legions to decide the contest.Duty has become focused only on the legions. The laws and expectations of the state are for civilians and not the legions. The divide between the people of the state and their protectors has grown. While still citizens, legionaries now set themselves apart. They are not like those who do not march under the eagle. For the most part, legionaries consider themselves better than the average citizen. Legionaries protect the state – personified in the emperor. Without the legions, where would Rome be? The laws of the state are for citizens. The laws of the legion are for legionaries.Valour remains as a constant Aspect. What good a legionary who fears trading his life for the glory of the legion and his emperor?For a legionary in the Principate, the Aspects and their definitions are:

Duty: This can be considered the implicit and explicit expectations of the legions. This represents the character’s will to meet these expectations, follow orders, preserve the legions, and protect his comrades. It also includes the necessary strength and perseverance to achieve the requirements of duty.

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Loyalty: This can be considered the explicit expectation of loyalty to the emperor and/or the legate of the legion. This personal loyalty can often be at odds with oaths or orders, and may set legionaries against their comrades. This represents the character’s will to protect, preserve and promote his commander – though this may be the legate or the emperor, depending on the period and the circumstances.

Valour: This is the character’s bravery in the face of danger. This represents the character’s willingness to engage in dangerous activities—both physically and otherwise—and to accept the consequences.

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PRINCIPATE NPCsTitus Pullo PertinaxHonourable Seasoned Gallic Auxilliary Prefect 1Phy 3, Men 1, Soc 2Military Training 3, Tactics 2, Horsemanship 1, Streetwise 1Pivots: I will rise as far as a non-Roman can rise in this Empire . The character gains an Honour die when his actions lead his commander or superior to notice him in a positive light.I will face all enemies of Rome without fear . The character gains a Valour die he is left close to death by protecting the interests of RomeNotes: Titus is an honourable man who was born to lead and shows no fear when facing the enemies of Rome. He has a weakness for wine and women when not on duty, and this will likely lead to his downfall.

Gaius Tullius MarcellusConcept: Veteran Primus Pilus 2Phy 2, Men 3, Soc 1Military Training 3, Camp Life 2, Command 1Pivots: Makesurethenewmeatknowwhichwaytoholdtheirgladius.The character gains a Duty die when those he leads succeed due to his training.Willfightdirtyifrequiredinordertosurviveafight. The character gains a Valour when he uses dishonourable tactics to snatch a victory out of the jaws of defeat. Willalwayshonouracourageous/skillfulenemy. The character gains an Honour die when she shows mercy to an enemy who almost gained victory.Notes: Respected, somewhat feared but not really loved by his men, Gaius can be counted on to make sure his troops are well trained so they can survive the next fight. “Failure means death and I don’t plan on failing!”

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crisis of the Third Century

There were twenty-seven emperors (give or take) of the Roman Empire in the third century of the Common Era. Seventeen of these emperors were killed by their own people, sixteen of those were murdered by their own troops. Two of the twenty-seven were forced to commit suicide. Between 218 and 268 CE, there were about fifty usurpers, meaning fifty men with their own military force trying to become emperor.That should tell you much about the Crisis period. While the Severan Dynasty did a good job of ushering in the Crisis of the Third Century, we’ll begin the period with Maximinus Thrax, the emperor with the name of an RPG character or perhaps a dragon. He was thrust into the role of imperator through the acclaim of his troops – who had just murdered the previous emperor and his mother. Maximinus rose to imperial power through a military career, and was the first of the “Barracks Emperors,” men who used their military commands to become emperor. Along with the political anarchy and near constant civil war, Rome faced multiple barbarian invasions during this period. This isn’t likely due to an increased number of barbarians, or even braver barbarians, but probably because the barbarians saw Rome was in a shambles, and decided to take advantage of the chaos. Barbarian invasions had been a constant problem for the empire, and the current crop of problem began in the Severan Dynasty. This was not so much an increase in the number or frequency of invasions, as it was a decrease in Rome’s capabilities to oppose them.When Maximinus became emperor, he was already facing invasion by German tribes. He spent his years as emperor (235 - 238) fighting barbarians along the Rhine and Danube frontiers. While he was focused on external threats, the Senate, who hated the idea of a peasant emperor (and a barbarian himself in the opinion of many of the patricians, no matter that Alexander Severus had extended citizenship to all freeborn residents of the empire), was busy conspiring against him with Gordian, a governor in Africa. Learning that Gordian and his co-emperor and son, Gordian II, had claimed the purple with the connivance of the Senate, Maximinus packed up his barbarian-fighting legionaries to do some Roman-fighting.

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Gordian and his son didn’t succeed in advancing out of Africa as one of Maximinus’ allies defeated the two in battle. Did I mention that 238 was the Year of the Six Emperors? With that in mind, you can imagine the threats to Maximinus didn’t end with the two Gordians. Rightly fearing Maximinus’ reaction to their support of the Gordians, the Senate elected Pupienus and Balbinus as co-emperors – I’m not making these names up – and they named the grandson of Gordian I – conveniently named Gordian – as their “Caesar,” or heir. Pupienus set out with an army to face Maxinimus, who was besieging Aquileia on his way to Rome. Maximinus’ army, however, was beginning to rethink their loyalty. As the siege wore on, the legionaries had time to consider the Senate’s opposition to their commander and emperor. By the time Pupienus reached Aquileia, Maximinus’ troops had killed him. Case closed. As thanks for their service to Rome and willingness to confront Maximinus, the Praetorian Guard killed both Balbinus and Pupienus during one of their reportedly frequent arguments. The two had ruled as co-emperors for about three months. For those counting, the six emperors were Maximinus

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Thrax, Gordian I, Gordian II, Balbinus and Pupienus, with Gordian III as the last emperor standing. Gordian III ruled from 238 to 244, and was thirteen when he became sole ruler of the empire, the youngest sole emperor in the empire’s history. Getting such an early start to his rule meant that he potentially could have had an acceptably long reign for an emperor during the third century. He unfortunately faced the average life expectancy of an emperor during the Crisis, and died at an adequately tragic age.For a while, due to the emperor’s relative youth, the Senate actually ruled the empire. But in 241, Gordian III married, and his father-in-law, the Praetorian Prefect – how convenient! – became the power behind the figurative throne. Gordian III campaigned with his father-in-law in the east, achieving victory against the Sassanid Empire in 243. Unfortunately, his father-in-law fell sick and died. Marcus Julius Philippus, from near present-day Damascus in the Roman province of Arabia, became the new Praetorian Prefect, and when Gordian III died mysteriously in 244 (Persian sources indicate he died in battle, so perhaps not so mysteriously), Philippus became the emperor known today as Philip the Arab.The Sassanid Empire, against whom Gordian III had campaigned, became Rome’s principal foe on its eastern borders. That honour previously belonged to Parthia, but the Sassanid Persians under Ardashir conquered the Parthians, creating the Sassanid Empire in 226. This new empire claimed but did not control all of the territories of the Persian Empire that existed before Alexander the Great, which included many Roman provinces. The Sassanid claim to Roman territory lead to little more than small skirmishes along the border until Shapur came to the throne in 234, and he set about fighting Rome in earnest. It was against Shapur’s forces that Gordian III had marched, and against whom the Romans had some initial success. Philip, however, needed to get to Rome so the Senate could ratify his ascension. He cut a deal with Shapur that many in Rome felt was too lenient, but Philip didn’t have time for drawn out negotiations – or further campaigning. Philip secured his position, put trusted people in positions of authority, and went to war against the barbarians. The barbarians on the Danube frontier had been earlier placated through the payment of tribute. This all changed when Philip ended those payments in 245. Initially, the only consequence to Philip’s change in policy was a few barbarian invasions, but these were more raids than actual invasions.

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Philip believed he had addressed the barbarian threat, went on to fight the Sassanids again in a minor campaign, before returning to Rome in 248 to celebrate Rome’s millennium (based on the belief that Romulus founded the city in 753 BCE).Rome’s millennium was not auspicious. The barbarian incursions of 245 had been the dress rehearsal. The main event came in 248, when the Germans and the Goths arrived on the Danube frontier. This coincided with multiple legion mutinies, including the Danube legions. Facing four usurpers, Philip sent a loyal supporter, Decius, to confront the barbarian threat on the Danube. Decius did so with great success, which – of course – led his troops to acclaim him emperor in 249.Decius marched on Rome and handily defeated Philip. At the time, Philip not only faced this new usurper, but also bankruptcy of the empire and an Egyptian revolt that cut off the grain supply to Rome. Philip and his eleven year-old son were both killed, though probably not on Decius’ orders. Decius then had to immediately deal with a revived Goth threat. He fell in battle against the Goths in 251 soon after his twenty-four year-old son was killed in the same battle. This gave him the distinction of becoming the first emperor to die in battle against a foreign enemy – plenty of emperors had died fighting Romans. With the Goths still in Roman territory, the legions chose Trebonianus Gallus (251 – 253) as emperor. Like Philip before him, Trebonianus knew he needed to secure control of Rome, so he agreed to a rather poor treaty with the Goths – they got to keep their booty and captives – and rushed to Rome to have the Senate accept him as emperor and his son, Volusianus, as Caesar. Yet, Decius’ younger son, Hostilian – given that he was the official heir – had been declared emperor by the Senate on his father’s death. Trebonianus accepted Hostilian as co-emperor, and then Hostilian just disappears from the historical record. Who knows what really transpired, but my money is on murder, although there was an outbreak of plague that might explain it.Trebonianus, as was to be the pattern, faced several mutinies, Gothic raids, and a Persian invasion in 253. Much of the province of Syria was ravaged by the Sassanids after they defeated the army defending the eastern border. Usurpers successfully turned back both the Persians and the Goths, and so Trebonianus had to face two rivals who had succeeded where he – as emperor – had failed. Aemilianus, the usurper on the Danube, marched on Italy and engaged Trebonianus before the emperor’s reinforcements from

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the Rhine legions arrived. While the outcome of the encounter is clear – Trebonianus and his son Volusianus dead and Aemilianus emperor – how it was achieved isn’t. Not that it matters. It likely involved murder, probably by Trebonianus’ own troops.So now its 253 and Aemilianus is emperor. He got the Senate onside, and perhaps thought all was well. For him, it was not. Valerian, the commander of the Rhine legions who had come to defend the previous emperor, confronted Aemilianus and suddenly Valerian is emperor and Aemilianus is dead.Valerian (253 – 259) made his son Gallienus his co-emperor. Rome faced the Sassanid Empire in the east, which had captured Antioch and Armenia – a Roman vassal state. In the west, the barbarians were beginning to coalesce into confederacies and threaten the Rhine frontier. Valerian spent his time as emperor campaigning in the east. He recaptured Antioch and had fortified Syria by 257, but in 258 the Goths crossed the Danube. Before Valerian could move to intercept, disease weakened his army and the Sassanid army pounced. Decisively defeated, Valerian met Shapur for peace negotiations, only to be seized by the Sassanids and taken prisoner. Dying in battle against barbarians is one thing, but to be taken prisoner is quite another. This was a disgrace for Rome. But how to answer it?Gallienus, you see, had his hands full. He spent his time on the Rhine frontier, and proved successful against the Germans. At some point he campaigned against the barbarians along the Danube frontier. At this time, Gallienus seems to have adapted the legion structure to create a mounted field army known as a comitatus. Gallienus positioned forces along the frontiers to face smaller invasions and to warn of larger ones. The comitatus – a mounted, mobile army made up of detached units from different legions and auxiliaries, known as vexillations – could quickly react to these larger invasions. Legions rarely marched or fought together any longer, and the legion generally became an administrative unit, with its units detached as vexillations to fight in the comitatus or along the frontiers.Around 258, as his father and co-emperor faced the Sassanids, a usurper rose along the Danube frontier, and Gallienus took his field army to face him. In the process he left the Rhine frontier in the hands of a commander named Postumus. The usurper was defeated, but the Franks and Alamani chose this moment – likely because the field army was otherwise occupied – to make a massive thrust across the Rhine. The Frankish confederacy reached

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Spain and even raided into Africa before Gallienus returned to defeat them. The Alamani progressed as far as Rome before being turned back by hastily gathered local forces strengthened by the Praetorian Guard. On their return, they met Gallienus and his forces, and were handed such a resounding defeat they did not invade the empire again for a decade. In 259 or 260, Gallienus had to face three usurpers while simultaneously dealing with the capture of his father, Valerian, by the Sassanids. Lacking a guiding imperial hand, the Roman forces in the east joined two of the usurpers who marched on Rome. Aureolus, one of Gallienus’ trusted commanders, defeated them. The usurpers fled east, only to be captured and killed by Odenathus, the ruler of the semi-independent city of Palmyra. In a show of gratitude, Gallienus made Odenathus a kind of viceroy for the east. Palmyra, already a powerful and rich city, increased its influence.Meanwhile, Gallienus’ commander, Postumus, continued to hold the line in Gaul. After the defeat of a large barbarian raiding party, Postumus reportedly allowed his men to divide up the booty. Imperial officers tried to confiscate the wealth, and the Rhine legions, who may have felt neglected since much of their manpower had been bled away to protect the Danube or man the field army, proclaimed Postumus emperor. Rather than choosing to march on Rome, Postumus decided to limit his rule to what his legions already occupied – Gaul, Spain, and Britain. His decision created what we now call the Gallic Empire, which effectively destroyed the integrity of the Roman Empire. Gallienus attacked the Gallic Empire in 261, 263 and 265, but he won no conclusive victories. There is some evidence that Aureolus, Gallienus’ trusted commander, undermined his efforts. The empire faced another revolt in Egypt in 262, which another of Gallienus’ generals successfully put down.Since the Sassanid invasion of 259, Odenathus had lived as an independent ruler. Gallienus relied upon Odenathus to guard the eastern border and he, therefore, could not undermine Gallienus’ power. In 267, Odenathus was preparing to face the Goths when his nephew assassinated both him and his eldest son. His widow, Zenobia, set herself up as empress, declaring herself Agusta and annexing parts of Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Asia Minor. And so we now have the Palmyrean Empire in the east and the Gallic Empire in the west. Rome was a shambles.To add insult to injury, the year 268 brought both a massive barbarian

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invasion and a revolt by Aureolus. Gallienus and his field army entered the Balkans, facing multiple barbarian forces on land and sea. Finally, Gallienus caught the Goths on their return home after pillaging the Roman provinces, and the field army delivered Gallienus a huge victory in which 50,000 Goths were said to have been killed.That victory, though, didn’t save Gallienus. This is, after all, the Crisis of the Third Century. A period that was not kind to emperors.On his return to Italy to confront the treacherous Aureolus, Gallienus was murdered during the siege. But Aureolus was defeated, and Claudius – who may have been part of the conspiracy that led to Gallienus’ death – became the new emperor of Rome. Postumus’ decision not to go to the aid of Aureolus, who had offered him his loyalty, cost him dearly. He faced a usurper and then was murdered by his own troops. Marcus Aurelius Marius, and soon after, Victorinus, became emperors of the Gallic Empire. During this period of leadership transition and instability, the Gallic Empire lost the provinces of Hispania and Britannia. Claudius did not march directly on the Gallic Empire, though he gained back Hispania and then Britannia. He proved a formidable military commander against the barbarians, becoming known as Claudius Gothicus. Rather than conspiracies, usurpers, or barbarians, it was disease that killed Claudius in 270.Seriously, why did so many people want the job of emperor? Prospects did not seem good.Quintillus was then emperor for a few days or possibly a few months – depending on the historical source – but he died (somehow) and we then find Aurelian as emperor. It was under Aurealian that both the Gallic and Palmyrean Empires were conquered and re-integrated into Rome, gaining the emperor the title Restitutor Orbis (Restorer of the World). He only reigned from 270 to 275, but his impact was immense. Along with the rogue empires, Aurelian defeated a variety of barbarian invaders. He returned Rome to ascendancy, and he completed the revival of the Roman military begun by Gallienus.Some refer to the reign of Aurelian as the end of the Crisis of the Third Century, but I’m going to say that honour goes to Diocletian. The pattern of short-lived emperors continued after Aurelian. And Aurelian himself was the

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victim of a conspiracy and assassinated. Granted, it was rather pedestrian as third century conspiracies go. A minor flunky, fearing punishment for an insignificant infraction, forged execution certificates that lead bureaucrats and Praetorian Guards to murder Aurelian as he marched to war against the Sassanids.There’s some historical evidence that Aurelian’s wife ruled for a period after his death, and like her our next couple of emperors had little opportunity to make their mark – Tacitus (275 – 276) dying of fever and Florianus (276) killed by his troops.Probus, who became the emperor and ruled from 276 to 282, defeated numerous barbarians and usurpers before his own troops killed him during a campaign against the rebellious Praetorian Prefect Carus. Carus then became emperor, until he died of uncertain causes in 283. Historians are pretty sure he wasn’t assassinated by his own troops, which counts as a win during the third century.Carinus was Carus’s son and co-emperor, so we basically have a smooth transition following Carus’s death, though by 284 he was fighting against Diocletian. Given what I wrote earlier about the crisis ending with Diocletian, I’m sure you can see where this is going. Carinus was either assassinated or killed in battle. It is possible he may have even died of old age after fleeing the field of battle in 285 and lived out the remainder of his life who knows where, happy to no longer wear the cursed purple). Diocletian became emperor, ruling until he retired in 305. He lived until 311. He completed Rome’s recovery, though not even he could prevent future civil wars, barbarian invasions, or the final collapse of the Western Empire.But at least he put an end to the Crisis of the Third Century. Along with all those barbarian invasions and civil wars, the economy of the empire was devastated. In order to pay for more troops while simultaneously receiving less revenue – due to problems with tax collection coupled with a decline in trade as barbarians laid waste to large portions of the empire – most emperors choose to devalue the coinage. This created hyperinflation. Soon, the once robust Roman economy collapsed, and short-distance barter trade became the norm, another hit to Rome’s revenue as tariffs couldn’t be collected.

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The Structure of Society and Government in the Third CenturyThe Senate had its own problems during the Crisis of the Third Century. What little power it still wielded in the third century – and it actually had very little – it lost. That is not to say that the patricians as a class lost their wealth and influence, but the Senate as a legislative body and court disappeared. Its power declined until all that remained was a historical and traditional importance not reflected in the contemporary government. Equestrians began to seize more and more of the responsibilities the patricians had once monopolized in the military. By the time of Valerian and Gallienus, patrician legates had all but disappeared as legionary commanders, replaced by equestrian prefects. The emperors denied an increasing number of provinces to senatorial governors. If a province had a military unit garrisoned within it, even a small contingent or vexillation, it was considered a military province. Equestrian prefects or even vicarii (proxies, likely similar to viceroys) would govern these provinces, most of them along the Rhine, Danube, or eastern borders. In some cases, multiple provinces were joined together to ensure a unified command, as when Philip gave command of the eastern border to his brother, Priscus.Along with military positions, the equestrians became an indispensable bureaucratic class in running the empire. Educated, but not wealthy or influential enough to be a leisure class like the patricians, the equestrians began their domination of the imperial bureaucracy back in the Late Republic, when they monopolized the tax farming contracts. By the third century, the imperial government had become a robust bureaucracy, manned by literate slaves and freedmen and administered by the equestrians. It was this bureaucracy that allowed the government to continue to function even while the emperors changed every few years, and sometimes every few months.This period saw the creation of the coloni, who were technically free men but were tied to large estates called latifundia. These estates had once been worked by slaves, but Rome’s military reversals ended the regular supply of slaves. In need of a continual supply of cheap labour, landowners exploited the poor, providing them farmland for rent in kind – meaning agricultural goods – but their tenancy agreements removed the farmers’ rights of

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movement. By the time of Diocletian, this had become law, and we see the origin of the medieval serf.Up to this period, the emperors – in general – could interact with the patrician senators as social equals. They shared the same education, the same cultural references, and could converse easily in social settings. The barracks emperors of the third century generally could not do this. Like Maximinus Thrax, some were not only plebeian, but were considered simple barbarians in the eyes of the patrician senators. As a consequence, a divide grew between the emperor and the body that was to comprise his most effect advisors. The way was paved for the increasingly arcane court functions of the Dominate, which would follow the Crisis of the Third Century.Along with the divide between the senate and the emperor, the emphasis on the imperial cult grew. Even usurpers tended to deify the man they had just conquered and probably murdered. This is not yet the divine right of monarchs, but it certainly began to link the emperors to the divine.That imperial cult existed alongside many other cults, sects, and religions, as had always been Rome’s way. Rome adopted just about every deity it encountered, and by the third century it also hosted a few mystery cults – so named because their rituals were a mystery to anyone outside of their own congregation. The cult of Isis, an import from Egypt, and that of Mithras proved very popular. The cult of Mithras gained a great deal of traction in the empire, especially among the legions. This Indo-Persian deity had strong solar affiliations, and was sometimes linked to Sol Invictus – the Unconquered Sun. Mithras’ iconography includes things like bull-slaying and his birth from a rock. While the cult is certainly fascinating, a quick read through the high-points of its Wikipedia page should give you all the info you need to play a legionary adherent to Mithras.The mystery cults, even if they focused on a single deity, existed in a polytheistic world. Judaism, however, did not. Judaism was the oldest and most respectable monotheistic religion in the empire during the third century. Other than occasionally acting on the perceived threat of militant Zionists, the Roman authorities did not for the most part interfere with the Jewish community. The Jews were not seen as a threat and were even allowed to participate, first as provincials and later as citizens, in the

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political and economic life of the empire. Yet, they still had to be careful how they participated in its religious life.A new mystery cult that most contemporary Romans considered a sect of Judaism could not, however, participate in any way in Rome’s religious life. The Christian effort to segregate themselves from Rome’s religious community marked them as disruptive for imperial authorities. Like all mystery religions, it was closed to outsiders, and its success at proselytization worried the pagan authorities. The third century brought with it a heightened sense of insecurity, and this may be one reason why authorities, including some emperors such as Decius and Valerian, persecuted the growing Christian community.

The Structure of the Legions in the Third CenturyThe third century was where the Roman legion went to die. The structured, heavy infantry force with its auxiliaries of archers, cavalry, and other specialist troops did not fit the needs of the third century. Just as the phalanx became the maniple and the maniple became the cohort, the legions became the comitatus and the limitanei.Rather than blocks of heavy infantry divided into self-supporting units of about 5,000 to 6,000 – a legion – the Roman army became a collection of border guards – the limitanei – and a mobile, field army – the comitatus. While the legion remained as an administrative construct, it no longer marched together, it no longer housed together, and it no longer fought together. The legion also lost it ascendancy over the auxiliaries. With the spread of Roman citizenship, those auxiliary troops were now mostly citizens, just as were the legionaries. It took a recruit about two years of hard training to become a competent legionary. During the civil wars, no commander had the patience to wait for a legionary to compete his training. They needed to replace lost legionaries fast, because they were always about to face another enemy, be that a barbarian or another Roman army. The legions had lost the professionalism that marked them as distinct from most of their contemporary challengers. The legions could still provide a career for a Roman citizen, and in that sense the profession of arms remained, but discipline and training suffered. Of course, if an individual survived long enough, he would become a very

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capable legionary. Rather than long bouts of training, he had short periods of training interspersed with lots of the real thing – fighting. In the third century, it seems that both the border guards and the field army were formed of vexillations – or detached units – from the legions. Some border forts would have only a century, possibly less, while others would boast multiple cohorts. There is little solid evidence from this period, but later in the Dominate the border guards spent much of their time farming, trading, and otherwise doing what was necessary to survive on the fringes of the empire. This may have begun in the third century, with border forts left to fend for themselves, while most of the wealth and equipment went to the far more prestigious field army.While every legionary in the field army was almost certainly mounted, the sources are not clear on how they fought. Romans were never very good cavalry, so it wouldn’t be outside the realm of possibility that much of the field army rode to battle but fought on foot. The field army would also undoubtedly include true cavalry – Gauls, Sarmatians, Scythians, and Germans, many of them mercenary. At least some of the cavalry would likely be cataphracti, heavily armoured cavalry similar to the Medieval knight copied from the Persian and Parthian heavy cavalry. While cataphracti were certainly popular with some commanders, the army Aurelian used to defeat Palmyrean forces at the Battle of Immae in 272 was composed almost exclusively of light cavalry. The Praetorian Guard in this period had expanded beyond their original remit of guarding the emperor. They continued their protection duties – except when they were assassinating him for expediency or a nice paycheque – but also provided a military force in the capital and an elite fighting force for the field army. When marching with the field army, they might still be focussed on protecting the emperor – who generally marched with the army – but they were also deployed and used as heavy infantry and cavalry. They continued to be paid better than regular legionaries, and had shorter terms of serviceA legionary’s equipment through the third century also changed. While specimens of lorica segmentata from this period exist, they are rare. Most border guards would be equipped with the mail armour of the lorica hamata, as would most legionaries in the field army, with the exception being the cataphracti and the Praetorian Guard. The cataphracti allegedly wore mail

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or scale armour from neck to toe, with an iron breastplate protecting their torso. Their conical helmets were said to cover their faces, so again we have the Roman version of the Medieval knight. Armed with lances and long swords called spathae (sing. spatha), the cataphracti were shock troops. The Praetorian Guard may have also worn scale armour known as lorica squamata. The lorica squamata and lorica hamata of the third century differed from earlier Republican styles of the same in that they had sleeves, generally full sleeves reaching to the wearer’s wrists. The rectangular and curved scu-tum began to be replaced by the oval shield, and the common sword of the legionary lengthened, although the term gladius continued to be used. These longer swords were different than the cavalry spatha in that they continued to be designed as thrusting swords while the spatha was a cutting sword.

Positions and RankIt is in the third century that the prefect becomes the leader of a legion, while the legate – where it still existed – became solely a political position. It is in the third century that the term duxbellorum came to be used for a commander leading multiple legions. This is where the English title of duke originates, but unlike a duke, the dux bellorum had a purely military role.The authority of the patrician tribune disappeared from the legions as part of the continued monopolization of military offices by the equestrians, with the connivance and insistence of most of the emperors through this period.There is some evidence that the primus pilus changed dramatically by the end of the third century. According to some sources, primus pilus became a hereditary title, and was removed from the chain of command in the field army. First Spears may have continued as hereditary rulers of border forts, but they were apparently removed from the “fighting” legions.

The Third Century as a SettingThe Crisis of the Third Century is a time of chaos, war, and confusion. What could be better for a RPG setting?This period of flux and uncertainty resembles the settings that I most remember from my early days of role-playing. There are fortified cities from which adventurers can set out to face the monsters of the period, and those monsters might be mythical or human depending on your intent and wishes.

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If you are seeking a Roman setting in which to place “the Caves of Chaos” from that classic D&D module set on the Borderlands, the third century is the perfect period in which to play it.The idea of points of light within an otherwise dark world completely fits the border regions along the Rhine, Danube, and the east in this period. Barbarians were as much monsters to the Romans as orcs and goblins would be in a fantasy setting. And as I’ve written before, this is a time of suspicion, so who is to say that you cannot include monsters or mystical threats in your Rome campaign.The border areas were almost entirely depopulated by the time Aurelian was able to knit the empire back together. Certainly, there would be scattered settlements, some of which would be peopled by the Goths and the Germans. While some of the major invasions of the period were massive raiding expeditions, population pressures were also driving the Germans against the Romans. This isn’t yet the age of migrations, but the barbarians didn’t just yearn to destroy Rome. They wanted to live in the empire. Of course, they wanted to live in the empire as it had existed before their raiding and attacks broke it and almost destroyed it.In the border areas, almost anything could happen. Yes, there will be isolated forts with garrisons of border guards, and while these limitanei are not quite the figures of derision for those in the field army that they will become in the Dominate, they are definitely the b-team. A handful of crack legionaries from the field army, despatched to stiffen resistance to an expected barbarian invasion, might be welcomed and possibly revered. Then again, perhaps these interlopers will meet with cynical intransigence from those border guards who know very well who daddy loves best.A scouting group might include a haggard prefect who rose through the auxiliaries and now commands the scouts of the field army. He is assigned to lead a group composed of both hardened legionaries, foreign auxiliaries, and possibly even barbarians loyal to the prefect beyond the border of the empire and into the barbarian lands to investigate yet another impending attack. When is it coming and where is it going to hit? That scouting group, upon learning that the attack is coming too soon for the field army to respond, sends a desperate message to the emperor. They then set about delaying the barbarians with whatever resources are at hand, possibly even enlisting another barbarian tribe whom these marauding

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Goths have displaced. Luckily that haggard prefect brought along his freedman translator, who happens to have a golden tongue and proves that sometimes words can be more powerful than weapons.It should be remembered that the problems of the third century are not entirely the result of the barbarian threat. There are plenty of Romans – maybe once they were provincials, but are all citizens now – willing to do whatever needs to be done to get ahead and perhaps make some coin in the process, debased though it may be. In the border regions, there will be those who take advantage of the chaos for their own purposes. Imagine a version of Heart of Darkness or, perhaps more appropriately ApocalypseNow, in which the toughest bastards the emperor can field are sent into the border regions to locate the prefect who disappeared along with his command. Once discovered it becomes apparent that he has now gone native, frightening both the locals and the barbarians nearby into worshiping him and his cavalry as gods.Civilization is no deterrent against the ambitions of such men. In fact, safety within the walls of Rome – or Milan, Palmyra, or Trier – makes profiteering and treachery all the easier as an ambitious individual only needs fear the daggers of ones rivals rather than the swords of the raging barbarians just over yonder. Being the third century, there is no safety anywhere from conspiracies and plots. No matter how heroic and storied the career of the PCs, if they get between a rich patrician and a chance to make some money, you can imagine that not even the emperor’s protection could save them.Especially given the likelihood that the emperor will be dead long before he can learn how his favourites were ill-treated.Guile and iron are the only true protection in the third century. If the PCs are not seeking their own enrichment, they could be in the retinue of a commander or noble intent upon grabbing the purple. Rather than taking on the mantle of emperor, perhaps he intends to set a pawn up as emperor and allow that pawn to be the target of conspiracies while he accumulates power and wealth without the threat to life and limb. The PCs might be the power-behind-the-throne’s dirty tricks squad, taking care of rivals and threats to their patron. Or perhaps the PCs are allies or family of the chosen pawn, and need to not only protect him from the threats of those who wish for imperial power, but also from the patron who has so selflessly crowned the poor naïf.The closer intertwining of political and military power in this period means that playing a game of legionaries almost invariably leads to a game of politics. Was it not the legions that put their favoured commanders forward?

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Was it not the legions that allowed men to flagrantly disregard the traditions and laws of Rome while in the legions’ favour, and then buried those same men when they ignored or did not extravagantly supplicate the military?Enrich the legions and scorn all other men, this was the lesson Septimus Severus imparted to his heir.

CharactersAmbitious commanders, barbarian mercenaries, altruistic protectors of a community, trouble-shooting knights, all make for a crazy plethora of possibilities in the third century. The legions offered a home to any citizen – and that now included everyone within the confines of the empire – willing to risk his life for steady pay. You can imagine that a number of people found this a very acceptable bargain.The contrast between the border guards, the field army, and the Praetorian Guards is evident in this period. The type of service or post the characters choose will actually define much about them, including how the rest of the army sees them and how they interact with the world.Border guards garrison a fort. This is not the same as garrisoning Hadrian’s Wall, though that is a possible post for border guard characters. Some forts will be as large as those found along the wall, while some will be much smaller, perhaps simply a tower similar to the motte and bailey that will become prominent in the post-Roman era in Europe. The guards will know the local populace as well as the local threats. Should they be assigned to watch a section of the Rhine or Danube that is generally impassable, they will likely be a small squad of under-achievers. If they are manning one of the original legionary forts that existed since the Principate, they will likely be similar to the high quality legionaries that garrisoned the fort at its founding. The legionaries in the field army were chosen for a reason. Sometimes, they simply had the luck to be part of a respected cohort or century. Given that these are heroic PCs, the commander or governor may have noticed their exceptional skills and/or bravery. Whatever the reason, being in the field army in the third century means lots of action – the sword swinging kind of action. Often one hears that serving in the military consists of long periods of tedium punctuated by moments of sheer terror. In the field army, that terror is probably more common than the tedium. Barbarians or usurpers, there will always be someone to fight, and generally they are not on your doorstep.

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Join the field army and see the known world!Then there are the Praetorians, which in this period have become an army onto themselves. Possibly numbering as many as 10,000, the Praetorians existed in the field army and in Rome itself. Though legionaries, the Praetorians were created as a bodyguard for the emperor. In the third century, however, everyone fights. The Praetorians marching in the field army would see as much action as anyone else. They also probably thought of themselves as better than everyone else, though it is likely no one else in the army agreed.Perhaps the backgrounds of the PCs are split between border guards, the field army and the Praetorians. A prefect is sent with a small vexillation to a fort due to an expected barbarian incursion. While the majority of the force prepares the fort and its environs for the coming battle, the prefect sends some picked men – including some border guards with local knowledge and language skills – to scout out the enemy. This is the adventure that could forge the disparate individuals into an effective team, one that the prefect comes to realize could have enormous utility in the future.There is always the possibility that one of the characters is the prefect, someone who has risen from peasant stock – a plebeian risen to command a legion or field army. Perhaps the campaign is the character’s attempt to seize imperial power, and the other PCs are advisors, commanders, and perhaps even a tough old centurion that trained the prefect when he was younger and now acts as a constant devil’s advocate – the only person alive who can insult the prefect.Going further back to an earlier period in Roman history, think of Augustus. Alone, I honestly don’t know if he could have achieved what he did. But Augustus was not entirely alone. He had his military commander Agrippa, and his bureaucratic, diplomatic, culture minister, Maecenas. The PC commander on his own might end up as an Aureolus or a Gordian II, which isn’t good. With the assistance and support of the other characters, though, perhaps we do not need to wait for Diocletian for the crisis to end. Again, there is nothing wrong with starting an alt-history campaign, especially when it is the characters that create the alternative.While the traditional auxiliaries made up of provincials have vanished due to them becoming citizens of the empire, mercenary barbarian troops can still be found marching with the field army. There could be Goths, Sarmatians,

perhaps Berbers in the legions, peoples the Romans considered barbarians but whose martial society makes them the perfect choice for a career at arms. Later Rome provided land within the empire to entire tribes so that they could be later pressed into military service.There is nothing wrong with playing characters that might be viewed, in general, as enemies of Rome. Barbarians are an obvious choice, as these are a staple of traditional fantasy RPGs, so many players probably already enjoy playing them. What about the Sassanid Persians? This is a culture that considered itself a continuation of the pre-Alexander Achaemenid Empire founded by Cyrus the Great, which is known in the West mainly for having fought the Greeks.Just as failed usurpers – if they survived – would seek out sanctuary in kingdoms or realms either inimical to Rome or too far away for Rome to influence, a failed dynast from the Sassanid Empire might seek the protection of Rome. A commander who supported the wrong side in a power struggle might find himself advising an emperor or emperor-in-the-making, and might be an ally of convenience to the PCs.Since the third century is the time when it became possible for a peasant to become an emperor, the social background of the characters really doesn’t matter. This allows for a group that could have characters of exceptionally varied backgrounds. If your group likes plenty of character growth and social interaction among the PCs, this might be the perfect period for a Centurion campaign.

AdventuresHow about saving the empire? Is that adventure enough for you? And if saving the entire empire isn’t your thing, there are so many places in the ancient world that need heroes to protect them, your characters certainly won’t want for work.When asked about the third century, I often make a comparisons to the American Wild West. Consider: both these settings are based on the frontier of an expanding civilization. In the Wild West, it is the frontiers of American civilization, threatened either by “the other” – generally represented by Native Americans – or by imposed order. In the Crisis of the Third Century, it is the frontiers of Roman civilization threatened either by the other – this time we’re talking barbarians and Sassanids – or by implacable disorder. In

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the end, the type of adventures that one could run in one setting can easily be altered to be playable in the other. Imagine any Western plot or story, and you could probably very easy transfer it into a Centurion campaign in this period.Take Silverado, one of my favourite Western movies – though some will certainly heckle me for my choice. What is the story of Silverado? A collection of disparate characters are returning to the home of the lead characters only to find it under threat by a greedy landowner and his collection of thugs. I actually don’t need to change any of that in order to make it work in the Crisis. Imagine a Gallo-Roman who was the child of a retired legionary (maybe a primus pilus) who entered the legions at the time of Maximinus and is retiring just before Valerian is captured by the Sassanids. He’s done his 25 years, and he’s heading home. He gathers up a collection of ex-military types, some might be deserters, others mercenaries who have served their time. The group of former legionaries return to a village along the Rhine, which is now a wasteland, part of the frontier raided so often by the Germans that it has been depopulated. A hardy handful of townfolk are trying to survive, only to be victimized by a wealthy patrician landowner from Rome who wants to get at the mineral wealth he believes is beneath their tawdry homesteads.Or think of the Seven Samurai. Don’t tell me it’s not a Western. We all know it is. It’s one of the best ones ever, one that keeps getting remade and remade. This really takes the barbarian invasions and puts them at a personal level. As a favour to a friend, the dux bellorum selects a vexillation to protect a particular village that has grown up around an abandoned fort. The villagers believe, with good reason, that they’ll be the target of a raid in the coming winter. You know the rest.The border areas were not always frontiers as we use the term in relation to the Western, but the constant raiding depopulated huge swaths of the region. So the border frontiers of the Crisis are wastelands, deserts of humanity if not covered in sand, as is so often a part of Spaghetti Westerns. The deserts are figurative rather than literal, but just as the desert in Spaghetti Westerns seems to stretch out and overwhelm everything, so too does the depopulated wilderness of the border frontier engulf pockets of civilization. It is oppressive and in its expanse, humanity can be swallowed.

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While madness is not a staple of the Western, an adventure based upon ApocalypseNow, as mentioned above, would fit very well into the Crisis setting. One can easily imagine a commander left to his own devices in the deserted frontier of the Rhine or Danube borders going rogue. And given the periods proliferation of mystery cults, who is to say that our version of Kurtz does not believe himself divine? While the emperors are not considered deities in this period, dead emperors are deified. Our Kurtz has decided not to wait for the inconvenience of death to ascend to the godhead. Perhaps he believes he is Mithras, or Sol Invictus, or Osiris. Perhaps his followers believe him Bacchus, which – given how the legends of Bacchus conclude – might not end well for Kurtz. Our adventurers might be dispatched to terminate the rule of the madman before he can undermine the security of the empire. Or maybe they are the only border outpost that stands between this self-proclaimed god and civilization. It might also be interesting for the PCs to find themselves in an oasis of calm in the middle of the deserted frontier, a place where neither the legions nor the barbarians will tread. Here they find a lost legion, a lost command long thought dead, and at its head, Kurtz, who now fancies himself something more. The rituals involved are suitably horrifying, and even if the PCs have not been ordered to terminate Kurtz’s command, they will likely seek to do so.

Aspects of the Crisis of the Third CenturyThe legions of the Crisis of the Third Century are not those that won a republic or an empire. These are not the tough professionals burnished by history. These legions are battered and bruised, their legionaries seeking to enrich themselves either by loot or donatives from a grateful new emperor. These legionaries are not driven by duty. They might be driven by discipline, but the traditions of Rome that the Republic birthed died when its rulers believed potestas – power – equaled auctoritas – influence and respect. If one rules because one is strong, duty becomes the shield of the weak. Legionaries respected strength and power, and so they strove to embody both. Loyalty not only remained important, it increased in value. However, loyalty generally did not extend past one’s own commander – the one from whom the legionaries received their share of the loot and through whom the state paid them. If that commander became an emperor, then the legionary’s

loyalty might extend that far up the chain, but if that emperor became distant or disinterested, the next leader who provided for the legionary would soon earn that legionary’s loyalty.Valour also remains as a constant Aspect. What good a Roman legionary who fears sacrificing his life for victory, even if that victory might no longer be for the glory of Rome. For a legionary in the Crisis of the Third Century, the Aspects and their definitions are:

Strength: This can be considered the implicit and explicit expectations of other legionaries for a legionary to exhibit personal power. This represents the character’s will to overcome obstacles through force, be it physical strength, an overbearing personality, or determination.

Loyalty: This can be considered the explicit expectation of loyalty to the legionary’s commander. This personal loyalty can often be at odds with oaths or orders, and may set legionaries against their comrades. This represents the character’s will to protect, preserve and promote his commander.

Valour: This is the character’s bravery in the face of danger. This represents the character’s willingness to engage in dangerous activities—both physically and otherwise—and to accept the consequences.

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CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURY – NPCs

Tiberius Rutilius Petrus DurasLoyal Illyrian Legionary Scout, 2Phy 2, Men 3, Soc 1Mountain Man 3; Implacable Will 3 Pivots: Speaknotofmybirth.The character gains a Loyalty die when he ignores the needs or desires of provincials in favour of the best interests of Rome.The power of the mind . The character gains a Strength die when he overcomes an opponent through an unwillingness to surrender, even when all seems lost.Natureisthegreatestenemy.The character gains a Valour die when he overcomes a deadly threat posed by geography or the environment

Lucius Vorenus SenecaValorous Paternal Centurion 2Phy 1, Men 2, Soc 3Finish the Fight 3, Built Like a Bull 2, Campaigning 1Pivots: Take ‘em down . The character gains a Valour die when a group the character leads gains a victory against a superior opponent in a single round.Show no weakness . The character gains a Strength die when he ignores Conditions and other weaknesses to lead his ground to victory.You’retheboss.The character gains a Loyalty die when he directs a commanding officer in such a way as to avoid failure while still allowing the officer the semblance of command

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Bibliography This bibliography should not be considered as a list of the best books on the topic, rather as a list of the books I could find locally (thankfully, I have access to two university libraries and a government research library, along with a great municipal library system in Ottawa). There are almost certainly better books out there, but these are the ones on which I could get my hands. I would say that both Adrian Goldsworthy and Pat Southern are pretty much top of the game for Roman military history, though I’ll bet others have their own favourite.

Berger, Adolf EncyclopedicDictionaryofRomanLaw. American Philosophical Society, 1991Brunt, P. A. SocialConflictsintheRomanRepublic. W. W. Norton & Company, 1974.Campbell, Brian TheRomanArmy,31BC-AD337:ASourcebook. Routledge, 1994.Connolly, Peter TheLegionary. Oxford University Press, 1997.Cowan, Ross and Hook, Adam Roman Battle Tactics 109 BC – 313 AD. Osprey, 2007.Dando-Collins, Stephen Caesar’s Legion. John Wiley & Sons, 2002.Eilers, Claude Roman Patrons of Greek Cities. Oxford University Press, 2002.Erdkamp, Paul, ed. ACompaniontotheRomanArmy. Blackwell Publishing, 2007Everitt, Anthony Hadrian and the Triumph of Rome. Random House, 2010.Fields, Nic TheRomanArmyofthePunicWars264–146BC. Osprey Publishing, 2007.Fields, Nic TheRomanArmy:theCivilWars88–31BC. Osprey Publishing, 2008.Goldsworthy, A. K. TheCompleteRomanArmy. Thames & Hudson, 2003.Goldsworthy, A. K. TheRomanArmyatWar100B.C.–A.D.200. Oxford University Press, 1998.

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Goldsworthy, A. K. TheRomanArmy:theGreatestWarMachineoftheAncientWorld. Osprey Publishing, 2010.Keppie, L. J. F. TheMakingoftheRomanArmyfromRepublictoEmpire. Routledge, 1998.MacMullen, Ramsay Roman Social Relations, 50 B .C . to A .D . 284. Yale University Press, 1981.Mousourakis, George The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law. Ashgate, 2003.Nicolet, Claude TheWorldoftheCitizeninRepublicanRome. University of California Press, 1988Parker, H. M. D. The Roman Legions. Ares Publishers, 1997.Penrose, Jane RomeandHerEnemies:AnEmpireCreatedandDestroyedbyWar. Osprey Publishing, 2005.Roth, Jonathan TheLogisticsoftheRomanArmyatWar(264B.C.–A.D.235). Brill Academic Publishers, 1999.Williamson, Callie TheLawsoftheRomanPeople:PublicLawintheExpansionandDeclineoftheRomanRepublic. University of Michigan Press, 2004.Wise, Terrence and Hook, Richard Armies of the Carthaginian Wars 265 – 146 BC. Osprey, 1982.Webster, Graham The Roman Invasion of Britain. Routledge, 1993.Southern, Pat TheRomanArmy:aSocialandInstitutionalHistory. ABC-CLIO, 2006.