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Research Methods -
• Goal is to test common sense assumptions & replace false ideas w/ fact & evidence
• Limited Ability to set up lab experiments to replicate real-life conditions– Therefore the world is a Sociologist lab
• Quantitative Research – uses numerical data– Surveys, precollected data
• Qualitative Research – rests on narrative & descriptive data
Surveys -• Make up about 90% of published research• Most widely used method• If sample is not representative then results
can not generalize the population– Most common way to get a representative sample
is by picking at random• Can be in either questionnaire or interview
format• U.S. Census, Gallop Poll, and Harris Poll are all
nationally recognized surveys in the U.S.
Close ended questionsResults can be measured more precisely
Expensive to produce and distribute
Easily comparible Responses are limited to preset answers
Statistic techniques can be used to put order to data
People don’t respond, leading to low cost effectivness
Large number of responces can be collected
Phrasing can influence answers
Open ended questions are answered in participants own words
Secondary Analysis
• Using precollected data for research• Census Bureau – total population every 10
years, and specific surveys every year• U.S. Department of Labor – income and
unemployment• U.S. Department of Commerce – monthly
reports on various aspects of the economy• Emile Durkheim relied on precollected data
for his research on suicide
Advantages Disadvantages
Inexpensive, high quality data
May not be exactly suited for the researchers purposes
Existing info. Allows for studies over a long period of time
Can be out dated
Researchers can not influence the participants or data
Don’t know the exact methods of collection
Field Research
• Looks closely at aspects of social life that can’t be measured quantitatively, & are best understood
in natural settings– High school cliques
• Case Studies – a thorough investigation of a single group, incident, or community
• Participant observation – researcher becomes a member of the group being studied, & might or might not tell the group he is studying– Black Like Me by John Howard Griffin (1961), the author
died his skin to study African American life in the South
Causation in Science• Causation – events occur in a predictable,
nonrandom way; one event leads to another• Multiple causation – an event occurs as a result
of several factors working in combination– Causes of crime – Cesare Lombroso, 19th century,
Italian criminologist believed the tendency to commit crime was inherited
– Therefore criminals could be identified by certain traits, large jaws, or receding foreheads
– Modern criminologists – peer pressure, drugs, poverty, poor parenting
• Quantitative variables – can be measured & given a numerical value
• Qualitative variables – are identified by membership to a category– Either / or, yes / no
• Sex, marital status, group membership• Independent variables – cause something to
occur• Dependant variables – result from a change in
the independent variable– How does the time spent studying change the grade
earned?• Intervening variable – influences the relationship
b/w independent variable and dependent variable
Correlation
• How things are related to one another• Positive correlation – both ind. and dep.
variables change in the same way• Negative correlation – variables change in
opposite directions• Spurious correlation – apparent relationship
b/w 2 variables is actually caused by a 3rd variable
– Church attendance and delinquency
• Just because there is correlation does not guarantee causation
• Standards for showing causation1. 2 variables must be correlated2. All other possible factors must be taken into
account3. A change in the independent variable must
occur before a change in the dependent variable can occur
Procedures and Ethics in Research• Scientific Method
1. Identify the Problem2. Review the literature3. Formulate hypotheses – testable statement of
relationships among well-defined variables4. Develop a research design5. Collect data6. Analyze data7. State findings & conclusions
• Many Sociologists do not follow these steps to the letter.– Exploratory research, changing hypotheses during
the study
• Ethics - a system of moral principles– Showing objectivity– using superior research standards– reporting findings and method truthfully– Protecting rights, privacy, integrity, dignity, and
freedom of research subjects
Mean – the average of a series of numbers
Median – the middle number in a series of numbers•If series has and odd number of numbers it is the middle number•If series is ever you add the 2 middle numbers and
divide by 2
Mode – the number in the series that reoccurs most frequently
1, 5, 3, 8, 1, 6, 4, 1, 5
Mean – 3.77Median – 4Mode - 1