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Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition,!
Introduction
Modified by M.Rebaudengo - 2010
1.2! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
What is an Operating System?
A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer hardware!
Operating system goals:" Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier" Make the computer system convenient to use" Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner"
1.3! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components" Hardware – provides basic computing resources"
CPU, memory, I/O devices" Operating system!
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users"
Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users" Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games" Users!
People, machines, other computers"
1.4! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Four Components of a Computer System
1.5! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Operating System Definition " From the computer's point of view, the operating system is the program
most involved with the hardware" OS is a resource allocator!
Manages all resources (CPU time, memory space, file-storage space, I/O devices, etc.)"
resource allocation is important where many users access the same computer"
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use" OS is a control program!
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer"
It is especially concerned with the operation and control of I/O devices."
1.6! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Operating System Definition (Cont.)
No universally accepted definition of what is part of the operating system" The one program running at all times on the computer"
usually called kernel! Everything else is either a system program (shipped with the operating
system) or an application program.!
1.7! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation" One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus
providing access to shared memory" Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles"
1.8! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Basic anatomy on a CPU (1)
Some key CPU Components" Program Counter (PC)"
holds memory address of next instruction" Instruction Register (IR)"
holds instruction currently being executed" Registers (Reg. 1..n)"
hold variables and temporary results" Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)"
performs arithmetic functions and logic operations"
1.9! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Basic anatomy on a CPU (2)
Some key CPU Components" Memory Address Register (MAR)"
contains address of memory to be read/written" Memory Data Register (MDR)"
contains memory data read or to be written" Stack Pointer (SP)"
holds memory address of a stack with a frame for each procedure’s local variables & parameters"
Processor Status Word (PSW)" contains the mode bit and various control bits"
1.10! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Program execution
Instruction sets" different for different machines" all have load and store instructions for moving items between memory
and registers" many instructions for comparing and combining values in registers and
putting result in a register" Fetch/Decode/Execute cycle"
fetch next instruction pointed to by PC" decode it to find its type and operands" execute it" repeat"
1.11! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Fetch/decode/execute cycle
PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1 …
ALU
CPU Memory
1.12! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Fetch/decode/execute cycle
PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1 …
ALU
CPU Memory
While (1) { Fetch instruction from memory Execute instruction (Get other operands if necessary) Store result }
1.13! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Fetch/decode/execute cycle
PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1 …
ALU
CPU Memory
While (1) { Fetch instruction from memory Execute instruction (Get other operands if necessary) Store result }
1.14! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Fetch/decode/execute cycle
PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1 …
ALU
CPU Memory
While (1) { Fetch instruction from memory Execute instruction (Get other operands if necessary) Store result }
1.15! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Fetch/decode/execute cycle
PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1 …
ALU
CPU Memory
While (1) { Fetch instruction from memory Execute instruction (Get other operands if necessary) Store result }
1.16! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Fetch/decode/execute cycle
PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1 …
ALU
CPU Memory
While (1) { Fetch instruction from memory Execute instruction (Get other operands if necessary) Store result }
1.17! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Fetch/decode/execute cycle
PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1 …
ALU
CPU Memory
While (1) { Fetch instruction from memory Execute instruction (Get other operands if necessary) Store result }
1.18! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Computer Startup
Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot" Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware" Initializes all aspects of system (CPU registers, device controllers,
memory contents, etc.)" Loads operating system kernel and starts execution"
The operating system then starts executing the first process (init) and waits for some event to occur."
The occurrence of an event is signaled by an interrupt from either the hardware and the software:" hardware may trigger an interrupt by sending a signal to the CPU" software may trigger an interrupt by executing a special operation called
system call (or monitor call)."
1.19! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Interrupts
Interrupts is the way by which hardware informs OS of special conditions that require OS’s attention"
Interrupt causes the CPU not to execute the next instruction"
Instead, the control is passed to OS"
1.20! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently" Each device controller is in charge of a particular device
type" Each device controller has a local buffer" CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local
buffers" I/O moves from the device to local buffer of controller" Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt"
1.21! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Common Functions of Interrupts
Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the service routines"
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction"
A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a user request"
An operating system is interrupt driven!
1.22! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Handling interrupts
Interrupt handler is a piece of the OS code intended to do something about the condition which caused the interrupt" Pointers to the interrupt handlers are stored in the
interrupt vector! The interrupt vector is stored at a pre-defined memory
location"
1.23! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Handling Interrupts (II)
When an interrupt occurs:" The CPU enters kernel mode, and" passes control to the appropriate interrupt
handler " the handler address is found using the
interrupt number as an index into the interrupt vector!
1.24! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Interrupt types
Asynchronous interrupts are generated by external devices at unpredictable times"
Internal (synchronous) interrupts are generated synchronously by CPU as a result of an exceptional condition" An error condition" A temporary problem"
1.25! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
I/O architecture
1.26! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Servicing an interrupt
When an interrupt occurs (and is accepted), the execution of the current program is suspended"
Must save PC and Registers" A special routine executes to service the interrupt" In most cases the interrupted program resumes" The service routine is called an interrupt handler or interrupt service routine
(ISR).!
1.27! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Servicing an interrupt
1.28! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Saving Registers
For the interrupted program to resume, the CPU status and data registers must be saved (because they will change during the ISR)"
They are saved before the ISR executes" They are restored after the ISR executes" They are saved either"
On the stack (a special area of memory to temporarily hold information), or"
In a process control block (PCB)!
1.29! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Vectored interrupt
1.30! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Direct Memory Access (DMA) structure
Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to memory speeds"
Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to main memory without CPU intervention"
Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per byte."
Request Peripheral
Device DMA
Controller
Memory
Acknowledge
CPU
On-Chip-Bus Interrupt
Bus Arbiter
1.31! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Program-Controlled I/O (in DMA)
Data bus Address bus Control bus
Memory DMAC
CPU
Disk
The CPU “prepares” the DMAC
1.32! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
DMA
Data bus Address bus Control bus
Memory DMAC
CPU
Disk
The transfer takes place
1.33! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
I/O Interrupt (in DMA)
Data bus Address bus Control bus
Memory DMAC
CPU
Disk
The DMAC interrupts the CPU when the transfer is complete
IRQ
1.34! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Storage-Device Hierarchy
1.35! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly! Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity" Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material " Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors! The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the
device and the computer "
1.36! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy" The higher levels are more expensive, but they are faster. As we move
down the hierarchy" Speed: the access time increases" Cost: the cost per bit decreases"
Volatility:" registers, cache and main memory lose their contents when the
power to the device is removed."
1.37! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in hardware, operating system, software)"
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily" Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is
there" If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)" If not, data copied to cache and used there"
Cache smaller than storage being cached" Cache management important design problem" Cache size and replacement policy"
"
1.38! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
How a Modern Computer Works
1.39! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Computer-System Architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through mainframes)" Most systems have special-purpose processors as well"
Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance" Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems" Advantages include"
1. Increased throughput (speed-up)"2. Economy of scale"3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance"
Two types"1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing: each processor is assigned a specific
task. A master processor controls the system: it schedules and allocates work to the slave processors"
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing: all processors are peers (no master-slave relationship exists between processors)."
"
1.40! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
Many processes can run simultaneously."
1.41! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
A Dual-Core Design
Multicore CPUs appear to the operating system as N standard processors."
1.42! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Operating System Structure " Multiprogramming needed for efficiency"
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times" Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has
one to execute" A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory" One job selected and run via job scheduling! When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job"
Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running" Each user has at least one program executing in memory process! If several jobs ready to run at the same time CPU scheduling! If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to
run" Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory"
1.43! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
The operating system keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously."
1.44! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Operating-System Operations
Since the operating system and the users share the hardware and the software resources of the computer system, it is important to make sure that an error in a user program could cause problems only for the one program running"
With sharing, many processes could be affected by a bug in one program" Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components" User mode and kernel mode (or supervisor, system or privileged
mode)" Mode bit provided by hardware"
Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel code"
Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode"
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user"
1.45! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
System calls provide the means for a user program to ask the operating system to perform tasks reserved for the operating system on the user program's behalf."
1.46! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources" Set interrupt after specific period" Operating system decrements counter" When counter reaches 0, an interrupt occurs" Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program
that exceeds allotted time"
1.47! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system"
Program is a passive entity (like the contents of a file stored on a disk), process is an active entity"
Process needs resources to accomplish its task" CPU, memory, I/O, files (given when it is created or
allocated while it is running)" Initialization data"
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources"
"
1.48! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Process Management (cont.)
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next instruction to execute" Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a
time, until completion" Multi-threaded process has one program counter per
thread" Typically system has many processes, some user
processes (executing user code), some operating system processes (executing system code) running concurrently on one or more CPUs" Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the
processes / threads"
1.49! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process management:"
Scheduling processes and threads of the CPUs" Creating and deleting both user and system processes" Suspending and resuming processes" Providing mechanisms for process synchronization" Providing mechanisms for process communication" Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling."
1.50! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Memory Management Main memory is a large array of words or bytes, where
each word has its own address" Main memory is a repository of accessible data shared
by the CPU and I/O devices" CPU reads instructions from main memory during the
instruction-fetch cycle" CPU reads/writes data from/to main memory during the
data-fetch cycle" The main memory is the only large storage device that
the CPU is able to address and access directly" All data in memory before and after processing: to
process data from disk, those data must first be transferred to main memory by CPU-generated I/O calls"
All instructions in memory in order to be executed"
1.51! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Memory Management (cont.)
A program, to be executed, must be mapped to absolute adresses and loaded into memory"
As the program executes, it accesses program instructions and data from memory by generating these absolute adresses"
When the program terminates, its memory space is declared available, and the next program can be loaded and executed"
To improve the utilization of the CPU and the speed of the computer's response to its users, general-purpose computers must keep several programs in memory, creating a need for memory management"
Many different memory management schemes are used."
1.52! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Memory Management
Memory management activities" Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently
being used and by whom" Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data
to move into and out of memory" Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed""
1.53! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Storage Management
OS provides a uniform, logical view of information storage" Abstracts physical properties to logical storage
unit - file! OS maps files onto physical media and accesses
these files via the storage devices" Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk
drive, tape drive)" Varying properties include access speed,
capacity, data-transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)"
1.54! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Storage Management
File-System management" Files usually organized into directories" Access control on most systems to determine who can
access in what way (e.g., read, write, append) " OS activities include"
Creating and deleting files and directories" Supporting primitives to manipulate files and directories" Mapping files onto secondary storage" Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media"
1.55! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Mass-Storage Management
Computer system must provide secondary storage to back up main memory:" Main memory is too small to accomodate all data and programs" Data that memory holds are lost when power is lost"
Most programs are stored on a disk until loaded into memory and then use the disk as both the source and the destination of their processing"
Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its algorithms" OS activities"
Free-space management" Storage allocation" Disk scheduling"
Some storage need not be fast" Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape" Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)"
1.56! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Performance of Various Levels of Storage
1.57! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register
Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy"
Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache"
1.58! Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009!Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition!
I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the user"
I/O subsystem responsible for" Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of data in faster storage for performance)"
General device-driver interface" Drivers for specific hardware devices"
