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Chapter 1
Overview of Electronic Commerce
Marks & Spencer—A New Way to Compete
• The Problem– UK-based, upscale, global retailer of
high-quality, high-priced merchandise faces stiff competition, since economic slowdown that started in 1999
– Critical success factors• Customer service• Appropriate store inventory system• Efficient supply chain activities
Marks & Spencer (cont.)
• The Solution– M&S realized that digital era survival
depends on the use of information technology in general and electronic commerce in particular
– Electronic commerce (EC, e-commerce)—a process of buying, selling, transferring, or exchanging products, services, and/or information via electronic networks and computers
Marks & Spencer (cont.)
– M & S initiated several EC initiatives, including:
• Security• Warehouse management• Merchandise receiving• Inventory control• Speeding up the supply of fashion garments• Collaborative commerce
Marks & Spencer (cont.)
• The Results– As of summer 2002, a turnaround is
underway– M & S has become a leader and example
setter in retailing, resulting in increased profitability and growth
Marks & Spencer (cont.)
• What can we learn…– Traditional brick-and-mortar companies face
increasing pressures in a competitive marketing environment
– A possible response is to introduce a variety of e-commerce initiatives that can improve
• supply chain operation• information• money from raw materials through factories • increase customer service• open up markets to more customers
E-Commerce I and II
E-Commerce I Explosive growth starting in 1995 Widespread of Web to advertise
products Ended in 2000 when dot.com began to
collapse E-Commerce II
Began in January 2001 Reassessment of e-commerce
companies
E-Commerce I 1995-2000
For computer scientist and information technologists Vindication of a set of information
technologies developed over 40 years
Extending from the early Internet to the PC and local area networks
The vision of universal communications
E-Commerce I 1995-2000
For economists Raised realistic prospect of perfect
Bertrand Market where price, cost, and quality information is
equally distributed where a nearly infinite set of suppliers
compete against one another where customers have access to all revelant
market information worldwide
Merchants have equal direct access to hundreds of millions of customers
E-Commerce I 1995-2000
Disintermediation displacement of market
middlemen who traditionally are intermediaries between producers and consumers by a new direct relationship between manufacturers and content originators with their customers
E-Commerce I 1995-2000
Friction-free commerce a vision of commerce in which
information is equally distributed transaction costs are low prices can be dynamically adjusted to
reflect actual demand intermediaries decline unfair competitive advantages are
eliminated
E-Commerce I 1995-2000
First mover a firm that is first to market in a
particular area and that moves quickly to gather market share
Network effect occurs where users receive value
from the fact that everyone else uses the same tool or product
E-Commerce II 2001-2006
Crash in stock market values of E-commerce I companies throughout 2000 is an end to E-commerce I
Led to a sobering reassessment of the prospects of e-commerce and the methods of achieving business success.
E-commerce II begins in 2001 and ends five year later -- the limit for making technology and business projections
E-Commerce II 2001-2006
Reasons for the end of E-Commerce I run-up in technology stocks due to enormous information
technology capital expenditure of firms rebuilding their internal business systems to withstand Y2K
telecommunications industry had built excess capacity in high-speed fiber optic networks
1999 e-commerce Christmas season provided less sales growth that anticipated and demonstrated e-commerce was not easy (eToys.com)
valuations of dot.com and technology companies had risen so high supporters were questioning whether earnings could justify the prices of the shares.
Unique of E-commerce Technology and Their Business
SignificanceE-commerce: is ubiquitous has global reach operates according to universal
standards provides information richness is interactive increases information density permits personalization
Seven Unique Features of E-commerce Technology and Their Business Significance
Page 9, Table 1.1
Electronic Commerce: Definitions and Concepts
• The Internet has emerged as a major, perhaps eventually the major, worldwide distribution channel for goods, services, managerial and professional jobs
• This is profoundly changing economics, markets and industry structure, products and services and their flow, consumer segmentation, consumer values, consumer behavior, jobs, and labor markets
• The impact may be even greater on societies and politics, and on the way we see the world and ourselves in it
Electronic Commerce: Definitions and Concepts (cont.)
• E-commerce defined from the following perspectives:– Communications: delivery of goods, services,
information, or payments over computer networks or any other electronic means
– Commercial (trading): provides capability of buying and selling products, services, and information on the Internet and via other online services
Electronic Commerce: Definitions and Concepts (cont.)
• Business process: doing business electronically by completing business processes over electronic networks, thereby substituting information for physical business processes
• Service: a tool that addresses the desire of governments, firms, consumers, and management to cut service costs while improving the quality of customer service and increasing the speed of service delivery
Electronic Commerce: Definitions and Concepts (cont.)
• Learning: an enabler of online training and education in schools, universities, and other organizations, including businesses
• Collaborative: the framework for inter- and intraorganizational collaboration
• Community: provides a gathering place for community members to learn, transact, and collaborate
Electronic Commerce: Definitions and Concepts (cont.)
• e-business: a broader definition of EC, which includes:– buying and selling of goods and services– servicing customers– collaborating with business partners– conducting electronic transactions within
an organization
Amazon.com: Before and After
Amazon.com: Before and After
Most well-known e-commerce company Conceived by Jeff Bezos in 1994 Opened in July 1995 Four compelling reasons to shop
Selection (1.1 million titles) Convenience (anytime, anywhere) Price (high discounts on bestsellers) Service (automated order confirmation,
tracking, and shipping information)
E-commerce vs. E-business
E-commerce involves Digitally enabled commercial transactions
between organizations and individuals. Digitally enabled transactions include all
transactions mediated by digital technology
Commercial transactions involve the exchange of value across organizational or individual boundaries in return for products or services
E-commerce vs. E-business
E-business involves Digital enablement of transactions
and processes within a firm, involving information systems under the control of the firm
E-business does not involve commercial transactions across organizational boundaries where value is exchanged
The Difference Between E-commerce and E-Business
Electronic Commerce: Definitions and Concepts (cont.)
• Pure vs. Partial EC depends upon the degree of digitization (the transformation from physical to digital) of:
1. the product (service) sold;
2. the process; and for
3. the delivery agent (or digital intermediary)
• Brick-and-Mortar organizations are old-economy organizations (corporations) that perform most of their business off-line, selling physical products by means of physical agents
Electronic Commerce: Definitions and Concepts (cont.)
• Virtual (pure-play) organizations conduct their business activities solely online
• Click-and-mortar organizations conduct some EC activities, but do their primary business in the physical world
• Electronic market (e-marketplace) online marketplace where buyers and sellers meet to exchange goods, services, money, or information
Electronic Commerce: Definitions and Concepts (cont.)
• Interorganizational information systems (IOSs) allow routine transaction processing and information flow between two or more organizations
• Intraorganizational information systems enable EC activities to go on within individual organizations
: The Dimensions of Electronic Commerce
Section Review• 1. Define EC and e-business.• 2. Distinguish between pure and partial EC.• 3. Define click-and-mortar organizations.• 4. Define electronic markets, IOSs, and
intraorganizational information systems.• 5. Identify the seven unique features of e-commerce
technology and explain how these features set e-commerce apart from more traditional ways of conducting commercial transactions.
• 6.Describe the visions and forces behind e-commerce I in terms of what the various interest groups hoped for: the computer scientist and information technology people; the economists; and the entrepreneurs, venture capitalists and marketers. Explain whether what each group envisioned came to fruition and why or why not.
•
The EC Framework, Classification, and Content (cont.)
• Computer environments– Internet: global networked environment – Intranet: a corporate or government network
that uses Internet tools, such as Web browsers, and Internet protocols
– Extranet: a network that uses the Internet to link multiple intranets
EC Framework
• EC applications are supported by infrastructure and by five support areas:– People– Public policy– Marketing and advertising– Support services– Business partnerships
A Framework for Electronic Commerce
Types of EC by Transactions or Interactions
• business-to-consumer (B2C) : online transactions are made between businesses and individual consumers
• business-to-business (B2B): businesses make online transactions with other businesses
• e-tailing: online retailing, usually B2C
Major Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Business Models
Major Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Business Models
Major Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Business Models
Portal offers powerful search tools plus an
integrated package of content and services
typically utilizes a combines subscription/advertising revenues/transaction fee model
may be general or specialize (vortal)
Major Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Business Models
E-tailer online version of traditional retailer includes
virtual merchants (online retail store only) clicks and mortar e-tailers (online
distribution channel for a company that also has physical stores)
catalog merchants (online version of direct mail catalog)
online malls (online version of mall) Manufacturers selling directly over the Web
Major Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Business Models
Content Provider information and entertainment
companies that provide digital content over the Web
typically utilizes an advertising, subscription, or affiliate referral fee revenue model
Transaction Broker processes online sales transactions typically utilizes a transactions fee.
revenue model
Major Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Business Models
Market Creator uses Internet technology to create markets that bring
buyers and sellers together typically utilizes a transaction fee revenue model
Service Provider offers services online
Community Provider provides an online community of like-minded
individuals for networking and information sharing revenue is generated by referral fee, advertising, and
subscription
Major Business-to-Business (B2B) Business Models
Major Business-to-Business (B2B) Business Models
B2B Hub also known as marketplace/exchange electronic marketplace where suppliers
and commercial purchasers can conduct transactions
may be a general (horizontal marketplace) or specialized (vertical marketplace)
E-distributor supplies products directly to individual
businesses
Major Business-to-Business (B2B) Business Models
B2B Service Provider sells business services to other firms
Matchmaker links businesses together charges transaction or usage fees
Infomediary gather information and sells it to
businesses
Types of EC by Transactions or Interactions (cont.)
• business-to-business-to-consumer (B2B2C): e-commerce model in which a business provides some product or service to a client business that maintains its own customers
• consumer-to-business (C2B):
e-commerce model in which individuals use the Internet to sell products or services to organizations or individuals seek sellers to bid on products or services they need
Types of EC by Transactions or Interactions (cont.)
• consumer-to-consumer (C2C):
e-commerce model in which consumers sell directly to other consumers
• peer-to-peer (P2P): technology that enables networked peer computers to share data and processing with each other directly; can be used in C2C, B2B, and B2C e-commerce
Business Models in Other Emerging Areas of E-
Commerce
Business Models in Other Emerging Areas of E-Commerce
C2C Business Models connect consumers with other
consumers most successful has been the market
creator business model P2P Business Models
enable consumers to share file and services via the Web without common servers
a challenge to find a revenue model that works
Types of EC by Transactions or Interactions (cont.)
• mobile commerce ((m-commerce):
e-commerce transactions and activities conducted in a wireless environment
• location-based commerce (l-commerce): m-commerce transactions targeted to individuals in specific locations, at specific times
Business Models in Other Emerging Areas of E-Commerce
Business Models in Other Emerging Areas of E-Commerce
M-commerce Business Models traditional e-commerce business
models leveraged for emerging wireless technologies to permit mobile access to the Web
E-commerce Enablers’ Business Models focus on providing infrastructure
necessary for e-commerce companies to exist, grow, and prosper
E-commerce Enablers
Types of EC by Transactions or Interactions (cont.)
• intrabusiness EC: e-commerce category that includes all internal organizational activities that involve the exchange of goods, services, or information among various units and individuals in an organization
• business-to-employees (B2E): e-commerce model in which an organization delivers services, information, or products to its individual employees
Types of EC by Transactions or Interactions (cont.)
• collaborative commerce (c-commerce):
e-commerce model in which individuals or groups communicate or collaborate online
• e-learning: the online delivery of information for purposes of training or education
• exchange (electronic): a public electronic market with many buyers and sellers
Types of EC by Transactions or Interactions (cont.)
• exchange-to-exchange (E2E): e-commerce model in which electronic exchanges formally connect to one another the purpose of exchanging information
• e-government: e-commerce model in which a government entity buys or provides goods, services, or information to businesses or individual citizens
Insight on Technology:Google.com -- Searching for Profits
Web’s hottest search engine Started in 1998 by two enterprising
Stanford grad students Uses outside criteria to validate that
a search result is likely to be relevant the more outside links there are to a
particular page, the higher it jumps in Google’s ranking structure
A Brief History of EC (cont.)
• EC successes– Virtual EC companies
• eBay• VeriSign• AOL• Checkpoint
– Click-and-mortar• Cisco• General Electric• IBM• Intel• Schwab
• EC failures– 1999, a large number of EC-
dedicated companies began to fail
– EC’s days are not numbered! • dot-com failure rate is
declining sharply• EC field is experiencing
consolidation • most pure EC companies,
are expanding operations and generating increasing sales (Amazon.com)
The Success Story of Campusfood.Com
• Provide interactive menus to college students, using the power of the Internet to replace and/or facilitate the traditional telephone ordering of meals
• Built the company’s customer base– expanding to other universities– attracting students– generating a list of restaurants from which students
could order food for delivery
The Success Story of Campusfood.Com (cont.)
• Now some of these activities are outsourced to a marketing firm, enabling the addition of dozens of schools nationwide
• Financed through private investors, friends, and family members, the site was built on an investment of less than $1 million
• Campusfood.com’s revenue is generated through transaction fees—the site takes a 5 % commission on each order from the sellers
The Success Story of Campusfood.Com (cont.)
• At campusfood.com you can:– Navigate through a list of local restaurants,
their hours of operation, addresses, phone numbers, etc.
– Browse an interactive menu– Bypass “busy” telephone signals to place an
order online– Access special foods, promotions, and
restaurant giveaways – Arrange electronic payment of your order
Review Questions
• List the major components of the EC framework.• List the major transactional types of EC.• List some EC successes and failures• Define intranets and extranets.• Give examples of B2C, B2B, C2C and P2P Web
sites• How does disintermediation impact friction-free
commerce?
Campus food questions
• Explain the benefits of Campusfood.com for its students and for the restaurants it represents.
• Trace the flow of digitized information in this venture.
• How does the outsourcing of marketing activities contribute to the business?
Kozmo Finally Crashes
Use the Internet to combine the convenience of a catalog with the immediate gratification of in-store shopping by offering entertainment, food, and convenience products delivered within one hour, with no minimum order required and no delivery charges.
Kozmo Finally Crashes
• Created a Web site that featured localized offerings based on customer zip code.
• An order placed on the Web site would be transmitted directly to Kozmo’s distribution center, packed, and delivered.
Kozmo Finally Crashes
• $250 million in Venture capital• Rapid expansion and intensive
spending to gain market share and brand recognition
• No concern for short-term profitability
Kozmo Finally Crashes
• Painful lessons:– Hard to make money delivering low-priced
convenience store items.– Business model didn’t work everywhere.– Company founders are not necessarily its best
managers.
• Difficult for a new firm to establish a profitable e-commerce business in an entirely new market niche.
E-Commerce Business Models
• Business model– a set of planned activities designed to result in
a profit in a marketplace• Business plan
– a document that describes a firm’s business model
• E-commerce business model– a business model that aims to use and
leverage the unique qualities of the Internet and the World Wide Web.
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model
Page 58, Table 2.1
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model: Value
Proposition Defines how a company’s product or
service fulfills the needs of customers.
Questions Why will customers choose to do
business with your firm instead of another company?
What will your firm provide that other firms do not and cannot?
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model: Revenue
Model Describes how the firm will earn
revenue, produce profits, and produce a superior return on invested capital.
E-commerce revenue models include: advertising model subscription model transaction fee model sales model affiliate model
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model: Revenue
Model Advertising revenue model
a company provides a forum for advertisements and receives fees from advertisers (Yahoo)
Subscription revenue model a company offers it users content or
services and charges a subscription fee for access to some or all of it offerings (Consumer Reports or Wall Street Journal)
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model: Revenue
Model Transaction fee revenue model
a company receives a fee for enabling or executing a transaction (eBay or E-Trade)
Sales revenue model a company derives revenue by selling goods,
information, or services (Amazon or DoubleClick)
Affiliate revenue model a company steers business to an affiliate and
receives a referral fee or percentage of the revenue from any resulting sales (MyPoints)
Five Primary Revenue Models
Page 61, Table 2.2
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model: Market
Opportunity Market opportunity
refers to the company’s intended marketspace and the overall potential financial opportunities available to the firm in that market space
defined by the revenue potential in each of the market niches where you hope to compete
Marketspace the area of actual or potential commercial
value in which a company intends to operate
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model: Competitive
Environment Refers to the other companies
operating in the same marketplace selling similar products
Influenced by: how many competitors are active how large are their operations the market share of each competitor how profitable these firms are how they price their products
Marketspace and Market Opportunity is the Software Training Market
Page 62, Figure 2.1
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model: Competitive
Advantage Achieved by a firm when it can
produce a superior product and/or bring the product to market at a lower price than most, or all, of its competitors
Achieved because a firm has been able to obtain differential access to the factors of production that are denied their competitors -- at least in the short term
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model: Competitive
Advantage Asymmetry
exists whenever one participant in a market has more resources than other participants
First mover advantage a competitive market advantage for a
firm that results from being the first into a marketplace with a serviceable product or service
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model: Competitive
Advantage Unfair competitive advantage
occurs when one firm develops an advantage based on a factor that other firms cannot purchase
Perfect Market a market in which there are no competitive advantages
or asymmetries because all firms have equal access to all the factors of production
Leverage when a company uses its competitive advantage to
achieve more advantage in surrounding markets
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model: Market
Strategy The plan you put together that
details exactly how you intend to enter a new market and attract new customers
Best business concepts will fail if not properly marketed to potential customers
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model: Organizational
Development Describes how the company will
organize the work that needs to be accomplished
Work is typically divided into functional departments
Move from generalists to specialists as the company grows
Eight Key Ingredients of a Business Model: Management
Team Employees of the company responsible
for making the business model work Strong management team gives instant
credibility to outside investors A strong management team may not be
able to salvage a weak business model Should be able to change the model and
redefine the business as it becomes necessary
E-commerce Business Models
• Business models—a method of doing business by which a company can generate revenue to sustain itself
• Examples:– Name your price– Find the best price– Dynamic brokering– Affiliate marketing
E-commerce Business Plans and Cases
• Business plan: a written document that identifies the business goals and outlines the plan of how to achieve them
• Business case: a written document that is used by managers to garner funding for specific applications or projects; its major emphasis is the justification for a specific investment
Structure of Business Models
• Business model: A method of doing business by which a company can generate revenue to sustain itself
Structure of Business Models (cont.)
• Revenue model: description of how the company or an EC project will earn revenue– Sales– Transaction fees – Subscription fees– Advertising – Affiliate fees– Other revenue sources
Structure of Business Models (cont.)
• Value proposition: The benefits a company can derive from using EC– search and transaction cost efficiency– complementarities– lock-in– novelty– aggregation and interfirm collaboration
Exhibit 1.4: Common Revenue Models
Typical Business Modelsin EC
1. Online direct marketing
2. Electronic tendering systems
tendering (reverse auction): model in which a buyer requests would-be sellers to submit bids, and the lowest bidder wins
3. Name your own price: a model in which a buyer sets the price he or she is willing to pay and invites sellers to supply the good or service at that price
Typical Business Models in EC (cont.)
4. Affiliate marketing: an arrangement whereby a marketing partner (a business, an organization, or even an individual) refers consumers to the selling company’s Web site
5. Viral marketing: word-of-mouth marketing in which customers promote a product or service to friends or other people
Typical Business Models in EC (cont.)
6. Group purchasing: quantity purchasing that enables groups of purchasers to obtain a discount price on the products purchased
7. SMEs: small to medium enterprises
8. Online auctions
Typical Business Models in EC (cont.)
8. Product and service customizationcustomization: creation of a product or service according to the buyer’s specifications
8. Electronic marketplaces and exchanges9. Value-chain integrators10.Value-chain service providers
Typical Business Models in EC (cont.)
12. Information brokers
13.Bartering
14.Deep discounting
15.Membership
16.Supply chain improvers
Business models can be independent or they can be combined amongst themselves or with traditional business models
Example of Supply Chain Improver
• Orbis Group changes a linear physical supply chain to an electronic hub– Traditional process in the B2B advertising
field
Example of Supply Chain Improver (cont.)
– ProductBank simplifies this lengthy process changing the linear flow of products and information to a digitized hub
Benefits of EC
• Global reach• Cost reduction• Supply chain
improvements• Extended hours: 24/7/365• Customization• New business models• Vendors’ specialization
• Rapid time-to-market• Lower communication
costs• Efficient procurement• Improved customer
relations• Up-to-date company
material• No city business permits
and fees• Other benefits
Benefits to organizationsBenefits to organizations
Benefits of EC (cont.)
• Ubiquity• More products and
services• Cheaper products
and services• Instant delivery• Information
availability
• Participation in auctions
• Electronic communities
• “Get it your way” • No sales tax
Benefits to consumers
Benefits of EC (cont.)
• Benefits to society– Telecommuting– Higher standard of
living– Hope for the poor– Availability of public
services
Limitations of EC
Barriers of EC
• Security • Trust and risk• Lack of qualified
personnel• Lack of business
models• Culture
• User authentication and lack of public key infrastructure
• Organization • Fraud • Slow navigation on
the Internet• Legal issues
The Digital Revolution
• Digital economy: An economy that is based on digital technologies, including digital communication networks, computers, software, and other related information technologies; also called the Internet economy, the new economy, or the Web economy
The Digital Revolution (cont.)
• A global platform over which people and organizations interact, communicate, collaborate, and search for information
• Includes the following characteristics:– A vast array of digitizable products– Consumers and firms conducting financial
transactions digitally– Microprocessors and networking capabilities
embedded in physical goods
New Business Environment• Customers are becoming more powerful• Created due to advances in science
occurring at an accelerated rate• Results in more and more technology• Rapid growth in technology results in a
large variety of more complex systems
New Business Environment (cont.)
• Characteristics in the business environment – A more turbulent environment with more business
problems and opportunities– Stronger competition– Need for organizations to make decisions more
frequently – A larger scope for decisions because more factors – More information and/or knowledge needed for
making decisions
Environment-Response-Support Model
• Critical response activities– traditional actions such as lowering cost and
closing unprofitable facilities– introduce innovative actions such as
customizing or creating new products or providing superb customer service
Exhibit 1.6: Major Business Pressures and the Role of EC
Major Business Pressures
Market andeconomicpressures
Strong competition Global economy Regional trade
agreements (e.g. NAFTA) Extremely low labor cost
in some countries Frequent and significant
changes in markets Increased power of
consumers
MajorBusiness Pressures (cont.)
Societal andenvironmental
pressures
Changing nature of workforce
Government deregulation of banking and other services
Shrinking government subsidies
Increased importance of ethical and legal issues
Increased social responsibility of organizations
Rapid political changes
MajorBusiness Pressures (cont.)
Technological
pressures
Rapid technological obsolescence
Increase innovations and new technologies
Information overload Rapid decline in
technology cost vs. performance ratio
Organizational Responses
• Strategic systems• Continuous improvement efforts and business
process reengineering—including business process reengineering (BPR)
• Customer relationship management (CRM)—divided into the following areas– Operational CRM – Analytical CRM – Collaborative CRM
Organizational Responses (cont.)
• Business alliances
• Electronic markets
• Reductions in cycle time and time-to-market
Cycle time reduction: Shortening the time it takes for a business to complete a productive activity from its beginning to end
Organizational Responses (cont.)
• Empowerment of employees
• Supply chain improvements
• Mass customization: make-to-order in large quantities in an efficient manner
Mass customization: Production of large quantities of customized items
Organizational Responses (cont.)
• Intrabusiness: from sales force automation to inventory
• Knowledge management Knowledge management (KM): The process of creating or capturing knowledge, storing and protecting it, updating and maintaining it, and using it
Putting It All Together
• Task facing each organization is how to put together the components that will enable the organization to transform itself to the digital economy and gain competitive advantage by using EC
• Many employ corporate portalsA major gateway through which employees, business partners, and the public can enter a corporate Web site
Exhibit 1.8: The Networked Organization
Managerial Issues
1. Is it real?
2. How should we evaluate the magnitude of the business pressures?
3. Why is B2B e-commerce so attractive?
4. There are so many EC failures—how can one avoid them?
Managerial Issues (cont.)
5. What should be my company’s strategy toward EC?
6. How do we transform our organization into a digital one?
7. What are the top challenges of EC?
Summary
1. Definition of EC and description of its various categories.
2. The content and framework of EC.
3. The major types of EC transactions.
4. The major business models.
Summary (cont.)
5. Benefits to organizations, consumers, and society.
6. Limitations of EC.
7. The role of the digital revolution.
8. The role of EC in combating pressures in the business environment.