• Abriefintroductiontopositivepsychology

• Hedonicandeudaimonicperspectivesofflourishing

• Theconceptofflourishing

• Controversieswithinpositivepsychology

• Introductiontothebody

• Bodyawareness

• Embodimentanditsplaceinpositivepsychology

Topics include

Learning Objectives

Positive Psychology and the Body

C h a P T e r 1

Aspositivepsychologycontinuestomakeleapsandboundsintermsofscientificadvancementandunderstanding,thefocusontheimportanceofthebodywithinoptimalphysicalandpsychologicalfunctioning

isstilllagging.Theopeningchapterhastwogoals:(1)tointroducepositivepsychologyandtheconceptofflourishingand(2)toreflectupontheroleofthebodyandembodimentforholisticoptimalfunctioning.

1

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2

MoCk essay QuesTions

1 Criticallydiscusstheconceptofflourishinginrelationtohappiness.

2 Inwhatwayscanpositivepsychologybecomeamoreembodieddiscipline?

a brief introduction to positive psychology

Positivepsychologyisdefinedasthe‘scientificstudyofvirtue,meaning,resilienceandwellbeing,aswellasevidencebasedapplicationstoimprovethe

lifeofindividualsandsocietyinthetotalityoflife’(Wong,2011:72).Positivepsychologyhastraditionallyfocusedonstrengths,ratherthanweaknesses,whileenablingindividualswithinnormalandclinicalpopulationstobeattheirbest.Originally,positivepsychologywasconsideredan‘umbrellaterm’ ‘forthestudyofpositiveemotions,positivecharactertraitsandenablinginstitutions’ (Seligmanetal.,2005:410).Withexponentialdevelopmentandcontinuedfunding,thepositivepsychologymovementhasdonewondersintermsofwhatitsetouttoachieveintheshortspaceoftimeithasbeenaround(Wong,2011).Thenextsectionwillgiveageneraloverviewofthemajorresearchareaswithinpositivepsychology,thecurrentcritiquesofpositivepsychologyandhighlighttheundervaluedroleofthebodywithinthedisciplinearea.

happiness and wellbeingAlthoughnottheentiretyofthediscipline,amajorityofresearchinpositivepsychologyfocusesonhappinessandwellbeing.Contemporarypositivepsychologyhastwomajortheoreticalviewpointsonhappinessandwellbeing:hedonicandeudaimonic(Lent,2007;Seligman,2002).Hedonicwellbeingfocusesonpleasureandsatisfactionandismorewidelyresearchedassubjectivewellbeing(SWB)(Satisfactionwithlife+Highlevelsofpositiveaffect+Lowlevelsofnegativeaffect;Dieneretal.,1985).Eudaimonicwellbeingisdefinedas‘happinessandthegoodlifeintermsofachievingone’sfullpotential’(Carr,2011:362)andfocusesonconceptssuchasmeaning,enlightenment,purposeandgrowth.

However,themainfocusofresearchwithinpositivepsychologyhasbeenwithinthehedonictradition,withearlyresearchersevencallingpositivepsychology‘hedonicpsychology’(Kahnemanetal.,1999).TheoriginalemphasisonhappinessstemmedfromSeligman’sworkon‘authentichappiness’whichpositedthatindividualscouldadoptoneofthreelifestyleswhichtheycouldchoosefortheirownsake:thepleasurablelife(positiveemotions),theengagedlife(flow)andthemeaningfullife(purpose).1Therehasrecentlybeenconsiderabledebatewithintheareaofpositivepsychologyregardingtheimportanceanddifferencesbetweenhedonicandeudaimonicwellbeing(e.g.Kashdanetal.,2008;Watermanetal.,2008;TiberiusandHall,2010),howeverresearcherswithintheeudaimonictraditionofpositive

Chapter 1 Positive Psychology and the Body

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A brief introduction to positive psychology 3

psychologyarguethattheseconceptsareindeedtwodistinctentities(Linley,2009;Carr,2011).

How much do you already know about positive psychology? If you are new to the discipline, what are your assumptions of the area?

Think about it . . .

Inacriticaloverviewofthepositivepsychologymovement,Wonghighlightedtheinconsistencyoflanguageandterminologyaddingtwomore‘typesofhappiness’,beyondhedonicandeudaimonic,including:‘prudentialhappiness’whichfocusesonactivepathwaystohappinessandincludesconceptssuchasengagementandflow;and‘chaironichappiness’whichstemsfromunexpectedandeventragiccircumstances(sufferingtoenlightenment).

Mostrecently,‘halcyonichappiness’waspresentedattheinauguralCanadianPositivePsychologyconference(GrumanandBors,2012)asanewtypeofhappinessanddefinedas‘thesereneandcontentedacceptanceoflife“asitis”withnoambitionsofacquisition,accomplishment,orprogresstowardsgoals’(GrumanandBors,2012).Ultimately,thistheoryarguesthatthereisaformof‘inthemoment’happinessthatdiffersfrombothhedonicandeudaimonicstates.

What do you think of the new proposed ‘types of happiness’? How do you think they are similar/different to each other?

Think about it . . .

Flourishing versus happinessItcouldbearguedthat‘flourishing’isthenewbuzzwordwithinthepositivepsychologymovement.ThewordflourishoriginallycomesfromtheLatinwordflor (flower) andissynonymouswithgrowthanddevelopment(eitherfromabiologicalorpsychologicalperspective).Flourishingiscurrentlydividedintothreemainmodels:theMentalHealth/DualContinuaModel/MHPP (Keyes,2002;2005;2006),Mentalhealthspectrum(Huppert,2009)andthenewestmodel,WellbeingTheory(PERMA) (Seligman,2011).

The Dual Continua Model of healthKeyes’MentalHealth/DualContinua modelofflourishingconsidersflourishingasmentalhealth,whereindividuals‘thrive,prosperandfarewellinendeavours’

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Chapter 1 Positive Psychology and the Body4

(KeyesandMichalec,2009;Michalecetal.,2009:393).Themainconditionofthistheoryisthattheabsenceofmentalillnessdoesnotimplythepresenceofmentalhealth.Inordertoassesswhethersomeoneisflourishingornot,thismentalhealthmodelutilizesadiagnosticmeasurementtoolthatclassifiesthreesetsofmentalhealthsymptoms:

1 FunctionalPsychologicalwellbeing(PWB)(RyffandKeyes,1995) (Self-acceptance,Personalgrowth,Purposeinlife,Environmentalmastery,AutonomyandPositiverelations);

2 FunctionalSocialwellbeing(Keyes,1998)(Socialacceptance,Socialgrowth,Socialcontribution,SocialcoherenceandSocialintegration);and

3 EmotionalWellbeing[Subjectivewellbeing(SWB)(Diener,2000)](PositiveaffectandSatisfactionwithlife)(adaptedfromKeyes,2002).

Individualsareconsideredflourishingwhentheyscore‘highononeofthreescalesinemotionalwellbeingandhavehighlevelsonsixofthe11scalesofpositivefunctioning’,(Michalecetal.,2009:393).

‘Languishing’isdefinedas lowlevelsofwellbeingincludingfeelingsofemptiness,stagnationandfeelinghollow.Languishing,althoughnotconsideredamentaldisorder,canstillnegativelyaffectanindividual.Individualsareconsideredlanguishingwhentheyscorelowlevelsonsixofthe11scalesofpositivefunctioning.Overall,thismentalhealthmodelhasseveralclassificationsofmentalhealth,whichrangefromlowtohigh(seeFigure1.1).

Figure 1.1 Complete mental health model classifications of an individual’s wellbeing (adapted from Michalec et al., 2009: 393)

Mental illnessand

languishing

Pure mentalillness

Purelanguishing

Moderatelymentallyhealthy(neither

flourishing orlanguishing)

Completelymentallyhealthy

(flourishing)

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A brief introduction to positive psychology 5

Inalargescalestudy,Keyes(2002)foundthat‘inadultsbetweentheagesof25and74(n=3032),17.2percentfitthecriteriaforflourishing;56.6percentweremoderatelymentallyhealthy;12.1percentofadultsfitthecriteriaforlanguishingand14.1percentfitthecriteriaforDSM-III-Rmajordepressiveepisode(overthepast12-monthperiod)’(p.207).Themostimportantfindingwasthat‘theriskofamajordepressiveepisodewastwotimesmorelikelyamonglanguishingthanmoderatelymentallyhealthyadultsandnearlysixtimesgreateramonglanguishingthanflourishingadults’(p.207).Thus,Keyesconcludedthatlanguishingmightbeasdebilitatingasmajordepression.Furtherbenefitsofflourishingincludedfewerdaysoffworkandfewerreportedlimitationstodailylife(Keyes,2002).

The Mental health spectrum FeliciaHuppertattheCambridgeWellbeingInstitutehastakenaslightlydifferentapproachtoflourishing. TheMentalHealthSpectrummodeltakesapopulation-basedapproachtoimprovingwellbeing,ratherthananindividualfocusedprevention/treatmentmodel(Huppert,2005;2009). HuppertandSo(2011)defineflourishingastheexhibitionofthreesetofcore features(positiveemotions,engagementandmeaning)andthreeofsixadditional features(selfesteem,optimism,resilience,vitality,self-determinationandpositiverelationships).Huppertarguesthatinordertoincreasethetotalnumberofthosewhoareflourishing,weneedtotakeonamoreepidemi-ologicalapproachtounderstandingchangesinmentalillnesspreventionandtreatment.

Figure1.2demonstrateswhatKeyesarguedinhismodelofflourishing:thatthereareaconsiderablenumberofindividualswhoaremoderatelyhealthyandasmallnumberofflourishing/languishingindividuals.Thekeytomovingmoreintothe‘flourishing’statecouldbeachievedbyreducingthemeannumberofsymptomsinapopulation.Evensmallshiftsinthepopulationmeancanhaveasignificanteffectonreducingprevalence

Figure 1.2 The mental health spectrum (Huppert, 2005)

%

Mentaldisorder

Languishing Moderatemental health

Flourishing

Psychological resources

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Chapter 1 Positive Psychology and the Body6

ofmentaldisorders.Thus,asthemeandropsinsymptoms,moreindividualswillmoverightacrossthespectrumtowardsflourishing(asseeninFigure1.3).

PerMa In2011,Seligmanpublishedanewbook,Flourish,whichcreatedadeparturefromapreviousfocusonauthentichappinesstheorywhichislargelyassociatedwithHedonia.Seligmancreated‘wellbeingtheory’(WBT),consistingoffiveelements(PERMA),whichhearguespeoplewillchoosefortheirownsake.Eachoneofthefiveelementshasbeenfoundtoenhancewellbeingandbeintrinsicallymotivatingandquantifiablymeasurable.Theseelementsinclude:

Positive emotionsStemmingfromtheoriginaltheoryofthe‘pleasantlife’Seligmankeptinpositiveemotionsashearguesitisa‘cornerstoneofWBT’,however,happinessandsatisfactionwithlifearenowsimplyelementsofthiscomponent,notthefinalgoal.

EngagementSimilartotheaboveelement,engagementremainswithinthenewWBTasitfitsthecriteriaasaboveandisastapleinleadingtoaflourishinglife.

RelationshipsThiselementsurroundstheimportanceof‘otherpeople’andthecrucialroletheyplayinourabilitytoflourish.

MeaningAformerhappinesstheorycomponent,meaningremainsinWBTandcoversthesenseofpurposeandbelongingaswellasservingsomethinghigherthanyourself.

AccomplishmentThisnewcomponentencompassesindividualswhoengageinthe‘achievinglife’,focusingonsuccess,achievementandmostofallmastery.

Seligmanfurtherstatesthattheseelementscontributeto,butdonotsingularlydefine,wellbeing.Byincludingbothhedonicandeudaimoniccomponentsto

Figure 1.3 Effect of a small shift in the population mean on the mental health spectrum (Huppert, 2005)

%

Mentaldisorder

Languishing Moderatemental health

Flourishing

Psychological resources

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Introducing . . . the body 7

wellbeingtheory,Seligmancreatedamoreholisticperspectivetooptimalfunctioning.Seligman(2011)arguedthatflourishingcouldbethemissingtheoreticalbackbonetoallofpositivepsychology,asthemajorityofpositivepsychologytopicsandappliedprogrammesaimtoenhanceanindividual’slevelsofflourishing.ResearchersarecurrentlydevisingatooltomeasureflourishingasoperationallydefinedbyPERMA.

Critiques of positive psychologyTheoriginaldichotomousthinkinginwhichpositivepsychologycommencedisolateditselffromaholisticviewofhumanpotential.Inordertocreatesomething‘new’,thedisciplinesetoutanagendatoenhancewellbeingwithinthenormalpopulationandsticktothe‘positive’sideoflife.Thisoveremphasisonthebenefitsofhappiness,positivity,etc.was,andis,shortsighted,especiallyasresearchhascontinuallyshownthepotentialforenlightenmentandgrowththroughadversity.Overtime,thisone-sidedperspectivehaslessenedsomewhat,withtheareabroadeningitsfocusandrecognizingthecomplexityofhumanemotionsandexperiences(Wong,2011).Thus,throughoutthecourseofthebook,wewillreviewtheresearchonbothhedonicandeudaimonichappinessfromtheconnectionswith,useof,andmanipulationstothebody.Thechaptersareacollectionofworkfromallareasofacademiaincludinganthropology,history,sociology,biologyandofcourse,psychology.Thus,nowthatwehaverevisitedthemajortheoreticalmodelsofhappiness,wellbeingandflourishing,theaimofthenextsectionistointroducethebodyfromaphenomenologicalandsociologicalperspective,delvingintotheconceptofembodimentanditsroleinpositivepsychology.

introducing . . . the body

The body is more than simply another machine, indistinguishable from the artificial objects of the world, it is also the vessel of the individual’s sense of self, his most personal feelings and aspirations, as well as that entity to which others respond in a special way because of their uniquely human qualities.

(Gardner,1993:235–6)

Weallhavebodiesweuseeverydaytoengagewithourselvesandtheoutsideworld.Thesebodiescomeinallshapesandsizesandperform

functionsrangingfromthemundanetothemarvellous.Wewillalsovaryfrompersontoperson,agetoage,inhowconsciousweareofthisbody(NettletonandWatson,1998).Itwillbeimpossibletocoverallresearchandtheoryonthebodyinthischapter,however,Ihopethatyouwillseekouttheworksoftheseauthorsbelowtostartyouonyourownjourneytobecomingmore‘embodied’.

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Chapter 1 Positive Psychology and the Body8

understanding the somatopsychic side to flourishing Justasthemind(psyche)caninfluencethebody(soma),thetermsomatopsychicpositsthatthebodycanhaveareciprocaleffectonthemind.DorothyHarriswasapioneerintheresearchareaofphysicalactivityandwellbeingandofferedasomatopsychiceducationrationaleforphysicalactivity(Harris,1973).Harrisarguedthattherewassupportforboththepsycheandsomadirectionalinfluenceoneachotherandtherelationshipwas(andremainstoday)acomplexmandatethatarguesformorefocusonthe‘prepotencyofthesomaoverthepsyche’(p.6):‘Is it possible that physical activity which stresses the somatic functions can produce a sense of psychological wellbeing and a positive psychological response in much the same way that altering the psychic state can effectively alter the somatic condition in a positive way?’ (Harris,1973:6).

Thisconceptofthebodyinfluencingthemindisnotnew.AncientGreeksusedtoattributecertainpsychologicaldisorders(e.g.depression)toimbalancesofelementssituatedwithinthebody(thefourhumours–blackbile,yellowbile,phlegmandblood)(ComptonandHoffman,2012).SinceHarris’searlierwork,wehavesubstantialevidencefromarangeofdisciplines(e.g.biology,physiology,sportsciences)tosupporttheMens-sanoencorporesano(healthybody=ahealthymind)claims(ComptonandHoffman,2012).Fullandoptimalfunctioninggoesbeyondcognitivehealthandmustfocusontheneedforoptimalphysicalfunctioningonoverallflourishing(LoehrandSchwartz,2001;2003).

embodiment Someofusonlylive‘abovetheshoulder’,engaginginthestressesandstrainsofdailylifewithaneglectforthewelfareofwhatliesbelowourneck(Siegel,2010).Embodimentisunderstoodas‘thefeltsenseofbeinglocalizedwithinone’sphysicalbodyandreferencesthelivedimmediateexperienceofone’sownbody’(Mehlingetal.,2009:2).Ultimately,howweexperienceourphysicalselfcaninturninfluenceourabilitytoexperiencewellbeing.Humanisticpsychologistshavebeenresearchingtheconceptofembodimentfordecades.Embodimentstatesthatthebodyiscentralinoureverydayexperiences(Howson,2005).Embodimentinsocialpsychologyfocuseson‘theassumptionthatthoughts,feelingsandbehavioursaregroundedonbodilyinteractions’(Meieretal.,2012:1).MauriceMerleau-Ponty(1962)focusedontheexperientialsidetohavingabodyandclaimedthathowpeopleexperiencehavingandusingtheirbodyisnotphysicalbutphenomenological.Merleau-Pontyclaimedthatweareallembodiedandthatthereforeallhumanperceptionisembodied:‘wecannotperceiveanythingandoursensecannotfunctionindependentlyofourbodies’(NettletonandWatson,1998:9).Thus,itisarguedthatthebodyisinvolvedinbothconstructingandbeingconstructedbyourreality.Byrecognizingthisassuch,weareabletodelineatebetween‘havingabody,doingabodyandbeingabody’(NettletonandWatson,1998:11).

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Introducing . . . the body 9

SimilartoMerleau-Ponty,O’Neill(1985)positedthatweexistoffivebodies:‘Theworld’sbody,Socialbodies,theBodypolitic,ConsumerbodiesandMedicalbodies’ (ascitedinFrank,1990:133–4).Thesebodieshavebeenutilizedasaresourcewithinorganizationsandcultures.Frank(1990)ontheotherhand,feltthattherewerefourdistinctbodies:themedicalized body,whichfocusesonthebodyanditsrelationshipwithsociallyconstructedpracticesofillnessanddisease;the sexual

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Phenomenologyis‘thescienceofexperience’(Langdridge,2004:274)andwasphilosophicallyconceivedbyEdmundHusserlinthelate1800s(Ashworth,2003).Hisobjectivewastoalterthepositivisticviewofsearchingforthe‘realtruth’behindtheaccount,andsimplytakethesubjectiveexperienceasreality.Husserlian’sphenomenologydealswiththetheoryof‘thereduction’,whichsimplystatesthattheresearchermustattempttobracket(ignoreandcutoffanypreconceivedideas/notions/hypothesesbeforetheybegintoinvestigate)themselvesfromtheirpresuppositionsandinterpretationsandseethephenomenoninitstruestate(Finlay,2008).Initstotality,thegoalisfortheresearchertoachievetranscendentalsubjectivitybywayofbracketingtheirpreviousintuitiveknowledgeofscience,theirlifeworldandattitudes.

Heideggeridentifiedproblemswiththereductionandeventuallycreatedthesecondbranchofphenomenology,hermeneutics,whichgoesbeyondthedescriptiveandsearchesformeaningwithinhumanexperience,eitherknownorunknowntotheparticipantthemselves(LopezandWillis,2004).Hermeneuticsputsparticularemphasisoninterpretation,or‘being-in-the-world’,whichstatesthatanyinterpretationsandunderstandingsofthelivedexperienceareadirectresultofourpreviousandpresentselves(thoughts,knowledge,understandings)andbeing-in-the-world(Finlay,2008).Theimportantthingforaphenomenologististobeawareofandtransparentofthesebiasesandto‘questionandprovokeourpre-understanding’(Gadamer,1975ascitedinFinlay,2008:9).

Types of bodiesMerleau-Pontypositedthatthereweretwodifferenttypesofbodies:the subjective bodyisourbodyas-it-is-lived.Thisisthebodythatengageswiththeworldbutisonethatwearenotconsciousofandwetakeitforgranted.ThesubjectivebodyiswhatMerlean-Ponty(1962)andLeder(1990)calledthehabitualbodyorthe‘taken-for-granted’body.2Theobjective body, ontheotherhand,isthebodythatisknownbythe‘Other’andcanbeobservedandobjectified(Gil-Rodriguez,2012).

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Chapter 1 Positive Psychology and the Body10

body, whichlooksatsexualityacrosscultures;the disciplined body,whichpractisesregimentedfasting,extremeworkandpower;andthe talking bodywhichexpressesitsconceptualizationofitsownreality.Frank(1990)sawthesebodiestorepresenttheactiveandpassivecapacitiesofthebodyinbothhealthandillness.Inaddition,heproposedthatthesebodiesalsoincludetheintellectualized‘academicimaginationsofthebody’,whicheventuallycauseustobecomelesssureofwhatthebodyactuallyis.3

embodied emotionOurconsciousnessandoursubjectiveexperienceareverymuchlinkedtoourphysicalembodiment.Indeed,earlyresearchintoemotionspositedthatemotionsweretheresultofperceptionsofphysiologicalchangesandnotnecessarilyrelatedtoourcognitiveappraisaloftheevent.TheJames-Lange somatic theoryproposedthatphysiologicalchangeswithinourbodiesforceustointerpretthesechanges,therebyfeelingassociatedemotionsandproducingbehaviour(PasserandSmith,2006).Themajorcomponentoftheirtheoryisthatthephysiologicalcomponenthappensfirst,signallingtothepersonwhatisgoingon( James,1879;1890).Forexample,wecry(physiological),andthenweknow/interpretthatwearesad(emotion).Amajorcriticismofthistheoryisthefactthatdifferentemotionscanproducethesamephysiologicalresponses(e.g.humanscrywhensadandwhenhappy).Cognitive appraisal theorystatedthatemotionsarisefromourcognitiveappraisalofthesituationashavingeitheranegativeorpositiveeffect.Thisappraisalthereforeresultsinusexperiencingwhatwewouldcallemotions.TheCanon-Bard theoryofemotionsarguedthatboththebodyandthecognitiveappraisalofthesituationhappenatthesametime(Cannon,1929,ascitedinPasserandSmith,2006).Sincethen,DamasioofferedfurtherextensionoftheJames-Langetheorystatingthatitisthebodythathelpsus‘shapethedecision’aboutwhattodoinsituations,ratherthanshapetheexperienceofit.Withtheadvancementofdrugsandmedicalinterventions,weareseeingthatthelinkbetweenbodyandemotionmaybethatthebodyactsasan‘amplifier’ratherthana‘generator’ofemotions(Kringelbach,2009).

Social psychology researchers would argue that emotions in particular are integral to notions of embodiment (Lupton, 1998a, b). Our bodies

can betray us and signal to others what we are feeling (embarrassment = blush; cold = goosebumps). Furthermore, we tend to represent our feelings with verticality, such that happiness feels like being high off the ground; sadness feels (and is constructed) as being low. Can you think of any other examples where you have noticed this embodied use of emotions in psychology?

Think about it . . .

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Body awareness 11

Body awareness

Similartotheconceptofembodiment,bodyawarenessisdefinedasthe‘attentionalfocusonandawarenessofinternalbodysensation’(Mehling

etal.,2009:1).Traditionally,bodyawarenesshasbeenutilizedasamarkerofmaladaptivefunctioningwithinchronicpain,depressionandothermedicalarenaspositingthatpatientscanbecomeobsessedwithoroverwhelmedbytuningintotheirbodilysensations.However,recentresearchhasstartedtolookatthebenefitsofbodyawarenessandtheabilitytorecognizesubtlechangesinsomaticsensation,especiallywhenusedinthemanagementofpain.Thecurrentscalesusedmeasurebodyawarenessonfourdimensions(Mehlingetal.,2009):

a perceivedbodysensation(thisreferstoaperson’sabilitytoidentifybodysensationsandinternalcuesaswellassubsequentphysiologicalstatesbothpositiveandnegative);

b attentionquality(thisreferstoaperson’spropensitytoengagewiththesensationsorignorethem.Thesedimensionsalsoincludetheperson’sperceivedsenseofself-efficacywhenattendingtothesensationsandareabletoreflectinamindfulandnon-judgementalfashion);

c attitude(thisreferstoaperson’strustintheirabilitytocorrectlyidentifyandtrustinnersensationswhichthenleadtoadaptivedecisionmaking);

d mind-bodyintegration(thisreferstoaperson’sabilitytorecognizesensationsinemotionsandtheiroverallperceptionofbeingembodiedversusdisconnectedtotheirownphysicalself ).

Interoceptionisaperson’sperceptionofthephysicalsensationscausedbytheirinternalorgans–e.g.heart,autonomicnervoussystem(ANS)–inrelationtoemotions.Withinpsychology,interoceptionhasbeendeemedthe‘sixthsense’(Siegel,2010),whereaftersight,sounds,taste,smellandtouch,wehavea‘visceralsense’whichistheabilityto‘perceivetheinternalstateofthebody’(p.272).Thereispreliminaryevidencelinkingtheabilitytohaveinteroceptivebodyawarenessandtherightanteriorinsula,withpotentialchangesduetomeditativepractices(Mehlingetal.,2009).Theanteriorcingulatecortex(ACC)isresponsibleforlinkingbodyemotions,attentionandsocialawarenessandplaysaroleinourabilitytofeelembodied(Siegel,2010).4Wecanutilizeseveralapproachestoenhancebodyawarenesssuchasyoga,exercise,etc.(Mehlingetal.,2009)andthesearediscussedinmoredetailinChapter11.

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Chapter 1 Positive Psychology and the Body12

a history of the body in society

Weknowthatwehaveabrain–amaterialandphysicalorganthatissituatedonthetopofourbodyandencasedinaskull.However,what

isthismaterialorgan’srelationshiptothemind(consciousness)?Doesitcreateit?Doesitreflectreality?Aretheyseparateentities?Forhundredsofyearsphilosophershavestruggledwiththemind/bodyproblem(Andreassi,2007).Indeed,theconnectionsbetweenathinkingbrainandthismaterialbrainisthoughttohavebeenfirstrecordedasfarbackas3000BC(Carsonetal.,1988,ascitedinAndreassi,2007).

Platointroducedtheideathatbothmentalprocessing(consciousness)andthesoulwerelocatedinthebrain.Thethesisthatthebody(brain)andthesoul(mentalevents)wereseparatedstartedtheconceptofdualism.Aristotle,ontheotherhand,wentontodeclarethatpassions,emotionsandthesementalorspiritualeventswerelocatedinthe

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Physicalself-conceptisadomainofglobalselfworthandconsistsoffoursubdomains,including:sportcompetence,attractivebody,physicalstrengthandphysicalcondition.Foxdevelopedthephysicalselfperceptionprofile(PSPP),whichmeasuresphysicalself-worthonfivesubscales:

1 Sport competence (sport) Thisencompassesaperson’ssubjectiveperceptionsoftheirsportingandathleticabilityaswellastheirconfidenceinthesportenvironment.

2 Physical condition (condition) Thisdomainencompassesthesubjectiveperceptionsofanindividual’sfitnesslevels,staminaandoverallphysicalconditioninadditiontotheirconfidenceinexercisesettings.

3 Body attractiveness (body) Thisencompassesaperson’ssubjectiveperceptionsofphysicalattractiveness,confidenceintheirappearanceandtheirabilitytomaintainsaidappearance.

4 Physical strength (strength) Thisencompassesaperson’ssubjectiveperceptionsoftheirmusclestrengthanddevelopment.

5 Physical self-worth (PSW) Thisencompassesaperson’ssubjectiveperceptionsoftheiroverallsatisfactionwiththeirphysicalself.

Physicalself-conceptwascreatedinordertobroadentheconceptofself-esteemtheoryanditslinkstoactivityparticipationandisassessedviathe30-itemPhysicalSelfPerceptionsProfile(FoxandCorbin,1989).

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A history of the body in society 13

heart.ThemaindifferencebetweenAristotle’sandPlato’sstanceswerethatAristotlebelievedthatthebodyandthesoulwereactuallyone–atheoryknownasmonism.Commonplacethroughoutcontemporarymedicineandpsychology(PasserandSmith,2006),monism(thefoundationofempiricism)maintainsthatthemindandbodyareone,holdingnoseparatespiritualproprieties:whatwethinkandfeelisadirectresultofphysicalreactionsinthebrain.

ReneDescarteswasoneofthemostinfluentialwritersandphilosophersofalltime.Hismechanistictheoreticalconceptionsofourworldandwhatmakesitworkwereinfluencedbyhispreviousoccupationinmathematics(Frost,1962).Intheseventeenthcentury,hedevisedCartesianDualismwherehedifferentiatedbetweentwodifferentsubstanceswhichworktogether–thephysicalandthemental.Descartesbelievedthatthereweretwokindsofsubstancesintheworld,bodyandmind,andthesewerecompletelyindependentofeachother(Andreassi,2007).Thebody,therefore,comessecondandseparatetothemind,whichhousesoursenseofself(Howson,2005).

If, for example, something was to happen to your body that altered your physical form, do you think your sense of self would change? Cartesian

dualism would argue that it wouldn’t as the two are separate. Do you agree with this? Why or why not? (Howson, 2005).

Think about it . . .

Intheearly1900s,somatic psychologywasarguablycreatedbyWilhelmReich,whoendeavouredtoreunitethebodyandmindthroughtherapy.Theareaofsomaticpsychologytakesonexperientialandgestaltperspectives,recognizingthatlifeisaseriesofembodiedinteractions.

Foucault’slaterworkonthebodyanditssocialconstructioninsocietychangedthewaywethinkaboutthebodyasa‘nonentity’.Foucaultarguedthatthebodywasoftenasiteforpoliticalviolence,‘violentlyconstructedinordertolegitimatedifferentregimesofdomination’(e.g.prisons,asylums,clinics;Davis,1997:3;Foucault,1978,1979).Inadditiontotherelationshipbetweenthebodyandpower,Foucaulttackledthehistoryofsexualityandthebodyaswellasanewreflectiononthebodyasaprojectofstudy(Frank,1990).

Inthe1980s,HowardGardner’stheoryofmultipleintelligenceschallengedthetraditionalviewofthetime:thattherewasoneformofintelligenceandthiswasmeasureablebystandardizedIQtests.Oneofthesemultiple‘intelligences’wasbodily-kinaestheticintelligence,whichpositsthatindividualscanpossessabilitiesinwhichtheyareabletoutilizetheirbodyintwoways:‘controlone’sbodymotionsandtohandleobjectsskilfully’(Gardner,1993:206).Danceisconsideredoneofthemostexclusiveformsof‘maturebodilyexpression’(p.222)withacting,athleticsand

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Chapter 1 Positive Psychology and the Body14

inventingasothermajorexamplesofbodykinaestheticintelligence.Theseactivitieshaveacomplexityofnegotiatingboththemuscularsystemandneuralsystems,makingitanarttomaintaintimingandcontroloverthebodyattheopportunetimes.GardnerclaimedthatmasteryoverthebodyaswellasdesireforgraceandbeautyinmovementhavebeenpresentsincetheancientGreeks,wherethehumanbodywasconsidered‘beautiful,aworthyandlovedpartnerwiththesoul-mind’(p.233).Gardnerfurthercontendedthatwewouldn’tbehereonearthnowifitwasn’tforthebodyintelligenceofourancientprehistoricancestors.

Intheearly1990stherewasasurgeofbody-relatedresearch,books,academicjournalsandattentiontotheroleofthebodyinsocialandpsychologicalfunctioning(alsoknownasthe‘bodycraze’;Davis,1997:1).Aconsiderableamountoffeministandsocialresearchonthebodyanditsroleincreatingtheselfinsocietycamefromthisera.Humanisticpsychologistshavealsobeenresearchingtheconceptofembodimentfordecades,withafocusto‘examinesomaticinfluencesandthefundamentalroleplayedbystatesofthebodyintheabilitytoattainandespeciallytosustainapositiveframeofmind’(Resnicketal.,2001:5).

Today,thereseemstobearenewedinterestinthebodyinthesocialandclinicalpsychologicaldisciplines(Keenan,2001a)aswellaspublicpolicy(Orbach,2009;2012;YMCA,2012).Unfortunately,wehaveanincreasinglynegativerelationshipwiththebody(Orbach,2012),withanincreaseinaestheticprocedures(BAAPS,2011),negativebodyimage(Impettetal.,2011;YMCA,2012),eatingdisordersacrossgenders(Orbach,2012)andselfharming(Favazza,2011).Thebodyiswellandtruly‘Dysappearing’(Frank,1995;Stam,1998).

One social barometer of how we are becoming increasingly dissatisfied with our bodies and ‘decoporealised’ (Mehling et al., 2009: 3) is the

yearly statistic on elective plastic surgery. The British Association of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (BAAPS) 2011 stats showed an average 5.7 per cent increase in numbers of procedures completed from 2011 to 2012. Male surgery continues to account for 10 per cent of all cosmetic surgery procedures, meaning women still account for 90 per cent of all cosmetic surgical procedures. Why do you think elective plastic surgery is on the rise? Are you surprised by the stats? Why or why not?

Think about it . . .

Incontemporarysociety,someresearchersarguethatbodiesnolongerrepresenthowwefitintothesocialorder,butarethemeansforself-expression,for‘becomingwhowewouldmostliketobe’(Davis,1997:2).Especiallyin

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The body and positive psychology – taking a holistic perspective 15

today’ssociety,wehavetakenonthebodyasourownlittle‘identityproject’(Giddens,1991,ascitedinDavis,1997)andwemanipulateittolookyounger,thinner,prettier–controllingwhatwecan.Someresearcherswouldarguethatwetreatourbodiesmuchlikeacar:‘toberepaired,maintainedorenhanced’(Finkelstein,1991,ascitedinDavis,1997:2).Researchersarguethatitmaybebecauseofthisitisbecomingincreasinglydifficultto‘behappy’inourbodiesduetosocietalchangesandpressuresonappearance(Orbach,2009;Walter,2010).Overall,anegativebodyimagecanhaveadevastatingeffectonaperson’sdevelopmentofself-concept(GoldenbergandShackelford,2005),withloweredlevelsofphysicalself-esteemfoundtoinducehigherratesofdepressionandanxiety(Robertsetal.,1999).

How do you react to magazines and media that have been ‘photo-shopped’? Do you still compare yourself to these impossible-to-reach

ideals? How do you reconcile this dichotomy between real and illusory bodies?

Think about it…

The body and positive psychology – taking a holistic perspective

Asyouhaveseen,thecurrenthappinessandflourishingtheorieswithinpositivepsychologydonotincludeoralludetothebodyanditsrolein

optimalhumanfunctioning.Ifweareindeedembodiedcreatureswhorelyonthebodytoengageandinteractwiththeoutsideworld,itseemsimpossibleandindeednaivetocontinueadisciplinesodetachedfromthebodyanditsfacilitationinhedonicandeudaimonicwellbeing.ThetidesappeartobechangingwithresearcherssuchasSuzanneSegerstrom,BarbaraFredricksonandDacherKeltnerrecognizingtheextentofthedisconnectbetweenbodyandmindaswellastheadventofpositivepsychophysiology(Chapter2),positiveneuroscience(Chapter3)andpositivehealth(Chapter5).Indeed,the3rdWorldCongressonPositivePsychologywillincludeoneoftheirhighlightedconferencethemesas‘healthybody/healthymind’.Thisisanincrediblejumpfromthepreviousneglectofthebodywithinpositivepsychologyandoffershopeforachangefromacognitivemonopolyintheoryandinterventionstoamoreholistic,embodiedapproach.

Inconclusion,positivepsychologystandstogainasignificantamountbyincorporatingamoreembodiedapproachtowellbeing.Positivepsychologytalksabout

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Chapter 1 Positive Psychology and the Body16

summary

Reflectingonthelearningobjectivesyoushouldnowunderstandflourishingandthehistorybehindthebodyinpsychology.Morespecifically,youshouldknow:

■■ Flourishingisthenewfocusofpositivepsychologywithseveraltheoreticalperspectivesandmodels.

■■ PERMAisSeligman’snewmodelandcanactasabackboneforallpositivepsychologyconceptsandprogrammes.

■■ Psychologyhashadalongrelationshipwiththebodyandiscurrentlyhavinga‘come-back’insocialandclinicalpsychology.

■■ Bodyawarenessistheabilitytorecognizesensationswithinthebodyandutilizethemasinformationforadaptivepurposes.

■■ Thebodyplaysanimportantroleinourabilitytoexperiencehedonicandeudaimonicwellbeing.

suggested resources

http://www.uel.ac.uk/psychology/programmes/postgraduate/positive-msc.htmForaccesstoinformationregardingtheMAPPcourseattheUniversityofEastLondon,UK,pleaselogonandviewdetails.

http://www.sas.upenn.edu/lps/graduate/mapp/ThiswebsitewillbringyoutothenewresearchonPERMAmodelandyoucanalsotakepartinvalidatingtheirnewPERMAmeasurementtool.

http://www.cambridgewellbeing.org/ ThislinkwillbringyoutoTheWellbeingInstitute,runbyprofessorFeliciaHuppert,locatedatCambridgeUniversity.

humansatisfactionanddissatisfactionbutnottheembodiedexperiencesofhumanfunctioning.Overall,thisbookwillaimtodemonstratehowbecomingawareof,reconnectingwithandtreatingthebodyinapositivewaywillinevitablysetusupforsuccessandflourishingovertime.

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17Measurement Tools

Measurement Tools

Flourishing scale

(Diener et al., 2009)

Directions Belowareeightstatementswithwhichyoumayagreeordisagree.Usingthe1–7scalebelow,indicateyouragreementwitheachitembyindicatingthatresponseforeachstatement.

7 Strongly agree 6 Agree 5 Slightly agree 4 Neither agree nor disagree 3 Slightly disagree 2 Disagree 1 Strongly disagree

____Ileadapurposefulandmeaningfullife____Mysocialrelationshipsaresupportiveandrewarding____Iamengagedandinterestedinmydailyactivities____Iactivelycontributetothehappinessandwell-beingofothers____Iamcompetentandcapableintheactivitiesthatareimportanttome____Iamagoodpersonandliveagoodlife____Iamoptimisticaboutmyfuture____Peoplerespectme

scoringAddtheresponses,varyingfrom1to7,foralleightitems.

interpretation and reviewThepossiblerangeofscoresisfrom8(lowestpossible)to56(highestpossible).Ahighscorerepresentsapersonwithmanypsychologicalresourcesandstrengths(Dieneretal.,2009).

TheFlourishingscaleencompassesseveralconceptsthatarearguedtoexistwithinhumanflourishing(e.g.positiverelationships,optimism,competenceandmeaning).Thisscalewasoriginallyconceivedasthe‘PsychologicalWellbeingScale’,however,theresearchershavesincechangedthenametoencompassthewidertheoreticalconceptofflourishingaswellasbetterreflecttheitems(Hefferon&Boniwell,2011).

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Chapter 1 Positive Psychology and the Body18

The Body awareness Questionnaire

(Shields et al., 1989)

DirectionsListedbelowareanumberofstatementsregardingyoursensitivitytonormal,non-emotivebodyprocesses.Foreachstatement,selectanumberfrom1to7thatbestdescribeshowthestatementdescribesyouandcirclethenumbernexttotherightofthestatement.

Not at all Verytrue of me true of me

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Inoticedifferencesinthewaymybodyreactsto 1234567variousfoods.

2. IcanalwaystellwhenIbumpmyselfwhetherornot 1234567itwillbecomeabruise.

3. IalwaysknowwhenI’veexertedmyselftothepoint 1234567whereI’llbesorethenextday.

4. Iamalwaysawareofchangesinmyenergylevelwhen 1234567Ieatcertainfoods.

5. IknowinadvancewhenI’mgettingtheflu. 1234567 6. IknowI’mrunningafeverwithouttaking 1234567

mytemperature. 7. Icandistinguishbetweentirednessbecauseof 1234567

hungerandtirednessbecauseoflackofsleep. 8. Icanaccuratelypredictwhattimeofdaylackof 1234567

sleepwillcatchupwithme. 9. Iamawareofacycleinmyactivitylevelthroughout 1234567

theday.*10. Idon’tnoticeseasonalrhythmsandcyclesinthewaymy1234567

bodyfunctions. 11. AssoonasIwakeupinthemorningIknowhowmuch 1234567

energyI’llhaveduringtheday. 12. IcantellwhenIgotobedhowwellIwillsleep 1234567

thatnight. 13. InoticedistinctbodyreactionswhenIamfatigued. 1234567 14. Inoticespecificbodyresponsestochangesin 1234567

theweather. 15. IcanpredicthowmuchsleepIwillneedatnight 1234567

inordertowakeuprefreshed.

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Notes 19

16. Whenmyexercisehabitschange,Icanpredictvery 1234567accuratelyhowthatwillaffectmyenergylevels.

17. Thereseemstobea‘best’timeformetogotosleep 1234567atnight.

18. Inoticespecificbodilyreactionstobeingoverhungry. 1234567

scoringThisisasummativescale.Note:*indicatesareversedscoreditem.

interpretation and reviewAlthoughtherehavebeenseveralpublishedstudiesusingtheBAQwhichreportmeansandSDs,theauthorsdonothavecut-offscoresthatwouldindicatehighorlowbodyawareness.TheBAQisusedtoconductresearchinwhichgroupsofpeopleareparticipatingandisnotmeanttobeadiagnostictooltodeterminewhetheranindividualpersonhashighorlowbodyesteem.

Inalargereviewofthecurrentscalesutilizedtomeasurebodyawareness,theBAQwasfoundtobethestrongestof12differentinstruments.Althoughthescaledoesnotincludeallaspectsofbodyawareness,itisthemostwidelyusedwithinbothresearchclinicalpracticeandhasgoodlevelsofreliabilityandvalidity.Again,theauthorsstronglystressthatthistoolisnottobeusedfordiagnosticpurposes.

notes

1 ThishassincebeenreformulatedintoWellbeingTheory(Seligman,2011)whichisdiscussedindetailbelow.

2 Thisconceptrelatestodys-appearing(Leder,1990;Frank,1995)whichwediscussinChapter6.

3 Sociologistshavefurtheridentifiedandresearchedthepresenceofthefollowingtypesofbodies:thediscursivebody,thematerialbody,theindividual/socialbody,thephysicalbody,thecommunicativebody,thesomaticbody,thecorporealbody,theuncertainbody,thenaturalisticbody,thesociallyconstructedbodyandthecomodifiedbody(seeHowson,2005:8).

4 ResearchershavefoundthattheACCisresponsibleforphysicalpaininthebrainandalsomediatesthatpainthatisfeltwhenweexperiencesocialrejections.

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