Chapter 1 - Step 1

Review of Parts of Speech

In this chapter we will do a quick review of the parts of speech, focusing on Nouns, Verbs, Prepositions and Con-junctions. We will also work on review capitalization and some common errors that writers make when working with verbs.

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Section 1

NounsNouns are the anchors of the sentence.

Types of Nouns

Common nouns - the word used for a class of person, place or thing: car, bunny, fire, man, beach

Abstract nouns - things you cannot see or touch: bravery, joy, swagger

Collective Nouns - Collective nouns – words to describe groups: team, choir

Compound nouns – nouns made up of more than one word: court-martial, pickpocket, wa-ter bottle

Concrete nouns – things you can see or touch: tree, cloud

Verbal nouns (gerunds) – nouns that represent actions: running, guessing

Proper Nouns - the name of a person, place or thing: Mr. Bean, ArTES High School, English

Nouns

Nouns are naming words. Everything we can see or talk about is represented by a word which names it – that naming word is called a noun.

Sometimes a noun will be the name for something we can touch (e.g., lion, cake, computer), and sometimes a noun will be the name for something we cannot touch (e.g., bravery, mile, joy). Everything is represented by a word that lets us talk about it. That includes people (e.g., man, scientist), animals (e.g., dog, liz-ard), places (e.g., town, street), objects (e.g., vase, pencil), sub-stances (e.g., copper, glass), qualities (e.g., heroism, sorrow), ac-tions (e.g., swimming, dancing), and measures (e.g., inch, ounce).

Here are some more examples:

% •% soldier - Alan - cousin - Frenchman (names for people)

% •% rat - zebra - lion - aardvark (names for animals)

% •% house - London - factory - shelter (names for places)

% •% table - frame - printer - chisel (names for objects)

% •% lead - nitrogen - water - ice (names for substances)

% •% kindness - beauty - bravery - wealth - faith (names for qualities)

% • rowing - cooking - barking - reading - listening (names for actions)

% • month - inch - day - pound - ounce (names for measures)

Read more at http://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/nouns.htm#gqRFGD88JYGGCdtQ.99

Nouns do a variety of jobs in a sentence, but we are most concerned with these two functions: subject and object of the preposition.

Example: The dog ran after the ba!.

In the sentence above, there are two nouns, dog and ba!.

Dog is the subject of the sentence.

Ba! is the object of the preposition.

For now, let’s focus on finding the subject of the sentence. When you see it, underline it ONCE.

Parts of Speech Overview – The Noun

http://owl.english.purdue.edu

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Nouns - A noun is a word that denotes a person, place, thing, or idea. In a sentence, nouns answer the questions who and what.

Concrete Nouns

Example: The dog ran after the ball.

In the sentence above, there are two nouns, dog and ball. These are concrete nouns (something you can touch, see, etc.).

Abstract Nouns

Example 1: She possesses integrity.

Example 2: He was searching for love.

The abstract concepts of integrity and love in the sentences above are both nouns.

Proper Nouns

Example 1: She visited Chicago every year.

Example 2: Thanksgiving is in November.

Chicago, Thanksgiving, and November are all proper nouns, and they should be capitalized.

A Little Help with Capitals

Use capital letters in the following ways:

1. The first words of a sentence

• When he tells a joke, he sometimes forgets the punch line.

2. The pronoun "I"

• The last time I visited Atlanta was several years ago.

3. Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, or-ganizations, and sometimes things)

• Worrill Fabrication Company

• Golden Gate Bridge

• The United States Supreme Court

• Livingston, Missouri

• Atlantic Ocean

• Mothers Against Drunk Driving

4. Family relationships (when used as proper names)

• I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.

• Here is a present I bought for Mother.

• Did you buy a present for your mother?

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5. The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books

• the Virgin Mary

• the Bible

• Moses

• Shiva

*Exception: Do not capitalize the nonspecific use of the word "god."

6. Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names

• She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.

• I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville.

7. Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)

• The Patels have moved to the Southwest.

• Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.

8. The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)

• Halloween

• October

• Friday

• winter

• spring

• fall

9. The names of countries, nationalities, and specific lan-guage

• Costa Rica

• Spanish

• French

• English

10. The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote

• Emerson once said, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."

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11. The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title)

• One of Jerry's favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.

12. Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups

• Green Bay Packers

• African-Americans

• Anti-Semitic

• Democrats

• Friends of the Wilderness

• Chinese

13. Periods and events (but not century numbers)

• Victorian Era

• Great Depression

• sixteenth century

14. Trademarks

• Pepsi

• Honda

• IBM

• Microsoft Word

A NOTE AS WE MOVE FORWARD

From here on out, we will be analyzing sentences in the following way:

1. Draw a line through the prepositional phrase (we will go over prepositions in a few more steps)

2.Find the verb -- underline it twice

3. Find the subject of the verb - underline it once

4.Put and SC above every subordinating conjunction (don’t worry, that’s coming too).

For now -- focus on finding the subject verb pairs in the sentences.

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A verb is a word that denotes action, or a state of be-ing, in a sentence.

Example 1: Beth rides the bus every day.

Example 2: Paul was an avid reader.

In example 1, rides is the verb; it describes what the sub-ject, Beth, does. In example 2, was describes Paul’s state of being and is therefore the verb.

There may be multiple verbs in a sentence, or there may be a verb phrase consisting of a verb plus a helping verb.

Example 1: She turned the key and opened the door.

Example 2: Jackson was studying when I saw him last.

In example 1, the subject she performs two actions in the sentence, turned and opened. In example 2, the verb phrase is was studying.

Some words in a sentence may look like verbs but act as something else, like a noun; these are called verbals (more on this later). Parts of Speech – Verbs

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Section 2

Verbs

Mr. Bean is dancing.

The woman in red is moving past him quickly.

Mr. Bean dances like a boss.

Write down the sentences above in your journal. Find the verbs in the above sentences. Underline the verbs TWICE. Find the subject of the sentences. Underline the subjects ONCE.

Mr. Bean takes us on a journey through the world of verbs.

Most verbs are action words, but a few verbs indicate state of be-ing or existence.

Find the verbs in the following sentences:

1. The wolf ran across the sand.

2. Sit down.

3. The dog barked at the man.

Some common linking verbs are is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been, seem, look, feel, and become. They do not show action. They just show that something exists.

Find the verbs in these sentences:

1. My uncle is a pilot.

2. The pie looks good.

3. You seem upset.

Pick out the verbs in these sentences:

1. Suddenly someone sneezed loudly.

2. There are holes in my shirt.

3. He seems happy.

4. The image appeared in the mirror.

5. I feel sick.

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Verbs bring life to your sentences.

Caption this picture. Use strong verbs. Underline the subject of your sentence once and the verbs twice.

Sequence of Verb Tenseswww.owl.english.purdue.edu

Simple Present: They walk.

Present Perfect: They have walked.

Simple Past: They walked.

Past Perfect: They had walked.

Future: They will walk.

Future Perfect: They will have walked.

You DO NOT have to memorize all the tenses; the most impor-tant thing is that you remember that SOMETIMES the verb in the sentence is more than one word!

1.% Betty taught for ten years.

2.% Betty has taught for ten years.

3.% I am happy to have participated in this campaign!

4.% John had hoped to have won the trophy.

5.% John sold vegetables that he had raised.

6.% The vegetables were raised before they were sold.

7.% Renee washed the car when George arrived.

8.% Renee had washed the car when George arrived.

The Eight State-of-Being Verbs

is, am, was, were, are, being, been, be

State-of-being verbs can be the main verb of the sentence; as in:

1. Nicole is my best friend.

A state-of-being verb can be used as a helping verb; as in:

1. He is going on a trip.

2. Nicky has had a headache all day.

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Write a caption describing the above scene. Underline subject once and verb twice.

What is Mr. Bean up to today?

More on Verbs

Sometimes a verb can be more than one word. When a verb is more than one word, it is called a verb phrase. Verb phrases can be two, three, or four words. Verb phrases are made by using helping verbs.

There are twenty-three (23) helping verbs that should be memo-rized since they are used so often. If you will memorize them, it will make knowing and understanding verbs much easier. They are usually grouped in the following five groups:

Group 1: is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been

Group 2: has, have, had

Group 3: do, does, did

Group 4: sha!, wi!, should, would

Group 5: may, might, must, can, could

Underline the verb phrases TWICE in these sentences:

1. You are going to Seattle.

2. You have been resting too much.

3. We must be early.

4. I will be finished shortly.

Some of the helping verbs can be used alone as the main verb.

Is, am, are, was, and were can be used alone as linking or state of being verbs.

Has, have, had, do, does, and did always show action when used alone.

Be, being, and been can be used with other verbs either to show ac-tion or state of being. The other helping verbs cannot be used alone but only as helping verbs.

Underline the verb or verb phrases TWICE in these sentences.

1. She has too many friends.

2. You do beautiful work.

3. I was in Canada last week.

4. You are being very stubborn.

Underline the verbs or verb phrases in the sentences, and tell whether they are action verbs, state of being verbs, or helping verbs.

1. Jim plays basketball.

2. They will return on the airplane.

3. Badger is a funny dog.

4. I have been here a long time.

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5. I should have been playing the drum.

6. Go home.

Identify the complete verb phrase. Determine the tense (present, past, or future).

• The neighbor next door calls her dog in a high pitched voice. (present)

• The neighbor downstairs from her yelled at her to be quiet. (past)

• I will move if this keeps up. (future)

1. The family frequents the beach all summer.

2.. I enjoy sea kayaking in British Columbia.

3. Contrary to popular belief, aliens never landed there.

4. MTV used to show a lot of videos but now there are mostly talk shows and games shows on the air.

5. We wished the party would have been a little bit more interest-ing.

6. Summer goes by so quickly.

7. Often he will run ten or twenty miles in a day.

8. He complains so much that no really listens to him any more.

9. Study hard now for the SATs and you will do well on them.

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Underline subject once and verb twice.

Caption this GIF

Underline subject once and verb twice.

Caption this GIF

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A Brief Detour into the Land of Gerunds and Infinitives

A gerund ends in -ing and functions as a noun. Because the ger-und functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject com-plement, and object of preposition.

Gerund as subject:Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (Traveling is the gerund.)The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (The gerund has been removed.)

Gerund as direct object:They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund is singing.)They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund has been removed)

Gerund as subject complement:My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is sleeping.)My cat's favorite food is salmon. (The gerund has been removed.)

Gerund as object of preposition:The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund is speeding.)The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The gerund has been re-moved.)

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Find the gerunds in this parody of a movie poster:Find the gerunds in the following sentences:

1. Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do.

2. Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.

3. I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportu-nity.

4. Tom's favorite tactic has been jabbering away to his con-stituents.

5. You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.

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Infinitives are everywhere! Infinitiveswww.owl.english.purdue.edu

An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. An infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form.

• To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (sub-ject)

• Everyone wanted to go. (direct object)• His ambition is to fly. (subject complement)• He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective)• We must study to learn. (adverb)

An infinitive phrase is a group of words consisting of an infini-tive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infini-tive, such as:

1.% We intended to leave early.2.% I have a paper to write before class.3.% Phil agreed to give me a ride.4.% They asked me to bring some food.5.% Everyone wanted Carol to be the captain of the team.6.% Most students plan to study.7.% We began to learn.

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Still confused? Check out this links:http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/http://wps.ablongman.com/long_faigley_penguinhb_2/30/7853/2010581.cw/index.htmlhttp://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/gerunds-and-infinitives-exercise-1.html

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Verb Errors to AvoidMake sure your verb tenses are consistent.

Check the following sentences for confusing shifts in tense. ___ 1. If the club limited its membership, it will have to raise its dues.___ 2. While Barbara puts in her contact lenses, the telephone rang.___ 3. Thousands of people will see the art exhibit by the time it closes.___ 4. By the time negotiations began, many pessimists have expressed doubt about them.___ 5. After Capt. James Cook visited Alaska on his third voy-age, he is killed by Hawaiian islanders in 1779.___ 6. I was terribly disappointed with my grade because I studied very hard.___ 7. The moderator asks for questions as soon as the speaker has finished.___ 8. Everyone hopes the plan would work.___ 9. Harry wants to show his friends the photos he took last summer.___ 10. Scientists predict that the sun will die in the distant fu-ture.___ 11. The boy insisted that he has paid for the candy bars. ___ 12. The doctor suggested bed rest for the patient, who suf-fers from a bad cold.

Use the Right Tense

Wrong: He has went to the office.         Wrong: He gone to the office.Right: He went to the office.                    Right: He has gone to the office.

Wrong: I done all my homework.          Wrong: I have did all my homework.Right: I did all my homework.                 Right: I have done all my homework.

When describing a series of actions, don't mix the past tense and the present perfect (verbs with the helping verb have).

Wrong: The firefighters have heard the alarm, woke up, and went to put out the fire.Right: The firefighters have heard the alarm, woken up, and gone to put out the fire. Right: The firefighters heard the alarm, woke up, and went off to put out the fire.

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Subject - Verb Agreement

When the subject of a sentence is two or more nouns or pronouns (either singular or plural) connected by and, use a plural verb.% •% The table and couch look like they need work.% •% Jamie and her friends drive all the time.When the subject of a sentence is two or more singular nouns or pronouns connected or or nor, use a singular verb.% •% Sheila or Jenny will water my plants.% •% Neither the Ford nor the Pontiac is the car I want.The verb should agree with the noun that is closer to the verb when the subject has both a singular noun or pronoun and a plural noun or pronoun connected by or or nor.% •% The kitchen or the bedrooms need to be cleaned.% •% The bedrooms or the kitchen needs to be cleaned.The following words are all singular and therefore require singular verbs: each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one.% •% Each of these sweaters is black.% •% Nobody knows what happened to all the cake.% •% Everybody thinks they can sing really well.In sentences that begin with there are or there is, pay attention to what follows there are or there is. This element is what determines whether you use are or is. If the subject is plural, you use are; if the subject is singular, you use is.% •% There are two cookies left.% •% There is one chance to make a first impression.Some subjects imply more than one person, but are themselves singular. These are known as collective nouns. Ex-amples include group, team, committee, class, band, and family. Because these words are singular, they require a singular verb.• The committee meets tomorrow.• My family is a little crazy.

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Subject - Verb Agreement Exercise

Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject. 1. Annie and her brothers (is, are) at school. 2. Either my mother or my father (is, are) coming to the meeting.3. The dog or the cats (is, are) outside.4. Either my shoes or your coat (is, are) always on the floor.5. George and Tamara (doesn't, don't) want to see that movie.6. Benito (doesn't, don't) know the answer. 7. One of my sisters (is, are) going on a trip to France.8. The man with all the birds (live, lives) on my street. 9. The movie, including all the previews, (take, takes) about two hours to watch. 10. The players, as well as the captain, (want, wants) to win.11. Either answer (is, are) acceptable.12. Every one of those books (is, are) fiction.13. Nobody (know, knows) the trouble I've seen. 14. (Is, Are) the news on at five or six?15. Mathematics (is, are) John's favorite subject, while Civics (is, are) Andrea's favorite subject.16. Eight dollars (is, are) the price of a movie these days. 17. (Is, Are) the tweezers in this drawer?18. Your pants (is, are) at the cleaner's.19. There (was, were) fifteen candies in that bag. Now there (is, are) only one left! 20. The committee (debates, debate) these questions carefully.21. The committee (leads, lead) very different lives in private. 22. The prime minister, together with his wife, (greets, greet) the press cordially. 23. All of the CDs, even the scratched one, (is, are) in this case.

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Section 3

Prepositions

Prepositions

Prepositions are words which begin preposi-tional phrases.

A prepositional phrase is a group of words con-taining a preposition, a noun or pronoun ob-ject of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object.

A preposition sits in front of (is “pre-positioned” before) its object.

The Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase is a phrase beginning with a preposition and ending with a noun or pronoun. The phrase relates the noun or pronoun to the rest of the sentence. The noun or pronoun be-ing related by the preposition is called the object of the preposi-tion. In this box the prepositional phrases are underlined. The objects of the prepositions are italicized.

Look at the phrase, " _________ the bridge." If you can fill in the blank with a word that makes sense but is not a verb, you will al-ways have a preposition. It is a quick and easy test.

Examples:         beneath the bridge         between the bridges         toward the bridge         on the bridge         after the bridge         before the bridge         under the bridge         alongside the bridge

The following phrases do not contain a prepositional phrase be-cause each phrase begins with a verb:

burn the bridge cross the bridge build the bridge

A prepositional phrase is very seldom a working part of a sentence.  In other words, a prepositional phrase can be elimi-nated from the sentence, and the basic structure of the sentence is not changed.  As a matter of fact, it is best to eliminate prepo-sitional phrases when attempting to determine the structure of a sentence.

Some common prepositions:

about

behind

from

on

toward

above

below

in

on top of

under

across

beneath

in front of

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onto

underneath

after

beside

inside

out of

until

against

between

instead of

outside

up

along

by

into

over

upon

among

down

like

past

with

around

during

near

since

within

at

except

of

through

without

before

for

off

to

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USING THE PREPOSITIONS: ON, TO, IN, INTO Write sentences describing the following images using prepositional phrases that begin with “on”, “to”, “in” or “into”.

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Section 4

Conjunctions The two types of conjunctions are: subordinating and coordinating conjunctions

Lorem Ipsum Dolor

Aenean iaculis laoreet arcu

Curabitur vulputate viverra pede

Nulla nunc lectus porttitor vitae

Sed et lacus quis enim mattis

Integer facilisis arcu

Nulla rutrum commodo ligula

Sed tellus suscipit in aliquam

Nunc ut lectus

Curabitur velit est interdum metus

Nunc condimentum

Etiam sit amet est

Donec quis nunc

Fusce ac leo

Vivamus nec nunc

Coordinating Conjunctionshttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/

Coordinating conjunctions are used to join independent clauses to make compound sentences. The coordinating conjunctions are as follows: FOR, AND, NOR, BUT, OR, YET, SO – FAN-BOYS.

*When you are writing an essay, avoid starting a sentence with any of the coordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions join two equally important pieces of information. Think of the prefix “co”. When you are a “coordina-tor” with another person, you both have the same amount of power and influence. If you “cooperate” with another person, you are on the same level as they are.

Use a coordinating conjunction to join two nouns:

1. I want ketchup and mustard on my hotdog.

2. I like zombies but not werewolves.

3. You can have ice cream or cake.

You can also use a coordinating conjunction to join two in-dependent clauses.

Independent Clauses:

I wanted more popcorn. Sam wanted Junior Mints.

Joined Together: I wanted more popcorn, but Sam wanted Jun-ior Mints.

In this example, it is necessary to put a comma before the coordinating conjunction but because there are two inde-pendent clauses being combined.

Independent Clauses: I wanted more popcorn. I didn’t want any more soda.

Joined Together: I wanted more popcorn but no soda.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are used to create dependent clauses. The most common subordinating conjunctions are as follows: af-ter, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, if only, rather than, since, that, though, unless, until, when, where,

whereas, wherever, whether, which, and while.

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The Subordinating Conjunction

Think about the prefix “sub”.

- A “submarine” goes under the water. - Subcutaneous fat lies just below the skin. - If you are subordinate, you have less power than the person

above you.

Subordinating conjunctions make one part of the sentence de-pendent on the other part.

You can use subordinating conjunctions to correct run-on sen-tences and comma splices, and you can use them to combine sen-tences so that writing is less choppy. Consider the following ex-amples.

I wanted to get more soda because it’s hard to eat popcorn without it.

In this sentence, the subordinate clause is at the end. It would also be correct to place the subordinate clause at the beginning of the sentence:

Because it’s hard to eat popcorn without it, I wanted to get more soda. Notice that when the subordinate clause comes at the beginning, it’s necessary to insert a comma.

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Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.

While I was getting more soda and popcorn, I missed a rea!y important part of the movie. (Subordinate clause at the beginning of the sen-tence).

I missed a rea!y important part of the movie while I was getting more soda and popcorn. (Subordinate clause at the end of the sentence).

Find the subordinating clauses. Underline subject once, verb twice and but and put a “CC” over coordinating oncjuntions and an “SC” over the subordinating conjunc-tions. Draw a line through prepositional phrases.

1. Before you go, sign the log book.

2. He asked if he could leave early.

3. That is the place where he was last seen.

4. Jill came tumbling after.

5. Louisa will wash the sink full of her dirty dishes once her roommate Shane cleans his stubble and globs of shaving cream from the bathroom sink.

6. We looked on top of the refrigerator, where Jenny will often hide a bag of chocolate chip cookies.

7. Because her teeth were chattering in fear, Lynda clenched her jaw muscle while waiting for her turn to audition.

8. As Samson blew out the birthday candles atop the cake, he burned the tip of his nose on a stubborn flame.

8. Ronnie begins to sneeze violently whenever he opens the door to greet a fresh spring day.

9. Even though Dana persevered at the calculus exam, she was only adding another F beside her name in Dr. Armour's grade book.

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Chapter 2

Clauses

There are two types of clauses: the independent clause and the dependant clause. Learning how to indentify them will help you improve your writing!

Identifying Independent Clauseshttp://owl.english.purdue.edu

Independent Clause

An independent clause is a group of words that contains a sub-ject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.

Jim studied for his chemistry quiz.

Here, “Jim” is the subject “ and “studied” is the verb; there is one subject and one verb in this sentence.

S = Subject

V = Verb

I = Independent clause.

Another name for an independent clause is a SIMPLE SEN-TENCE.

S + V = I

An Independent clause (I) can stand on its own. Like and independent person, it does not need anything else to

make a complete sentence.

An independent clause contains a subject and a verb as well as express a complete thought. Look at the examples below:

1. Diane kicked the soda machine.

• Diane = the subject; kicked = the verb.

2. A giant spider has made its home behind the shampoo bottle in Neil's bathroom.

• Spider = the subject; has made = the verb.

3.. Sima and Michele are skipping their chemistry class to sit by the lake and watch the sun sparkle on the water.

• Sima, Michele = the subjects; are skipping = the verb.

Remember this important point:

You must have at least one independent clause in every sentence. An independent clause is the essential component. Without a inde-pendent clause, a group of words is a #agment, a major error in writing.

A sentence can contain any number of other grammatical units, such as participle phrases, prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, appositives, etc. It must, however, contain at least one independent clause. Take a look at the example below:

Dependent Clause31

The Dependent Clause

A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by a dependent marker word.

When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (What happened when he studied? The thought is incomplete.)

Dependent Marker Word

A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an independent clause that makes it into a dependent clause.

• When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy.

Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while. These are also known as SUBORDINATING CON-JUNCTIONS.

Dependent Clause

A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. \

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Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.

When Jim studied for his chemistry quiz . . . (What happened when he studied? The thought is incomplete.)

The word “when” is a subordinate conjunction or SC. The subor-dinate conjunction (SC) turns in the independent clause (I) into a dependent clause (D).

Subordinating Conjunction + Subject + Verb = Dependent Clause

SC + S + V = D

• I laughed. S + V = I

• Because I laughed SC + S + V = D

• I was late. S + V = I

• Even though I was late SC + S + V = D

• I rang the doorbell S + V = I

• Since I rang the doorbell SC + S + V = D

A dependent clause is a like a dependent person; they cannot stand on their own! When you put a dependent clause alone in your paper, you are writing a FRAGMENT – which is not good.

Remember: There are two types of clauses: dependent and independent. An independent clause communicates an important idea. A dependent clause communicates a less important idea.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS…

after% % % % although% % % as

as if% % % % as long as% % % as though

because% % % before% % % even if

even though% % if% % % % if only

in order that% % now that% % % once

rather than% % since%% % % so that

than% % % % that %% % % though

unless% % % until%% % % when

whenever% % % where% % % whereas

wherever% % % while

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Chapter 3

Types of Sentences

There are several different types of sentences. Let’s start with the SIMPLE sentence, move on to COMPOUND sentences, and end with COMPLEX and COMPOUND/COMPLEX sentences.

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

A simple sentence is a group of words that contains 1 independ-ent clause. Use a simple sentence when you have 1 important idea to communicate.

• I went home.

• The storm is coming.

• You are free to go.

Never use a comma in a simple sentence (UNLESS YOU ARE LISTING) even if it contains a clauses with 2 subjects or 2 verbs joined by “and” or “or”.

• She and I went to the movies.

• The basketball team and the baseball team have been winning.

• He swam and snorkeled over vacation.

REMEMBER - underline subject once, verb twice, draw a line through the prepositional phrase, mark SC and CC.

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A simple sentence (I) can stand on its own:

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The Compound Sentence

A COMPOUND SENTENCE is a group of words that con-tains two or more independent clauses connected by a coordi-nating conjunction.

The COMPOUND SENTENCE can represented by sev-eral formulas:

• Independent Clause + comma + CC + Independent Clause

OR• (S + V) + ( , CC) + (S + V)OR• I, I (with CC)

A compound sentence is used when the writer has two or more equally important ideas to communicate.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONSORFANBOYSForAnd NorButOr Yet

There are NO dependent clauses in a compound sentence, which means you will NOT find a subordinating conjunction in the sentence.

YOU MUST HAVE A COORDINATING CONJUNCTION AND A COMMA JOINING YOUR INDEPENDENT CLAUSES. YOU CAN ALSO USE

A SEMI-COLON

Example 1 I am hungry and I am thirsty. Independent Clause 1 – I am hungry.Independent Clause 2 = I am thirsty. CC = andORI am hungry; I am thirsty.

Example 2I have a rabbit, but it is not afraid of my cat. Independent Clause 1 – I have a rabbitIndependent Clause 2 – It is not afraid of my cat. CC - butORI have a rabbit; it is not afraid of my cat.

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Example 3

The clown #ightened the little girl, and she ran off screaming.Independent Clause 1 = The clown frightened the little girl. Independent Clause 2 = She ran off screaming.CC = andORThe clown frightened the little girl; she ran off screaming.

Example 4

The Freedom Riders departed on May 4, 1961, and they were deter-mined to travel through many southern states.Independent Clause 1 = The Freedom Riders departed on May 4, 1961. Independent Clause 2 – They were determined to travel through many southern states. CC = andORThe Freedom Riders departed on May 4, 1961; they were deter-mined to travel through many southern states.

I + , + CC + I = Compound sentenceOR

S + V + ,cc + S + V = Compound sentenceOR

S + V + ; + S + V = Compound sentence

Analyze these compound sentences. Underline subject once, verb twice, draw a line through prepositional phrases, identify each SC and CC.

1. She is happy to present the award, but he is making her very nervous.

2. Cigarettes cause cancer, and the second hand smoke is very dangerous.

3. Pit bull attacks are always in the news, but these dogs are not all dangerous.

4. Most Americans agree that the US should be doing more to protect the environment, yet the president refuses to take the steps he must.

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Analyze these compound sentences. Underline subject once, verb twice, draw a line through prepositional phrases, identify each SC and CC.

1. Jenny hid the hen and Benny tried to hide the cow.

2. Max maintained that the database needed restructuring but Laura disagreed.

3. Insurance cannot cover everything, but it does cover the big expenses accrued while giving birth.

4. Monarch butterflies which migrate to Mexico each year are guided by instinct.

5. Geese mate for life unlike humans who according to the di-vorce rate seem to have trouble committing to just one person.

6. The finals are on Saturday but we'll have to compete without Paul.

7. Scientists are working on a cure for the common cold and it will change the profits of the Kleenex and drug industries.

Combine the independent clauses using a (, cc) or a semi-colon. Identify subject, verb, prepositional phrases, and CCs.

1. She saw a cat run in front of her. She fell down while roller-skating.

2. The little boy did not like going to school. He went anyway.

3. Arleen could not play with that boy. Arleen could not play with that other boy.

4. Let's go to the swimming pool. It's hot inside the house.

5. I don’t want to eat. I don't want to drink.

6. I don’t want to practice playing my violin. I don’t want to dis-obey my mother.

7. I want to own my own company. I want to pay all my workers a lot of money.

8. I need to go to the store. I'm feeling too sick to drive.

9.I didn’t do my homework. My parents punished me.

10. I have never visited Asia. I have never visited Africa.

11. You can make a big poster. You can make a little clay statue.

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Analyze and punctuate these compound sentences.

1. We bought tickets to the hockey game and we got great tick-ets.

2. We sat toward the center of the rink and we were able to see everything.

3. Hockey is a fast game and fans shriek with excitement.

4. Hockey players are careful but they still get hurt often.

5. The goalie on each team stays near the end of the rink.

6. Players obey the rules or they receive penalties.

7. Hockey is a popular sport in many countries around the world.

8. Hockey players move quickly or they miss a goal.

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Section 2

Complex SentencesComplex sentences combine Independent and Dependent clauses.

A complex sentence is made from an inde-pendent clause and a dependent clause joined together.

Some examples:

A%er I came home, I made dinner.

(dependent clause: "After I came home")

(independent clause: I made dinner)

We visited the museum before it closed.

(dependent clause: before it closed.)

(independent clause: We visited the museum)

Complex sentences are often formed by put-ting these words at the beginning of the de-pendent clause: as, as if, before, a%er, because, though, even though, while, when, whenever, if, dur-ing, as soon as, as long as, since, until, unless, where, and wherever. These words are called subordi-nating conjunctions.

Complex Sentences

Think of a complex sentence as a family. Although the children contribute to the family, they cannot survive on their own with-out the base of the family--the parents.

The [bracketed] phrases in the following sentences add informa-tion to the base sentence but cannot stand alone:

[If the temperature stays at about #eezing], then we can join the polar bear club for a dip in the lake.

I told him that his new print on the wall looked like an interest-ing prehistoric drawing of a fish, [although I rea!y just wanted to laugh].

Certain words traditionally start off the subordinate, or depend-ent, parts of the complex sentence:

before.....while.....if.....where

a%er.....because.....whether.....whereas

though.....since.....unless.....as

although.....when.....because.....as if

The complex sentence is an effective way to show that one idea takes precedence over another. The idea in the complete sen-tence base is more important than the idea in the dependent phrase.

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Complex Sentences Take Two Basics Forms:

The D,I - Dependent clause before Independent clause

Because I was late, the bus left without me.

Subordinating conjunction (Because) + Subject (I) + Verb (was) + comm + Subject (bus) + Verb (left)

The ID - Independent clause before dependent clause

The bus left without me because I was late.

Subject (bus) + Verb (left) + Subordinating Conjunction (because) + Subject (I) + Verb (was)

Notice that there IS a comma in a D,I.

There IS NOT COMMA in an ID.

Use a complex sentence to show opposition or unexpected re-sults:although / even though / though• Although I felt he was wrong, I decided to trust him.• Sharon started looking for a new job even though she was currently

employed.• Though I couldn't understand a word, we had a great time!

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Use complex sentences to:

Show cause and effect:because / since / as• Since you need some help, I'll come over this afternoon.• Henry felt he needed to take some time off because he had

been working so hard.• The parents paid for extra lessons as the children were very

gifted.

To express time:when / as soon as / before / a%er / byBy the time you get this letter, I will have left for New York. I used to play a lot of tennis when I was a teenager. We had a wonderful dinner after she had arrived.

To express conditions:if / unless / in the case that• If I were you, I would take my time with that project.• They won't come next week unless you ask them to do so.• In the case that he isn't available, we'll look for another consult-

ant.

Let’s Compare The Kinds of Sentences We Have Studied:

SimpleMy friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.

CompoundMy friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.

ComplexAlthough my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.

A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a compound sentence because it makes clear which ideas are most important.

Examples:1.Although Tom reads novels, Jack reads comics. 2.When he was younger, Mike had many dogs.3.Many people enjoyed the movie although William did not.

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Identify subjects and verbs, circle subordinating conjunc-tions and put commas in the following complex sen-tences wherever they are needed.

1. When the school bell rang the children left the classroom.

2. Although the blue jacket was on sale I did not buy it.

3. I bought the plaid cape although it was not on sale.

4. Your assignment is to read the chapter after you have com-

pleted the lab assignment.

5. He treated me as if I were his sister even though we had just

met.

6. Whenever I have the time I practice my guitar playing and

sing as loud as I can.

7. David stayed home from work because he was sick on the day

before his promotion.

8. As long as I am here I will help you since no one else seems to

be willing to help.

9. I want to go on the trip to Europe as soon as I can if we can

afford it.

10. Wherever John goes his wife goes, too, since she really

doesn’t trust him.

Use subordinating conjunctions (though, if, when, be-cause, etc.) to connect the sentences into one complex sentence.

1. Henry needs to learn English. I will teach him.2. It was raining outside. We went for a walk.3. Jenny needs to ask me. I will buy it for her.4. Yvonne played golf extremely well. She was very young.5. Franklin wants to get a new job. He is preparing for job inter-

views.6. I'm writing a letter, and I'm leaving. You will find it tomor-

row.7. Marvin thinks he will buy the house. He just wants to know

what his wife thinks.8. Cindy and David had breakfast. They left for work.9. I really enjoyed the concert. The music was too loud.10. Alexander has been working sixty hours a week. There is an

important presentation next week.11. I usually work out at the gym early in the morning. I leave

for work at eight a.m.12. The car was extremely expensive. Bob didn't have much

money. He bought the car.13. Dean sometimes goes to the cinema. He enjoys going with

his friend Doug. Doug visits once a month.

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Identifying Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences

Read the following sentences, and indicate whether each is sim-ple, compound, or complex.

% 1.% We rang the doorbell, but no one answered it. __________ % 2.% I wrote Jane a letter while she was away at camp. __________ % 3.% Have you seen Mr. Nelson’s garden at the back of his house? __________ % 4.% When Miss Jones entered the room, we all became quiet. __________ % 5.% Susan likes chemistry, but she likes physics better. __________ % 6.% Since we’ve lost every game but one, no one is ex-cited about football this year. __________ % 7.% When I’m tired , I’m not good company for anyone. __________ % 8.% Wandering aimlessly up the path, Mr. Cutter ap-proached the house. __________ % % %

% 9. Susan sang a solo and accompanied herself on the piano. __________ % 10. When the rain began, we were playing tennis. __________ % 11.% When Uncle Jack comes to town, we all have a good time. __________ % 12.% I worked all morning, and then I relaxed in the after-noon. __________ % 13.% Beth likes all seasons of the year, but she likes fall best. __________ % 14.% On our trip we drove every afternoon until five o’clock. __________ % 15.% Dave began to feel better before the doctor arrived. __________ % 16.% Whistling loudly, Ken walked past the cemetery. __________ % 17.% How many states can you see from Lookout Moun-tain? __________ % 18.% If you want your car really clean, let George wash it. __________ % 19.% I must stay home until the man comes to repair the washing machine. __________ % 20. .% Our neighbors are going to Canada on their vacation, but we will take our vacation at home. __________

The complex-compound sentence is the most compli-cated sentence pattern we will be working with.

For the most part, if a writer adds more than three clauses, the meaning of the message gets lost.

The complex-compound sentence combines the compound sentence with at least one dependent clause.

The formulas for the complex-compound sentences are:

I,ccI D

I D,I

D,I,IExamples are on the next page. 3

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Section 3

Complex Compound Sentences

47

Creating a Complex-Compound Sentences

I (independent clause) = ArTES teachers include art in core disci-plines. S = ArTES teachersV = include

I (independent clause) = Student learning improves overallS = learningV= improves

D (dependent clause) = When arts are integrated into all classesSC = WhenS = artsV = are integrated

I, CC I DArTES teachers include art in core disciplines, for students learn-ing improves overall when arts are integrated into all classes.

I D, IArTES teachers include art in core disciplines; when arts are inte-grated into all classes, student learning improves overall.

D, I, IWhen arts are integrated into all classes, student learning im-proves overall, and ArTES teachers include art in core disciplines.

Notice that the punctuation is consistent:

D, I

I, cc I

ID

You can create sentences as long as you wish them to be; just con-tinue to follow the above punctuation rules. However, I would sug-gest not going over three clauses per sentence, and be careful about how many prepositional phrases you include!

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A compound-complex sentence is made from two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I haven't found anyone to go with.• independent clause: I haven't had the time to go lately• independent clause: I haven't found anyone to go with• dependent clause: Although I like to go camping

While Tom reads novels, Jack reads comics, but Sam only reads magazines.• independent clause: Jack reads comics• independent clause: Sam only reads magazines• dependent clause: While Tim reads novels

Though Mitche! prefers watching documentary films, he rented the latest spy thri!er, and he enjoyed it very much.independent clause: he rented the latest spy thrillerindependent clause: he enjoyed it very muchdependent clause: Though Mitchell prefers watching documen-tary films

Example: Laura forgot her #iend's birthday, so she sent her a card when she fina!y remembered.independent clause: Laura forgot her friend’s birthdayindependent clause: she sent her a carddependent clause: when she finally remembered

The Ultimate Sentence Style Cheat Sheet

I = Simple sentenceSchool shouldn’t be canceled.

I,I (w/CC) = Compound sentenceHe wishes to travel to Mars one day, and she wishes to explore

Antarctica.

D, I = Complex sentenceAlthough a lot of people didn’t attend, the party was fun.

ID = Complex sentenceWe always have fun when the band plays.

I,ID = Compound/Complex sentence I am going to Africa, and he will lead the expedition once he has

completed the paperwork.

ID,I = Compound/Complex sentence The group leaves on the trip tomorrow after the last regular

flight goes out, but we are taking a charter flight.

D,I, I = Compound/Complex Although she proposes rebellion, she wants peace in her country,

and her speech clearly states as much.

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CONJUNCTIONS CHEAT SHEET

FANBOYS = CC For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

after% % % although% % asas if% % % as long as% % as thoughbecause% % before%% % even ifeven though% if% % % % if onlyin order that% now that% % oncerather than% since% % % so thatthan% % % that % % % thoughunless% % % until% % % whenwhenever% % where% % % whereaswherever% % while

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Run Ons and Fragments

The length of a sentence has nothing to do with whether or not a sentence is considered a run-on. An over-exuberant, run-off-at-the-mouth, 400-word gorilla of a sentence can be structurally fine. A run-on sentence is one in which two clauses have been connected incorrectly.

Example: Some students think that they can study for an important exam by “cramming” all night, they are probably wrong.

This is an example of the dreaded COMMA SPLICE!A comma splice connects two independent clauses with only a comma.

Analyze the sentence:(S + V) + (SC + S + V) + (,) + (S + V) I D, IWe have all the elements EXCEPT FOR the COORDINATING CONJUNCTION!

The corrected sentence:Some students think that they can study for an important exam by “cramming” all night, but they are probably wrong.

Some students think that they can study for an important exam by “cramming” all night; they are probably wrong.

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Three Run-On Traps1. When a pronoun in the second clause refers to a noun in the first clause: % Example: The President’s popularity has plummeted, she apparently underestimated the opposition.

2.When a suggestion or directive occurs in the second clause: % Example: You will be responsible for this material on the final exam, study it thor-oughly now.

3. When two clauses are connected by a transitional expression: Many people think that protectionism can halt rising prices, however, the opposite is actually true.

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More Rules on Comma Use1. Use commas after introductory a) phrases, b) words:• Common introductory words that should be followed by a

comma include yes, however, well.% We!, perhaps he meant no harm.( Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.( However, you may not be satisfied with the results.

2. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indi-cate the end of the pause.

Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:% •% If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense?% •% Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence?% •% If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?only day when I am available to meet.

If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with commas.

Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:

• % Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.

• % Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.

• % Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.

3. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.• The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial

branches of government.

• The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.

• The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the mur-der weapon, was guilty of homicide.

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4. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names. • Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name #om Birmingham, England.

• July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?

• Rachel B. Lake, MD, wi! be the principal speaker. 5. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a

quotation.

• John said without emotion, "I'! see you tomorrow."

• "I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment."

• In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"

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Prevent Comma Abuse!

1. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.INCORRECT: An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult.INCORRECT: The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions.predicate.

2. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.INCORRECT: We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study.INCORRECT: I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car.

3. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or com-pound object.INCORRECT (compound subject): The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married.INCORRECT (compound object): Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me.

4. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a de-pendent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).INCORRECT: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eat-ing.CORRECT: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)

Chapter 4

Advancing Grammar

In this chapter we will be moving ahead with a variety of grammar, mechanics, and usage. We will deal with the most common errors as well as those that will show up on standardized tests like the SAT.

56

Section 1

The Apostrophe

The apostrophe has three uses:

1. To form possessives of nouns

2. To show the omission of letters

3. To indicate certain plu-rals of lowercase letters

Apostrophe Use 1 - Forming Possessives of Nouns

To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..." phrase. For example:

• the boy's hat = the hat of the boy

• three days' journey = journey of three days

If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furni-ture, then no apostrophe is needed!

• room of the hotel = hotel room

• door of the car = car door

• leg of the table = table leg

Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, fo!ow these rules to create one.

Add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s): the owner's car

% • James's hat (James' hat is also acceptable. For plural, proper nouns that are possessive, use an apostrophe after the 's': "The Eggleses' presentation was good." The Eggleses are a hus-band and wife consultant team.)

Add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s: the chil-dren's game

% •% the geese's honking

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Apostrophe fail:

Add 's to the end of plural nouns that end in -s: two cats' toys

% •% three friends' letters

% •% the countries' laws

Add 's to the end of compound words: my brother-in-law's money

Add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an ob-ject: Todd and Anne's apartment

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Correct the Following Errors

1. The following shows an incorrect use of the apostro-phe: The bug's sing and dance on the lawn.Why is this incorrect? Write the corrected sentence.

2. The following shows an incorrect use of the apostro-phe: The dog plays with it's toy.Why is this incorrect? Write the corrected sentence.

3. The following shows an incorrect use of the apostro-phe:The womens’s teams wi! play tonight. Why is this incorrect? Write the corrected sentence. 4. The following shows an incorrect use of the apostro-phe:My #iend John, who’s mother is a doctor, is studying medicine.Why is this incorrect? Write the corrected sentence.

5. The following shows an incorrect use of the apostro-phe:A! the mothers’s son’s wi! be there. Why is this incorrect? Write the corrected sentence.

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Remember - use an apostrophe to indicate possession with nouns. A singular noun forms the possessive adding 's. ¬% Write the noun; change no letters; drop no letters; and then simply add 's. ¬% This rule is always the same for each singular noun. Exam-ples: baby - baby's; cow - cow's; Mr. Bass - Mr. Bass's¬% (Some authorities feel that only an apostrophe is needed when the noun ends in "s." That works okay for written material, but if you say it, you must say the extra "s" sound; therefore, I feel that the "s" is necessary in written material also.)

Supply the apostrophes and "s" ('s) to make the possessives in the following sentences:

1. The boy bike is in the back yard.2. James car was in the accident yesterday.3. Mr. Jones talk was the best yet.4. What happened to that horse leg?5. That woman umbrella is blowing away in the wind.6. These women hats are sold in this store.7. The children party was a great success.8. The mice tracks were everywhere in the dust.9. We followed the two deer tracks in the snow.10.The geese flight was smooth and graceful.11.All the pupils seats were taken.12.Mud had covered all of the girls dresses.

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Lorem Ipsum dolor amet, consecteturIndefinite pronouns show the possessive by adding 's. Example: one's idea

Indefinite pronouns are pronouns that do not point out specifi-cally. They point out generally. They include such words as an-other, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, either, everybody, every-one, everything, many, neither, nobody, none, no one, one, other, others, some, somebody, and someone.

Supply the apostrophes and "s" ('s) to make the posses-sives in the following sentences.

1. Anyone guess is as good as mine.2. Someone stupidity is going to hurt everyone chances for suc-

cess.3. I think everybody views should be heard.4. No one vote should be left out.5. Is this anybody book?6. Someone else effort caused the needed result.7. We should always be aware of somebody else pain.8. Everyone else coat has been hung up.9. Does anyone else need mean anything to you?10.No one else houses were damaged by the storm.

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Type to enter text

Fix the apostrophe errors in each sentence.

1. We didnt have time to get to grocery store to pick up the dogs food.

2. Thats the second time this week youve asked me to loan you a pencil.

3. Its the boys turn to clean up the gym tonight. The girls basket-ball team did it last week.

4. The little girl’s sing and dance on the lawn.

5. The dog play’s with it's toy.

6. The baby is their's.

7. My friend John, who's a great dancer, is coming to the party.

8. My friend John, whose mother is a doctor, is studying medi-cine.

9. I wish I didnt have to change the babys diaper’s all the time.

10.Can you believe that’s Ed’s girlfriend?

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Use an Apostrophe to Show Omission of Letters

Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apos-trophe to create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples:

don't = do not I'm = I am he'll = he will who's = who is shouldn't = should not didn't = did not could've= could have (NOT "could of"!) '60 = 1960

Check out this helpful infographic on apostrophes:http://theoatmeal.com/comics/apostrophe

Take this apostrophe quiz:http://www.ecenglish.com/learnenglish/lessons/take-apostrophe-quiz

Check out this review site:http://www.education.com/reference/article/apostrophe/

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Section 2

Semi-Colons and ColonsYou can use a semi-colon to join two independent clauses. Joining two independent clauses this way implies that the two clauses are related and/or equal, or perhaps that one restates the other.

1. Seinfeld was definitely my favorite television show during the 1990s; in fact, it is my favorite television show of all time.

2. I am going to visit Anna in St. Louis next weekend; we’ll get to see the Arch, Busch Stadium, and the Landing.

Use semi-colons between items in a list that already involve com-mas.

1. I have lived in Chicago, Illinois; Kansas City, Missouri; and Omaha, Nebraska.

2. The sweaters I bought today were purple, blue, and green; yel-low, white, and red; and pink, black, and grey.

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Use a semicolon to separate phrases or clauses of equal rank which contain commas. The semicolon in such sentences brings clarity of meaning. Example: We have lived in Logan, Utah; Las Vegas, Nevada; and Rio Claro, Brazil. Instructions: Place semicolons where they are needed in the fol-lowing sentences. 1. The new in-laws are Jay, Pam's husband, Are', Will's wife, and Mark, Terri's husband. 2. For the campout we took our raincoats, boots, and tarp, but we didn't use them. 3. The mayor of the city, who attended the conference, gave a report, and he suggested several ways to save money. 4. My son is a medical technician, my daughter, a postal worker, and my wife, an editor. 5. The class officers are Fred Ogden, president, Dan Royal, vice-president, and Jayne Allen, secretary.

Use a semicolon between two independent clauses of a com-pound sentence when they are not joined by a coordinate con-junction. Example: There was a sudden silence; everyone was stunned by the outcome.

Instructions: Place semicolons where they are needed in the fol-lowing sentences.

1. Carl is tall his brother is short.

2. He knocked several times no one came to the door.

3. The siren blew loudly I rushed to the window the police raced pass as I looked out.

4. I waited several hours for you you did not return I became con-cerned.

5. My sister loves mysteries my brother likes technical manuals.

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Colons Use a colon before listed items that are introduced by such words as the following, as follows, thus, and these; by a num-ber; or by any other expression that "points-out." Example: In high school he played the following sports: baseball, bas-ketball, football and tennis.  Instructions: Place colons where needed. 1. You need these guys Will, Boyd, Jeff, and Jim. 2. She had three personality flaws pride, selfishness, and a temper. 3. The singers will be you, Pam, and Becky. 4. For the campout we will need the following things a tent, three sleeping bags, and a gas lantern. 5. Next semester I will be taking four courses Algebra II, English Literature, American History, and Biology III.  --For answers scroll down.   

Use a colon after the salutation of a business letter. Example: Dear Sir:

Instructions: Place colons where needed.1. Dear Mr. Witt2. Dear Madam3. My dear Mrs. Garrity4. Gentlemen5. To whom it may concern

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Use a colon after an independent clause when introducing a list.

1. The catering facility offers the following entrees: fried cat%fish, grilled chicken, pan-seared salmon, and sirloin steak.Use a colon after an independent clause when introducing a quotation.

2. My teacher’s remark on my final essay was very complimen-tary: “This essay coherently analyzes musical trends of the late 20th century.”

The primary function of quotation marks is to set off and represent exact language (either spoken or written) that has come from somebody else. The quotation mark is also used to designate speech acts in fic-tion and sometimes poetry. Since you will most often use them when working with outside sources, successful use of quotation marks is a practical defense against acciden-tal plagiarism and an excellent practice in academic honesty. The following rules of quotation mark use are the standard in the United States, although it may be of inter-est that usage rules for this punctuation do vary in other countries (from owl.english.purdue.edu).

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Section 3

Quotation Marks

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Direct quotations involve incorporating another person's exact words into your own writing.

Remember: quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail to close it at the end of the quoted material.

1. Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a complete sentence.

Example: Mr. Johnson, who was working in his field that morning, said, "The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes."

2. Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a frag-ment or only a piece of the original material's complete sen-tence.

Example: Although Mr. Johnson has seen odd happenings on the farm, he stated that the spaceship "certainly takes the cake" when it comes to unexplainable activity.

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3. If a direct quotation is interrupted mid-sentence, do not capi-talize the second part of the quotation."I didn't see an actual alien being," Mr. Johnson said, "but I sure wish I had."

4. In all the examples above, note how the period or comma punctuation always comes before the final quotation mark. It is important to realize also that when you are using MLA or some other form of documentation, this punctuation rule may change.When quoting text with a spelling or grammar error, you should transcribe the error exactly in your own text. However, also in-sert the term sic in italics directly after the mistake, and enclose it in brackets. Sic is from the Latin, and translates to "thus," "so," or "just as that." The word tells the reader that your quote is an exact reproduction of what you found, and the error is not your own.Mr. Johnson says of the experience, "It's made me reconsider the existence of extraterestials [sic]."

5. Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep them relatively short. Too many quotations in a research paper will get you accused of not producing original thought or material (they may also bore a reader who wants to know primar-ily what YOU have to say on the subject).

Puppet Quotations Marks?

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Lesson 372 Mechanics - Punctuation - Quotation MarksUse quotation marks around the exact words of a speaker. When the words identifying the speaker come between the parts of the quotation, put quotation marks around each part. Example: "Yes," said Jack, "I will be there."Use one set of quotation marks for two or more sentences not broken by explanatory material. Example: "I know that. He has known for several days," said Jim. If part of the quotation is a new sentence use a capital letter. Example: "I know that," said Jim. "He has known for several days."Instructions: Use quotation marks and capitals where needed in these sentences.1. We will be in town tomorrow night. Don't wait up. We will come by the next day, said Jeanne.2. We want you to stay with us, answered Barbara. we'll meet you at the station.3. Okay, replied Chris, bring the car around.4. Are the girls ready to go? asked Ann. they need to leave now.5. Yes, replied Ila, that play was really enjoyable.  

Type to enter text Lesson 373Mechanics - Punctuation - Quotation MarksUse no quotation marks with indirect quotations. An indirect quotation often begins with the word that. Example: Betty said that she wished the election was final.Instructions: Use quotation marks where needed in these sen-tences.1. James stated that he had won the race.2. Richard said, I was in second place until I fell.3. Mom said that she was worried when she saw it happen.4. Sue said, that was too bad.5. I hope that you had fun, anyway, said his dad.

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Quotation MarksBegin a new paragraph with each change of speaker in dialogue.Example:"Can I count on you?" asked Carl."Yes, you can," said Matthew."You cannot fail us," replied Claudia.Instructions: Make new paragraphs and place quotation marks where needed in the following dialogues.1. Knock on the door. I will be right behind you, said John. I am afraid, said James. You are bigger and older so you knock. I will do it. Why are you worried about it? It is just Halloween, inter-rupted Matthew, and there is nothing scary about this house.2. Chantelle said, I never get to be the mother when we play. You can be the mother today, replied Hayley. When will I get to be the mother? asked Alise. You are too little, replied Hayley and Chantelle.

Instructions: Use quotation marks and capitals where needed in these sentences.

1. That is an interesting story, said Sarah.2. Could you, asked Jack, tell us some more stories?3. I like old stories from long ago, remarked Jane. My mother used to read them to me.4. Joe said that he had heard the story before.5. I doubt that you know what your are talking about, stated Charlie. Well, replied Joe, you are incorrect this time. Charlie looking at Joe then said, I apologize for my unkind remark.6. The children said that they would look for more books with interesting old stories.7. Have you ever been to Persia? asked Henry. No, I haven't, said Bill, and it is not called Persia now. What is is called now, inquired Jane.8. Look, cried Sarah, Mom is bringing refreshments!9. This sure has been a fun day, guys, giggled Jack.10. I hope we can do this again soon, said Bill. There is so much to learn from good stories.  

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Punctuation - Quotation MarksUse quotation marks around the titles of short stories, short plays, short poems and short musical compositions; of art works, articles, chapters, essays, and speeches; of radio and tele-vision programs. Example: My favorite painting is "Blue Boy."Instructions: Use quotation marks where needed in these sen-tences.1. I was very interested in the article Our Missing President.2. I loved the old television program Maverick.3. Have you read Miniver Cheevy, the short narrative poem?4. At Christmas time I love to read The Gift of the Magi, a short story by O. Henry.5. That song playing is Greensleeves, isn't it?    

Use single quotation marks for a quotation within a quotation. Example: "Dad always says, 'Maybe,'" cried Pam.Instructions: Use quotation marks where needed in these sen-tences.1. Have you read The Scarlet Ibis, a very good short story? asked the teacher.2. He replied, I know she said, I am not sure.3. Everyone will read the chapter entitled Africa for tomorrow, commanded the substitute teacher.4. The witness answered, I heard the officer say Put down the gun!5. This famous painting Square Sunlight has won many awards, stated the guide.

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Quotation MarksAlways place commas and periods inside quotation marks. Exam-ple: One famous painting is "The Song of the Lark."Instructions: Use quotation marks where needed in these sen-tences.1. I like the sea poem The Revenge.2. I had hoped, said Bob, that you would be in the play.3. I enjoyed the story The Milk Pitcher, the short story about baseball and a cow.4. Yes, Captain Smith said, we can go sailing.5. You never answer anything with the word yes.  

Quotation MarksPlace question marks and exclamation points inside quotation marks if they are part of the quotation. Place question marks and exclamation points outside the quotation marks if they pertain to more than the quotation.Examples: Jim asked, "Where are you going?" Did Ann say, "I won't do it"?"Are you sure!" exclaimed Becky. How happy she was to say, "I do"!Instructions: Use quotation marks where needed in these sen-tences.1. When Dad said that we were going camping, I shouted, What a great idea!2. Mary asked, When are you going?3. Didn't you hear me say, I will think about it?4. Didn't you hear the policeman shout, Stop!?5. We need protection from his kindness!

Comparative sentences using the superlative degree are saying that something is the most when compared to the rest of the group.

Consider the following sentences:

• Justin is the fastest runner on the track team.

• Mr. Copeland spoke the most highly of Juan than the other in-terview candidates.

Generally speaking, the superlative degree is used when some-thing is being compared to three or more things.

A common mistake with double superlatives is using both the ending -est and the word “most” in the same sentence. Errors with double superlatives can also be identified when the sen-tence by reading the sentence out loud. For example, the prior sentence would be incorrect if it was written as follows:

• Justin is the most fastest runner on the track team.

It would be best to remove “most” and keep fastest in the super-lative degree.

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Section 4

Superlatives

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Instructions:Complete each sentence below with the appropriate comparative or superlative form of the adjective in italics. When you're done, compare your answers with those on page two.TIP: To view this exercise without ads, click on the printer icon near the top of the page.

1. Her voice, which was always soft and melodious, was even _____ and sweeter than usual.

2. All four boys were uncommonly lazy, but Jimbo was the _____ of them all.

3. Of all the silly things people said toward the end of the twenti-eth century, perhaps the _____ came from the author who de-clared "the end of history."

4. Bright stars filled the night sky, but there was one star that was larger and _____ than the others.

5. A loud voice is needed to command attention, but the _____ voice in the room seldom belongs to the most effective leader.

6. .Working in a library may not seem very interesting to most people, but Maggie believed that she had the _____ job in the world.

7. My grandpa told a good joke, but I told a _____ one.

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Comparative: the second or middle degree of comparison in adjectives or ad-verbs Superlative: the third or highest degree of comparison in adjectives or adverbs

The comparative and superlative degrees are formed by adding the -er and -est suffix to adjectives and adverbs with a single consonant for an ending.

Word Comparative Superlative

big bigger biggest

soon sooner soonest

Adjectives and adverbs ending in -y drop the -y and add an -ier in the compara-tive degree and an -iest in the superlative degree:

Word Comparative Superlative

dry drier driest

early earlier earliest

Adjectives and adverbs ending in the silent or mute -e drop the ending -e and add the -er for the comparative and the -est for the superlative:

Word Comparative Superlative

pale paler palest

free freer freest

Degrees of comparison can also be distinguished with the use of more and most: more clever; most clever

:: Irregular Adjectives

Word Comparative Superlative

good better best

bad worse worst

much more most

little less least

far fartherfarthest

furtherfurthest

old olderelder

oldest eldest

Passive Voice: Avoid It!

Passive Voice refers to verbs that require the help of was or were, as the following examples demonstrate:

% The car was brought to a fast stop.

% The dishes were being washed.

% The room was cleaned by Janet and Bill.

Passive voice gives only a dim, second-hand glimpse of the ac-tion; it causes wordiness; it tells rather than shows. Its chief weakness is the anonymity it causes. When you use passive rather than active voice, your writing becomes dull.

% Notice the improvement:

% The car squealed to a stop.

% Dishes rattled in the sink.

% Janet and Bill cleaned the room.

Frank is the subject.

Did Frank do the hitting? No, he did not.

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Section 5

Passive Voice

To test a verb to see if it is passive, ask yourself whether the subject of the sentence did the “verb-ing.”

% Ex. - Frank was hit by a car

Therefore, was hit is passive voice.

% Ex. We all cheered when Frank hit the home run

Did Frank do the hitting? Yes, he did.

Therefore, hit is active voice.

In sentences of active voice, the subject does the action; in sen-tences of passive voice, the subject is acted upon.

Passive voice is appropriate when you are writing of victimiza-tion: murder, rape, assault, etc. In these instances you probably do want your subject to be acted upon:

% Ex. The driver was killed instantly.

Ex. The building was torn down last summer.

Compare Passive to Active:

% Ex. % The curtains were climbed by the cats.

% % The cats climbed the curtains.

% Ex. The grocery carts were raced across the parking lot by my grandma and grandpa

% Grandma and Grandpa raced grocery carts across the % %parking lot.

Most handbooks recommend using active voice, which they de-scribe as more natural, direct, lively, and succinct. The passive voice is considered wordy and weak (except when used in cases above). Examine the following examples. WEAK, PASSIVE: The skater was slammed into the wall by Maria. STRONG, ACTIVE: Maria slammed the skater into the wall.

WEAK, PASSIVE: The book was enjoyed by me because the events of her child-hood were described so well by the author. STRONG, ACTIVE:I enjoyed the book because the author described the events of her childhood so well.

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Adverbs like adjectives can be compared. They have the same three de-grees (1) positive - one thing or person, (2) comparative - two things or persons, and (3) superlative - more than two things or persons. Most ad-verbs formed from adjectives use more or most to express compari-sons. Example: slowly, more slowly, most slowlyInstructions: Write the comparative and superlative forms of the fol-lowing adverbs. 1. softly2. lazily3. heavily4. comfortably5. quietly

Fill in the blanks: Canada is (big) ________than the USA but China is (populous) ________country in the world.  | b. We stayed at (cheap) ________ ho-tel in the town but my cousin’s campsite was (cheap) ________ than our hotel. | c. January is generally (bad) ________ than December but Febru-ary is (cold) ________ month. | d. English is (easy) ________ than Ger-man. | e. Chinese is (difficult) ________ language. | f. Heathrow is one of (busy) ________ airports in Europe. | g. My father thinks that the Beat-les were (good) ________ than the Rolling Stones, but in my opinion, U2 is (great) ________ band.

A modifier is a word or phrase that adds detail or description to a sentence. In the example sentences below, the modifiers are un-derlined.

% • I walked in and out of dozens of stores yesterday, search-ing for the perfect purse.

% • Shopping with Lisa today, I found a great purse.

Writers generally make two major modifier mistakes: dangling modifiers and misplaced modifiers. A dangling modifier occurs when the subject of the modifier is unclear. Consider the sentence below and its revision (the modi-fiers are underlined).

% • INCORRECT: Having looked through the whole music store, the CD I wanted just wasn’t there.

From the way this sentence is written, it actually looks like the CD has been looking through the whole music store.

We can correct the dangling modifier and make the sentence clearer by adding a subject for the modifier.

% • REVISION: Having looked through the whole music store, I realized that the CD I wanted just wasn’t there.

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Section 6

Modifiers

%

Strategies for revis-ing dangling modifi-ers:

1. Name the appro-priate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:

INCORRECT: Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.

Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse ar-rived late. To revise, decide who actually arrived late. The possi-ble revision might look like this:

REVISION: Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.

2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete intro-ductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that clause:

INCORRECT: Without knowing his name, it was difficult to in-troduce him.

Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name. To revise, decide who was trying to introduce him. The revision might look something like this:

REVISION: Because Maria did not know his name, it was diffi-cult to introduce him.

3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:

INCORRECT: To improve his results, the experiment was done again.

REVISION: He improved his results by doing the experiment again.

More examples of dangling modifiers and their revisions:

INCORRECT: After reading the original study, the article re-mains unconvincing.

REVISED: After reading the original study, I find the article un-convincing.

INCORRECT: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax.

REVISED: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home.

INCORRECT: The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully.

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When grammar teachers hear dangling modifiers:

REVISED: They failed the experiment, not having studied the lab manual carefully.

What You Think It Says/What is Really Says

Sentence #1: The patient was referred to a psychologist with several emo-tional problems.

• What the writer thinks it says: The patient has emotional prob-lems.

• What the sentence really says: The psychologist has emotional problems.

Correction: The patient with several emotional problems was re-ferred to a psychologist.

Sentence #2: Sam found a letter in the mailbox that doesn't belong to her.

• What the writer thinks it says: Sam found a letter that doesn't belong to her.

• What the sentence really says: The mailbox doesn't belong to Sam.

Correction: Sam found a letter that doesn't belong to her in the mailbox.

Sentence #3: Two cars were reported stolen by the Farmingdale police yes-terday.

• What the writer thinks it says: The Farmingdale police re-ported two stolen cars.

• What the sentence really says: The police stole the two cars.

Correction: Yesterday, the Farmingdale police reported that two cars were stolen.

Sentence #4: Luis had driven over with his wife, Chris, #om their home in a Chevy for the basketba! game.

• What the writer thinks it says: Luis and Chris drove in their Chevy to the game.

• What the sentence really says: Luis and Chris live in a Chevy.

Correction: Luis had driven over in a Chevy with his wife, Chris, from their home for

the basketball game.

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Rewrite each of the following bollixed-up sentences.

1. The writer read from his new book wearing glasses.

2. You are welcome to visit the cemetery where famous Russian composers, artists, and writers are buried daily except Thurs-day.

3. As we begin, I must ask you to banish all information about the case from your mind, if you have any.

4.A superb and inexpensive restaurant; fine food expertly served by waitresses in appetizing forms.

5. Many of the trustees congratulated him for his speech at the end of the meeting and promised their support.

6.For sale: An antique desk suitable for a lady with thick legs and large drawers.

7. For sale: Several very old dresses from grandmother in beauti-ful condition.

8. Wanted: Man to take care of cow that does not smoke or drink.

9.For sale: Mixing bowl set de-signed to please a cook with a round bottom for efficient beating.

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