Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology. What can psychology do? Psychology can help us understand… How culture may influence personality Why you find some

Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology

What can psychology do? Psychology can help us understand How culture may influence personality Why you find some people attractive but not others What IQ test scores really mean How prejudice forms How different are men and women? Why buying lottery tickets can be so addictive

Why Study Psychology??? Help understand why people (and animals) behave the way they do How brain and body are connected How do improve learning abilities and memory How to deal with life stresses Very important: Understanding of research methods in psychology because research can be flawed Critical thinking Evaluation of research, advertisements, and politicians

What is psychology? Psychology the scientific study of behavior and mental processes Behavior all outward or overt actions and reactions (i.e., talking, facial expressions, movement) Mental processes all the internal, covert activity of our minds (i.e., thinking, feeling, remembering) Psychology is scientific In observation of behavior must avoid bias or the possibility of seeing only what you expect to see Bias personal judgments based on beliefs rather than facts Bias leads to faulty observations Thus, psychologists use the scientific method

4 Goals of Psychology - Description 1 st Goal - description Provides observations Observing a behavior and noting everything about it What is happening, where it happens, who it happens to, and under what circumstances Example: Why are so many computer scientists male? Description: through observations you note that many non-techies hold stereotypical views of the life and environment of computer scientists Surrounded by computer games, junk food, science-fiction gadgets, love star trek = masculine environment These observations seem to add up to a more masculine view of computer scientists Descriptions lead to the next goal: Why do females seem to avoid this environment

4 Goals of Psychology - Explanation 2 nd Goal - explanation Based on observations, the next step is attempting to explain those observations Example: finding an explanation for the lower proportion of women in computer science possible explanation: women may feel they do not belong in such a stereotypically masculine environment Finding explanations is an important step in the process of forming theories of behavior Theory a general explanation of a set of observations or facts

4 Goals of Psychology - Prediction 3 rd Goal: prediction Prediction determining what will happen in the future Example: if we want more women to go into computer science, we must do something to either: Change the environment Change the perception of the environment typically associated with this field

4 Goals of Psychology - Control 4 th Goal: control modification of some behavior Purpose is to change an undesirable behavior to a desirable one Example: change behaviors to promote more equality in career choices Changing the image of computer science as a field may help increase the number of women choosing to go into this field

4 Goals of Psychology Not all psychological investigations try to meet all 4 of the goals Some may focus on description and prediction Ex. Personality theorist who wants to know what people are like (description) and what they might do in certain situations (prediction) Some may focus on description and explanation Ex. Experimental psychologists who designs research to find explanations for observed (described) behavior Therapists may be more interested in controlling or influencing behavior and mental processes But, the other three goals would be important in achieving this objective

History of Psychology Field has only officially existed for about 130 years Before psychology, behavior was studied by philosophers, medical doctors, and physiologists Philosophers tried to understand/explain the human mind and its connection to the physical body Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) soul and body were both part of the same underlying structure Plato (427-347 B.C.) soul exists separate from the body (dualism) Rene Descartes (17 th -century French philosopher/mathematician) dualism, suggested that the pineal gland (small organ at the base of the brain) was the link between the soul and body

History of Psychology Medical doctors and physiologists studied the physical connection between the body and the brain Gustav Fechner (physician/physicist) credited with some of the first scientific experiments that formed a basis for psychological studies of perception Hermann von Helmholtz (physician) performed groundbreaking experiments in visual and auditory perception

History: Wundt and Introspection Wilhelm Wundt (physiologist) father of psychology 1 st attempt to bring objectivity and measurement to psychology 1 st psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany 1879 Believed the mind was made up of thoughts, experiences, emotions, etc. Objective introspection the process of objectively examining and measuring ones own thoughts and mental activities Ex. A rock is placed in your hand, you note everything that you feel as a result of having a rock in your hand (i.e., sensations stimulated by the rock, how heavy it is, its texture etc.)

History: Titchener & Structuralism Edward Titchener (1867-1927) Cornell University - Wundts student Expanded Wundts ideas into a new viewpoint called structuralism (because the focus was on the structure of the mind) Believed every experience could be broken down into its individual emotions and sensations Believed objective introspection could be used on thoughts in addition to physical sensations Ex. What is blue? there are blue things, like the sky. Blue is cool and restful, blue is calm etc. There is no actual object, just introspection regarding your thoughts about blue Structuralism was an early dominant viewpoint in psychology, but died out in the early 1900s Interesting tidbit: Titchener graduated the first female Ph.D in psychology, Margaret F. Washburn, in 1894

History: James & Functionalism William James (1842-1910) Harvard University Wrote Principles of Psychology, a comprehensive book on psychology (still in print today) Opposed structuralism More interested in the importance of consciousness to everyday life (rather than just its analysis like Wundt and Titchener) However, believed the study of consciousness itself was not yet possible (because consciousness is an ever-changing stream) Focused on functionalism - how the mind allows people to function in the real world How people work, play, and adapt to their surroundings Interesting tidbit: Harvard was the 1 st school in America to offer classes in psychology

History: James & Functionalism (cont.) Functionalism was largely influenced by Charles Darwins ideas about natural selection (i.e., physical traits that help an animal adapt and survive are passed on to its offspring) Behavioral traits could also be adaptive Animals and people whose behavior helped them survive would pass those traits to their offspring, via teaching or a mechanism of heredity Example: Behavior like avoiding eye-contact in a crowded elevator can be seen as a way of protecting ones personal space May be rooted in the primitive need to protect ones home from intruders or as a way of avoiding what might seem like a challenge to another person Functionalism is no longer a major viewpoint in psychology but its elements can be found in the modern fields of educational psychology and industrial/organizational psychology

Early Sexism in Psychology Mary Whiton Calkins one of James early students Completed every credit and requirement for a Ph.D. under James at Harvard Denied a Ph.D. because she was a woman Eventually established a psychological laboratory at Wellesly College for women Conducted some of the earliest research in the area of human memory and the psychology of the self 1905 became the first female president of the American Psychological Association Unlike Washburn, Calkins never earned a Ph.D. despite a successful career as a professor and researcher

Early Minority Influences in Psychology Francis Cecil Sumner in 1920 first African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology at Clark University Known as the father of African American psychology Kenneth & Mamie Clark worked to show the negative effects of school segregation on African American children Jorge Sanchez early Hispanic psychologist who conducted research on intelligence testing, focusing on the cultural biases in the tests.

History: Gestalt Psychology - The whole is greater than the sum of its parts Max Wertheimer (German) objected to structuralism Psychological events such as perceiving and sensing could not be broken down into smaller elements and still be properly understood Ex. If you take an ipod apart, you no longer have an ipod, just a bunch of unconnected bits and pieces Gestalt Psychology Focus on studying whole patterns rather than small pieces of them People naturally seek out patterns (wholes) in the sensory information available to them Today Gestalt ideas are part of cognitive psychology as well as other areas

History: Sigmund Freud & Theory of Psychoanalysis During the rise of structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt psychology Sigmund Freud neurologist in Austria focusing on disorders of the central nervous system Attempting to understand nervous disorders with no physical cause Suggested existence of an unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push, or repress, all of our threatening urges and desires Believed repressed urges, trying to surface, created nervous disorders Believed phobias (irrational fears) were a symptom of an underlying, repressed conflict

History: Sigmund Freud & Theory of Psychoanalysis cont. Freud stressed importance of early childhood experiences Believed personality was formed in the first 6 years of life If an individual had significant problems, the problems must have begun in the early years of life Psychoanalysis the theory and therapy based on Freuds ideas Basis of much modern psychotherapy (a process in which a trained psychological professional helps a person gain insight into and change his or her behavior)

History: Pavlov & Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist Pavlovs Conditioning - Showed that a reflex (an involuntary reaction) could be caused to occur in response to a formerly unrelated stimulus Dog study:

History: Behaviorism & Watson John B. Watson Challenged structuralism, functionalism, and psychoanalysis Behaviorism science of behavior focuses only on observable behavior Completely ignored consciousness and focused only on observable behavior (something that could be directly seen and measured) Believed all behavior is learned Believed that phobias are learned through the process of conditioning Took Pavlovs classical conditioning and applied it to humans

Watson & The Little Albert Study Watson, in opposition to Freud, wanted to show that phobias were learned through the process of conditioning Prior to conditioning, Albert showed no fear when presented with a white rat Next, every time Albert was presented with the rat Watson made a loud, frightening noise behind him After multiple parings of the rat and the noise Albert showed fear when presented with the rat http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt0ucxOrPQE

Modern Perspectives Psychodynamic Perspective Modern version of Freuds psychoanalysis Less focused on sex and sexual motivations than Freuds psychoanalysis More focused on the development of sense of self, social and interpersonal relationships, and the discovery of other motivations behind behavior Behavioral Perspective After Watson, B.F. Skinner became the new leader of the field Skinner theory of operant conditioning behavioral responses that are followed by pleasurable consequences are strengthened, or reinforced; behaviors followed by negative consequences will diminish over time (called punishment) We will discuss this more in chapter 5

Modern Perspectives Humanistic Perspective Known as the third force in psychology Founded by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers in early 1900s Contrast to psychoanalysis and behaviorism Focused on peoples ability to direct their own lives People have free will the freedom to choose their own destiny People strive for self-actualization the achievement of ones full potential

Modern Perspectives Cognitive Perspective Became a major force in the 1960s Focuses on how people think, remember, store, and use information Includes memory, intelligence, perception, thought processes, problem solving, language, and learning Compares the brain to a computer Cognitive neuroscience New field studying the physical workings of the brain and nervous system when engaged in memory, thinking, and other processes Use MRI, fMRI, PET to study the structure and activity of the living brain

Modern Perspectives Sociocultural Perspective Combines two areas of psychology: Social psychology the study of groups, social roles, and rules of social actions and relationships Cultural psychology the study of cultural norms, values, and expectations Focus on the effect that people have on one another, either individually or in a larger group The way people behave (or even think) is influenced by who is around whether alone, with friends, in a crowd, or part of a group As well as by social norms, fads, class differences, and ethnic identity of the particular culture in which they live

Modern Perspectives Biopsychological Perspective The study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes Human and animal behavior is seen as a direct result of events in the body Causes of behavior and mental events: hormones, heredity, brain chemicals, tumors, and diseases Study topics such as sleep, emotions, aggression, sexual behavior, learning, memory, mental disorders Disorders may have multiple causes but focus if placed on biological factors Ex. Genetic and hormonal causes of schizophrenia

Modern Perspectives Evolutionary Perspective Focus on the biological basis for universal mental characteristics that all humans share Seeks to explain general mental strategies and traits Ex. Why people lie, how attractiveness influences mate selection, why fear of snakes is so common Mind is seen as a set of information-processing machines, designed by the process of natural selection, allowing humans to solve the problems they faced in the early days of evolution Ex. Behavior of not eating things with a bitter taste most likely evolved as early humans came into contact with bitter plants that were most likely poisonous. Humans who didnt eat the plant survived to pass on their genes Ex. Difference between men and women in response to sexual vs. emotional infidelity

Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization Psychology is a large field with many areas of specialization requiring different training Refer to Figure 1.2 in the textbook Largest subfield of psychology is clinical psychology Largest percentage (35%) of psychologists work at 4-year universities PsychologistsPsychiatrists No medical trainingMedical training Doctorate degree (Ph.D.)Medical Doctor (M.D.) Many areas of specializationSpecialize in diagnosis/treatment of psychological disorders Not able to prescribe medicationAble to prescribe medication

Psychology: Scientific Methodology Scientific method a system for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data System aids psychologists in accomplishing the 4 goals (remember?...description, explanation, prediction, and control) 5 Steps Perceiving the question Forming a hypothesis Testing the hypothesis Drawing conclusions Reporting results

Scientific Method Step 1 - Perceiving the Question Notice something interesting and want and explanation Goal of description Ex. Notice that your kids seem more aggressive with each other after watching a violent cartoon on Saturday mornings Step 2 Forming a Hypothesis Hypothesis (educated guess) tentative explanation for your observations Statement that can be tested in some way Hypothesis children who watch violent cartoons become more aggressive Goal of description and explanation

Scientific Method Step 3 Testing the Hypothesis Must avoid confirmation bias (the tendency to only notice things that agree with ones view of the world) Scientific method seeks to avoid bias by forcing researchers to seek out information that may contradict their biases Thats why psychologists do research over and over, to gain more support for their hypothesis Testing method selected depends on what kind of answer you think you may get More detailed observations Survey asking questions to a large number of people Experiment in which you deliberately change one thing to see if it causes changes in the behavior you are studying What do you think is the best way to test our kids & cartoons example?

Scientific Method Experiment: 2 groups of kids Group 1 Group 2 Watch Violent Cartoon Watch Nonviolent Cartoon Measure kids aggressive behavior

Scientific Method Step 4 Drawing Conclusions Results of hypothesis testing can either support or not support your hypothesis Support: experiment worked! Measurements supported initial observations Ex. If kids who watched the violent cartoon were more aggressive than kids who watched the nonviolent cartoon Not Supported: back to square 1! Think of other possible explanations for what was observed Ex. No difference in aggression between group 1 and group 2 maybe kids are just more aggressive on Saturday mornings, maybe its the breakfast they eat on Saturdays? Goal of prediction if hypothesis was supported, then you can make educated guesses about future, similar scenarios

Scientific Method Step 5 Report Your Results Once you have come to a conclusion, you want to let other researchers know what you found even if your hypothesis was not supported Write up exactly what you did, why you did it, how you did it, and what was found Others may replicate (do exactly the same thing you did) and add support to your findings Peer reviewed journals, posters and speaking at conferences, etc. Even if your experiment didnt work Maybe poor study design Maybe other outside factors effected results Show other researchers what doesnt work so the same unsuccessful experiments arent repeated Add more to knowledge base Goal of control findings may help to make predictions and ultimately modify or control behavior

Descriptive Methods: Naturalistic Observation AGAIN: method depends on the kind of question to be answered Naturalistic Observation Observing people/animals in their normal environment Animals natural habitat, where they eat, play, sleep, and mate People workplaces, homes, social settings, playgrounds Advantage: realistic picture of how behavior occurs in its natural setting Observer should have a list of well-defined, specific behaviors Avoid observer effect (when animals or people dont behave normally because they know theyre being watched) Usually want to be hidden

Descriptive Methods: Naturalistic Observation (cont.) Disadvantages Observer bias observer only recognizes actions that support their opinion and ignores actions that contradict it How to avoid: use blind observers (people who dont know what the research question is, so they cant have preconceptions) How to avoid: use multiple observers so observations can be compared Lack of control Cannot ensure that each time behavior is observed the setting will be exactly the same Observations that are made at one time in one setting may not hold true for another time, even in a similar setting

Descriptive Methods: Laboratory Observation Sometimes its not practical to observe people/animals in their natural setting Advantage: allows researcher control over the setting Can ensure that environment is the same for each observation Disadvantage: artificial situation People/animals tend to behave differently in the laboratory than they would in the real world

Descriptive Methods: Case Studies In depth study of a single individual Try to learn everything possible about that individual Advantage: tremendous amount of detail Advantage: may be the only way to get certain kinds of information Ex. Traumatic brain injury Disadvantage: cant generalize to other similar cases Cant assume that if another person had the same kind of experiences he/she would turn out the same as the individual in the case study Disadvantage: vulnerable to bias on the part of the researcher

Descriptive Methods: Surveys Good way to gain information about private behaviors (ex. Sexual behavior) Ask a series of questions about the topic being studied Can be conducted in person (interviews), over the phone, internet, or with a questionnaire Advantage: can ask lots of questions and survey a large number of people Disadvantage: must be careful about the group of people surveyed Population group of interest in the study Ex. College freshman Representative sample sample that accurately represents the target population Ex. Cant survey every single college freshman, but can randomly survey groups of freshman from several different colleges Selection is random (ex. If you only surveyed freshman from Ivy League colleges, not all types of freshman will be represented in the sample) Disadvantage: peoples answers arent always accurate Misremembering, distorting the truth, outright lying

Finding Relationships: Correlation Correlation a measure of the relationship between two or more variables Variable anything that can change or vary (ex. Test scores, room temperature, gender, etc.) Example: is cigarette smoking connected to life expectancy (the # of years a person can be expected to live)? Could look at medical records: see # of cigarettes smoked per day and the age people were when they died Information related to these 2 variables are entered into an equation which produces a correlation coefficient Correlation coefficient # that represents 2 things: the direction and strength of the relationship between variables

Finding Relationships: Correlation When 2 variables are related, it means that if you know the value of one, you can predict the value of the other Ex. Smoking and life expectancy are related, knowing how many cigarettes a person smokes a day would allow you to predict how long they will live Direction - as # of cigarettes goes up, does life expectancy go up or down? Correlation coefficient (represented by r) will either be a positive or a negative # Positive variables increase and decrease in the same direction, if one increases, so does the other, if one decreases, so does the other Negative inverse relationship, if one increases the other decreases Ex. If as # of cigarettes increases, life expectancy decreases, then the relationship is negative or inverse

Finding Relationships: Correlation Strength of the relationship is determined by the actual value of the correlation coefficient Can range between +1.00 and -1.00 The stronger the relationship the closer the correlation coefficient will be to either +1.00 or -1.00 (weaker relationships will be close to 0) Ex. 0.89 is a strong positive correlation Ex. -0.89 is a strong negative correlation Example: if the correlation coefficient between smoking and life expectancy was r = -0.87, this would represent a strong negative correlation, as one variable increases, the other decreases

Finding Relationships: Correlation

IMPORTANT: just because there is a correlation between 2 variables DOES NOT mean that one causes the other! Causation cannot be determined from correlation There could be a 3 rd variable, not measured in the study, that causes the relationship Ex. Relationship between smoking and life expectancy could be due to the tendency of people who smoke to not take very good care of their health in general Correlation can provide the starting point for examining causal relationships with an experiment

Finding Relationships: Experiment Only method that allows for determining cause Deliberately manipulate (change) the variable you think is causing some behavior while keeping all other variables that may effect the relationship constant and unchanging This way, if the behavior changes (i.e. an effect), it must be due to the changes in the manipulated variable Example: effects of watching violent cartoons on kids aggressive behavior First, must select kids to use in the experiment Determine age range of interest (ex. 3-4 years old) Randomly select a certain # of kids in that age range (from daycares or pediatricians offices maybe)

Finding Relationships: Experiment independent variable - the variable to be manipulated the one thought to be causing the change in behavior Independent because it is independent of anything the participants do Ex. Cartoon violence dependent variable - the variable to be measured to see if there are any changes this is the effect of the manipulation on behavior Dependent because it depends on the manipulation of the independent variable Ex. Kids aggressive behavior Must define both the manipulated variable and the measured variable Operational definition specifically names the operations (steps or procedures) that must be used to control or measure the variables in the experiment Ex. Aggressive behavior checklist: hitting, pushing, etc.

Finding Relationships: Experiment Confounding variables variables that interfere with each other and may have an effect on the relationship being measured Must be controlled Ex. Some kids may just be more aggressive in general, or maybe kids tend to be more aggressive at the particular time of day they were observed Best way to avoid confounding variables is to use 2 groups One group watches a violent cartoon One group watches a nonviolent cartoon for the same amount of time

Finding Relationships: Experiment Experimental Group group that receives the manipulation Control Group group that receives no treatment or a treatment that should have no effect If both groups were equally aggressive then the violent cartoon did not effect behavior Experimental Group Control Group Watch Violent Cartoon Watch Nonviolent Cartoon Measure kids aggressive behavior

Finding Relationships: Experiment Random assignment randomly assigning participants to either the experimental or control condition Means that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each condition (experimental or control) Best way to ensure control over interfering or extraneous variables

Finding Relationships: Experiment Experimental Hazards Placebo effect when participants expectations or beliefs about a study effect their behavior in the experiment more likely when studying people rather than animals Ex. Studying the effects of a new drug, participants expect behavior to improve because they believe thats what the drug is supposed to do Avoid by using a control group who receives a placebo (which has no effect)

Finding Relationships: Experiment Experimental Hazards Experimenter effect similar to bias while measuring the dependent variable, the researcher gives participants clues about how they are supposed to respond Can be through body language, tone of voice, eye contact Ex. Alzheimers patient is taking a 2 nd memory test after receiving an experimental drug, experimenter pays a excessive amount of attention to each answer the participant gives Participant may think he/she should have improved a lot and tries really hard on the test, thus improvement is due to the patients increased effort, not to the drug

Finding Relationships: Experiment Single-blind study participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental group or the control group Unaware if they are receiving the manipulation or not Ex. Testing a new drug: experimental group gets the drug, control group gets a sugar pill, but are unaware which they were given Reduces the placebo effect because results of both groups are compared, even if both groups improve due to placebo effect, the experimental group should improve more if the drug is effective

Finding Relationships: Experiment Double-blind study both participants and experimenters measuring behavior are unaware of which condition (experimental or control) participants are in Helps reduce experimenter bias experimenter cannot give clues if they are unaware of what should be happening Every element is coded in some way so that only after all the measurements have been taken can it be determined who was in which group

Finding Relationships: Quasi- Experimental Alternative research design used when participants cannot be randomly assigned to experimental or control groups This is why its only quasi experimental, lack of random assignment to groups These studies are not considered true experiments Example: how does age influence behavior? Age independent variable Cant just randomly assign participants to be a certain age Example: behavior differences between men and women Gender independent variable Cant randomly assign participants to be either men or women

Ethics of Psychological Research Remember the Little Albert experiment? Seems pretty cruel right? People who volunteer to participate in studies should be able to expect that no physical or psychological harm will come to them Institutional Review Boards (IRB) groups of psychologists or other professionals who look over each proposed study and judge it according to its safety and consideration for the research participants Analyze all aspects of each proposed study (written materials, participant consent forms, equipment used in the study, etc)

Guidelines for doing research with people 1) Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed against the studys value to science People come first, research comes second 2) Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation Informed consent - Before researchers can do ANYTHING, participants must be informed in terms that they understand what will happen during their participation If participants are minors, parents must be informed 3) Deception must be justified Sometimes it is necessary to deceive participants Debriefing - After the study, participants must be informed of the deception used and why it was important

Guidelines for doing research with people 4) Participants may withdraw from the study at any time for any reason Ex. If participants get bored or uncomfortable 5) Participants must be protected from risks or told explicitly about risks Ex. If using electrical equipment, care must be taken to ensure no participant is shocked 6) Investigators must debrief participants, telling the true nature of the study and expectations of results Especially important in studies involving deception

Guidelines for doing research with people 7) Data must remain confidential Importance of confidentiality Report only group results so that no one can be identified 8) If for any reason a study results in undesirable consequences for the participant, the researcher is responsible for detecting and removing, or correcting, these consequences Sometimes people react to manipulations in unexpected ways Researchers is responsible for helping individuals overcome negative impacts of the study

Research on Animals Using animals aids in answering research questions that would be impossible using people Easier to control, engage in simpler behavior so easier to see effects of manipulations Animal research has played key roles in the development of vaccines for deadly diseases, insulin treatments for diabetics, transplant surgeries, etc Major guideline must avoid exposing research animals to any unnecessary pain or suffering Ex. If study involves surgery, must use anesthesia Ex. If the animal must be killed to study postmortem effects, death must be accomplished in the most humane way possible

Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking Critical thinking making reasoned judgments Reasoned judgments should be logical and well thought-out Includes the ability to ask and seek answers for critical questions Ex. Do you have any good evidence for your assertions, or are you just giving your opinion? Example: I should think more critically about products on infomercials Then maybe I wouldnt have wasted $ on a Pasta Boat but I still think the Snuggie was a good decision

4 Basic Criteria for Critical Thinking 1) There are very few truths that do not need to be subjected to testing Questions that can be investigated empirically should be examined using established scientific methods Ex. Many people still believe in Astrology, but scientific investigations have shown time after time that astrology has no basis in truth or scientific fact 2) All evidence is not equal in quality Evidence should be evaluated before deciding it is good support for some idea Poorly done experiments, incorrect assumptions based on correlations, studies that could not be replicated, studies using no control group, no examination of placebo or experimenter effects, deliberate manipulations of findings Ex. How much evidence is there really to support alien visitation Ex. Faked data led to thousands of parents refusing to allow their children to be vaccinated because they believed vaccinations caused Autism which has in turn led to the resurfacing of diseases that were nearly eliminated

4 Basic Criteria for Critical Thinking 3) Just because someone is considered to be an authority or to have a lot of expertise does not make everything that person claims automatically true Should never just take an experts word for it, always ask to see the evidence If there are two explanations for some phenomenon the simplest one is more often the best one (known as the rule of parsimony) Example: Crop circles 2 explanations: either made by aliens in space ships (as claimed by many experts) or made by humans as a hoax Obviously, the hoax explanation is the simplest And it turned out to be correct for the crop circles that appeared in England in the 1970s and 1980s (the pranksters, Doug Bower and Dave Chorley, came clean about making the circles in 1991)

4 Basic Criteria for Critical Thinking 4) Critical thinking requires an open mind Good to be skeptical but shouldnt close your mind to things that are truly possible Balance between skepticism and willingness to consider other possibilities even possibilities that contradict previous judgments or beliefs Example: there is not yet any convincing evidence that there was once life on Mars But that doesnt mean scientists dismiss the idea, just no convincing evidence yet

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Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology. What can psychology do? Psychology can help us understand… How culture may influence personality Why you find some