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CHEMISTRY The Central Science 9th Edition. Chapter 11 Intermolecular Forces, Liquids and Solids. 11.1: A Molecular Comparison of Liquids and Solids. P. 408. Text, P. 409. The forces holding solids and liquids together are called intermolecular forces. 11.2: Intermolecular Forces. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Chapter 11Chapter 11Intermolecular Forces, Liquids Intermolecular Forces, Liquids
and Solidsand Solids
CHEMISTRY The Central Science
9th Edition
11.1: A Molecular Comparison of Liquids 11.1: A Molecular Comparison of Liquids and Solidsand Solids
P. 408
The forces holding solids and liquids together are called intermolecular forces
Text, P. 409
• The covalent bond holding a molecule together is an intramolecular force
• The attraction between molecules is an intermolecular force• Much weaker than intramolecular forces • Melting or boiling: the intermolecular forces are
broken (not the covalent bonds)
11.2: Intermolecular 11.2: Intermolecular ForcesForces
The stronger the attractive forces, the higher the boiling point of the liquid and the melting point of a solid
(low boiling point)
Text, P. 409
Ion-Dipole Forces
• Interaction between an ion and a dipole (a polar molecule such as water)• Strongest of all intermolecular forces • Found only in mixtures
Text, P. 410
Dipole-Dipole Forces
• Between neutral polar molecules• Oppositely charged ends of molecules attract• Weaker than ion-dipole forces
• Dipole-dipole forces increase with increasing polarity• Strength of attractive forces is inversely related to
molecular volume
Text, P. 410
London Dispersion Forces
• Weakest of all intermolecular forces• Two adjacent neutral, nonpolar molecules
• The nucleus of one attracts the electrons of the other• Electron clouds are distorted• Instantaneous dipole• Strength of forces is directly related to molecular
weight• London dispersion forces exist between all molecules
London dispersion forces depend on the shape of the molecule
• The greater the surface area available for contact, the greater the dispersion forces
Text, P. 412
Hydrogen Bonding
• Special case of dipole-dipole forces
• H-bonding requires H bonded to an electronegative element (most important for compounds of F, O, and N)
Hydrogen Bonding
Boiling point increases with increasing molecular weight. The exception is water (H bonding)
Text, P. 413
Hydrogen BondingText, P. 414
Solids are usually more closely packed than liquids (solids are more dense than liquids)
Ice is ordered with an open structure to optimize H-bonding (ice is less dense than water)
Text, P. 415
Text, P. 417
Sample Problems # 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19
Viscosity• Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid to flow
• Molecules slide over each other• The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the
viscosity• Viscosity increases with an increase in molecular weight
11.3: Some Properties of 11.3: Some Properties of LiquidsLiquids
Surface Tension
• Surface molecules are only attracted inwards towards the bulk molecules
• Molecules within the liquid are all equally attracted to each other
• Surface tension is the amount of energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid– Cohesive forces bind molecules to each other (Hg)
– Adhesive forces bind molecules to a surface (H2O)
– If adhesive forces > cohesive forces, the meniscus is U-shaped (water in a glass)
– If cohesive forces > adhesive forces, the meniscus is curved downwards (Hg in a barometer)
11.4: Phase Changes11.4: Phase Changes
Text, P. 420
(Endothermic)
(Endothermic) (Exothermic)
(Exothermic)(Endothermic)
(Exothermic)
Generally heat of fusion (melting) is less than heat of vaporization (evaporation)
• It takes more energy to completely separate molecules than to partially separate them
Text, P. 420
Heating Curves
• Plot of temperature change versus heat added is a heating curve
• During a phase change, adding heat causes no temperature change (equilibrium is established)– These points are used to calculate Hfus and Hvap
– Remember: Q = m·Cp·ΔT
Text, P. 421
Added heat increases the temperature of a consistent state of matterEnergy used for
changing molecular motion, no T change
Critical Temperature and Pressure
• Gases are liquefied by increasing pressure at some temperature
• Critical temperature: the maximum temperature for liquefaction of a gas using pressure• A high C.T. means strong intermolecular forces
• Critical pressure: pressure required for liquefaction
• Examples: # 31, 33, WDP # 48
• Other WDP examples: # 44, 46, 50 and 51
Explaining Vapor Pressure on the Molecular Level
• Some of the molecules on the surface of a liquid have enough energy to escape to the gas phase• After some time the pressure of the gas will be
constant at the vapor pressure (equilibrium is established)
11.5: Vapor Pressure11.5: Vapor Pressure
• Dynamic Equilibrium: the point when as many molecules escape the surface as strike the surface• Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted when the liquid
and vapor are in dynamic equilibrium
Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature• If equilibrium is never established then the liquid
evaporates• Volatile substances (high VP) evaporate rapidly• The higher the T, the higher the average KE, the faster
the liquid evaporates (hot water evaporates faster than cold water)
• Vapor pressure increases nonlinearly with increasing temperature
Text, P. 426
• When Temperature changes from T1 to T2, Vapor Pressure changes from P1 to P2
– These changes are related to ΔH by the equation,
Where T is the Kelvin temperatureR is the gas constant,
ΔHvap is the molar heat of vaporizationC is a constant
211
2 11
303.2log
TTR
H
P
P vap
Kmol
J
314.8
• This comes from the graph of P vs. inverse of T– Straight line– Negative slope– Equation:
• Use the Clausius-Clapeyron Equation to
1. Predict the vapor pressure at a specified temperature
2. Determine the T at which a liquid has a specified VP
3. Calculate enthalpy of vaporization from measurements of VP’s at different temperatures
CRT
HP vap
ln
Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point
• Liquids boil when the external pressure equals the vapor pressure• Normal BP: BP of a liquid at 1 atmosphere
• Temperature of boiling point increases as pressure increases
• Sample problems: # 45, WDP # 35
• Other WDP examples: # 36 & 37
• Phase diagram: plot of pressure vs. Temperature summarizing all equilibria between phases• Given a temperature and pressure, phase diagrams tell
us which phase will exist
11.6: Phase Diagrams11.6: Phase Diagrams
Text, P. 428
Vapor Pressure curve of the liquid (increase
P, increase T)
Stable at low P and high T
Stable at low T and high P
Triple Point: all 3 phases in equilibrium
Beyond this point, liquid and gas phases are indistinguishable
Melting point curve: Increased P favors solid phase; Higher T
needed to melt the solid at higher P
The Phase Diagrams
of H2O and CO2
Text, P. 429
Line slopes to the left: ice is less dense than water (why?) MP decreases with increased P
• Sample Problems: #49, 51
Unit Cells
• Crystalline solid: well-ordered, definite arrangements of molecules, atoms or ions• The smallest repeating unit in a crystal is a unit cell• It has all the symmetry of the entire crystal• Three-dimensional stacking of unit cells is the crystal
lattice• Close-packed structure
11.7: Structures of 11.7: Structures of SolidsSolids
Unit Cells
Text, P. 431
Unit Cells
Primitive cubic: atoms at the corners of a simple cube
• each atom shared by 8 unit cells
Text, P. 432
Unit Cells
Body-centered cubic (bcc): atoms at the corners of a cube plus one in the center of the body of the cube
• corner atoms shared by 8 unit cells• center atom completely enclosed in 1 unit cell
Text, P. 432
Unit Cells
Face-centered cubic (fcc): atoms at the corners of a cube plus one atom in the center of each face of the cube
• corner atoms shared by 8 unit cells• face atoms shared by 2 unit cells
Text, P. 432
Unit Cells
Text, P. 432
2 atoms per cell
4 atoms per cell
1 atom per cell
The Crystal Structure of Sodium Chloride
Two equivalent ways of defining unit cell:
Cl- (larger) ions at the corners of the cell, orNa+ (smaller) ions at the corners of the cell
Text, P. 433
• http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/13/science/13find.html?_r=1&oref=slogin
11.8: Bonding in Solids11.8: Bonding in Solids
Text, P. 435
Covalent-Network SolidsText, P. 437
Ionic SolidsThe structure adopted
depends on the charges and sizes of the ions
Text, P. 438
Metallic Solids• Various arrangements are possible• The bonding is too strong for London dispersion and
there are not enough electrons for covalent bonds• The metal nuclei float in a sea of electrons• Metals conduct because the electrons are delocalized
and are mobile• Close-packed structure
Text, P. 440
• Amorphous solids (rubber, glass) have no orderly structure– IMFs vary in strength throughout the sample– No specific melting point
Sample Problems # 53, 69, 71, 73, 75