Chapter 11 Resource Guide · Chapter 11 Resource Guide ACTIVITY Patrick Mattimore South San Francisco High School San Francisco, CA 294B From the Classroom of… The Gray Box Purpose:

Chapter 11 Resource Guide

294A

Teaching strategies have been coded for varying learning styles and abilities.L1 BASIC activities for all studentsL2 AVERAGE activities for average to above-average

studentsL3 CHALLENGING activities for above-average students

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNER activitiesELL

Activities that are particularly suited for use withinthe block-scheduling framework are identified throughout thischapter by the following designation: BLOCK SCHEDULING

KEY TO ABILITY LEVELS

Daily Objectives Reproducible Resources Multimedia Resources

Section 1Thinking and Problem SolvingUnderstand that thinking involveschanging and reorganizing the infor-mation stored in memory to createnew or transformed information.

Section 2LanguageExplain how language and thoughtare closely related.

Guided Reading Activity 11–1Vocabulary Activity 11–1Section Quiz 11–1

Guided Reading Activity 11–2Vocabulary Activity 11–2Section Quiz 11–2

Daily Focus Transparency 11–1ExamView® Assessment SuiteCD-ROMPresentation Plus! Software

Daily Focus Transparency 11–2Vocabulary PuzzleMaker CD-ROMExamView® Assessment SuiteCD-ROMPresentation Plus! Software

SECTION RESOURCES

Blackline Master CD-ROM Transparency


ACTIVITY

Patrick MattimoreSouth San Francisco High SchoolSan Francisco, CA

294B

From the Classroom of…

The Gray Box

Purpose: To use critical thinking skills and metacognition

Materials Needed: A large, empty gray box

Procedure: Tell students that restructuring high schoolsis a major topic among school administrators. (Althoughthat information is true, the rest of this story is fic-tional.) In 1998, a State Department of Education spon-sored a statewide contest and awarded a $25,000 cashprize to the person who came up with the most innova-tive plan for a restructured high school. The Departmentof Education was so enamored with the winning entrythat it built scale models for resale. Show students agray box, and tell them that enclosed in the box are themodel and plans that were purchased from the Depart-ment of Education. Tell students that they will ask youup to 20 yes/no questions to try to determine the exactstructure and details of the school. After several min-utes of questions and the yes/no responses, challengestudents to guess at the structure. Then reveal theempty gray box to students.

Discussion: Ask students to reflect on their own think-ing processes during the exercise (metacognition). Howdid they revise their thinking as a result of new informa-tion? How can asking the right (or the wrong) questionsbe useful in helping us think about problems, novel situ-ations, and human behavior?

PSYCHOLOGY

Use our Web site for additional resources. All essential contentis covered in the Student Edition.

You and your students can visit glencoe.com, the Web sitecompanion to Understanding Psychology. This innovativeintegration of electronic and print media offers your students a wealth of opportunities. The student text directs students to the Web site for the following options:

■ Chapter Overviews■ Student Web Activities■ Self-Check Quizzes

Answers are provided for you in the Web Activity Lesson Plan.Additional Web resources and Interactive Puzzles are also available.

• Interactive Teacher Edition Access your TeacherWraparound Edition and your classroom resources with a feweasy clicks.

• Interactive Lesson Planner Planning has never beeneasier! Organize your week, month, semester, or year with allthe lesson helps you need to make teaching creative, timely,and relevant.

™

Timesaving Tools

Use Glencoe’sPresentationPlus! multimediateacher tool toeasily presentdynamic lessonsthat visually excite your students. UsingMicrosoft PowerPoint® you can customizethe presentations to create your ownpersonalized lessons.

http://glencoe.com

Psychology Projects 4-1 and 4-2

Chapter 4 Concept Transparencies

APPLICATION AND HANDS-ON

Graphic Organizer Activity 11

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Graphic Organizer Activities 11

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Graphic OrganizerActivity 11 Thinking

Directions: Thinking is the process of changing and reorganizing information stored in memory to cre-ate new or transformed information. Psychologists have divided the processes of thought into five unitsand have also identified at least three kinds of thinking. Complete the graphic organizer by listing thefive units of thought and providing a brief description of each. Then list the three kinds of thinking andbriefly describe each one.

THINKING

Units of Thought

DescriptionKinds of Thinking

Description

Chapter 11 Concept Transparencies

Reteaching Activity 11

22 Reteaching Activities

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Visualizing Information

Directions: Fill in each box with the units of thought and the kinds of thinking in which people engage.

Connecting Ideas

Directions: Write a problem-solving strategy that could be used for each of the following items. Identifywhether the strategy is an algorithm or a heuristic.

23. Choosing a checkout lane at a grocery store __________________________________________________

24. Finding the shortest driving route from San Francisco, California, to Seattle, Washington

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Units of Thought

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Types of Thinking

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Alternate Names

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Reteaching Activities 21

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Reteaching Activity 11 Thinking and

LanguageTerms and Concepts

Directions: Use the clues below to complete the crossword puzzle.

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ACROSS

2. using information in a unique way

4. a step-by-step problem-solving process

11. a general guideline for problem solving

12. a mental picture of a person, place, thing, orevent

13. words serving as representations of objects orqualities

DOWN

1. being aware of one’s thought processes

3. a sudden realization of a solution to a problem

5. creating new information by changing orreorganizing information in memory

6. the smallest unit of meaning in a language

7. the use of symbols and sounds for communi-cation of ideas

8. studying the meaning of words based ontheir context

9. an example of a concept

10. labels for classes of objects


294C

Application Activity 11

22 Application Activities

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

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STUDENT WORKSHEET

Problem SolvingApplication

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Word List

thinking symbolimage conceptprototype rulealgorithm heuristiccreativity insight

Directions: Use the word list below tocomplete the following word search puzzles.

Top Puzzle: All words appear either up,down, or diagonally. Keep track of thetime it takes to solve the puzzle.

Bottom Puzzle: Words are placed inrandom patterns as shown in the shadedsample. The letters in the words do notappear in straight lines. As you spell outthe word, each letter might be located ina new direction from the last letter. Eachletter will be adjacent to the previous let-ter and the one that comes after it. Tohelp you understand how the puzzleworks, the word “sample” has alreadybeen spelled out. Keep track of the timeit takes to solve the puzzle.

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Drawing Conclusions

Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which puzzle took longer to solve? Why?2. What techniques did you develop to help you solve the second puzzle?

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Application Activities 21

Objective

To examine strategies used to solve problems.

Overview

Students solve two types of word searches, one using standard word search rules and the other usingirregular shapes for the words.

Introducing the Activity

Explain to the students that we learn various problem-solving strategies. When we encounter problemsthat we have faced before, we apply a mental set that allows us to treat the problem in a certain fixedway. When the nature of the problem changes, the fixedness of our mental set interferes with our abilityto solve the problem. In order to solve new or different problems, we must use creativity to expand ourmental set.

Instructions for Students

On the activity sheet, solve the first word search in which all words appear in straight lines. Then solvethe second word search in which all the letters of the words touch, but the patterns are irregular. Thesame word set is used for both puzzles.

Answer Key

Top Puzzle: Bottom Puzzle:

Discussion Questions

1. What problem-solving strategies do you use with word search puzzles? (Some students will say thatthey look for the words one at a time. Other students will review the word list, scan the entire puzzle tofind as many words as possible, then work on finding the remaining words. Still others will say thatthey work row by row to find words.)

2. How did your mental set interfere with your ability to solve the second puzzle? (Students will pointout that their mental set for reading and for solving word puzzles places words in straight lines. Thesecond puzzle ignores that rule. With the pattern destroyed, the problem-solving process is basicallyreduced to evaluating each letter with its surrounding letters to find the words.)

Extension Activity

Ask students to create a crossword puzzle that follows a different set of rules. Have students write therules in the form of directions and see if someone else can solve the puzzle.

TEACHER NOTES

11ApplicationActivity Problem Solving

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Note: The following materials may be used when teaching Chapter 11. Section level supportmaterials are shown at point of use in the margins of the Teacher Wraparound Edition.

MULTIMEDIATEACHING TRANSPARENCIES

REVIEW AND REINFORCEMENT

Psychology Projects 11–1 and 11–2

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Psychology Projects and Lab Activities 41

Data Sheet

Directions: Connect all nine dots shown by drawing four straight lines without lifting yourpencil from the paper or retracing any line. Use a different set of dots for each attempt.After your ninth attempt, create additional sets of dots on blank paper. Before you begin,answer the following questions:

A. Have you ever seen this puzzle before? (check one)

❒ Yes ❒ No

B. If yes, how long ago? (check one)

❒ Within the last month ❒ Within the last year❒ Within the last six months ❒ More than one year ago

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

3.2.1.

6.5.4.

9.8.7.

40 Psychology Projects and Lab Activities

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

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Concept

Having a mental set sometimes interferes with problem solving.

Materials Needed

■ data sheet■ pen or pencil■ a blank sheet of paper for each participant

Assembly

1. Make copies of the data sheet for each participant.

Procedure

1. Ask 10 people who are not currently taking psychology and who are at least 12 yearsold to follow the directions on the data sheet. Conduct this activity with all of the par-ticipants in one large group or in several small groups.

2. Have participants sit at empty desks or tables. Tell them that you will provide every-thing they need including pens and paper. Ask participants not to talk among themselves.

3. Let participants know that you will share the answer whenever they want to see it.(Some participants will not want to see the answer, and will continue to work on thepuzzle on their own.) The answer to the puzzle is as follows:

4. End each session after 20 minutes.

Things to Observe


■ How many times does the participant follow the same pattern?■ How many participants solved the problem in 20 minutes?■ On average, how many tries did it take for a participant to solve the problem?■ Does it make any difference if the participant has seen the puzzle before?

Analyzing the Results


1. Of the participants who were not able to solve the puzzle, how many of them drewlines outside the box created by the eight dots on the perimeter?

2. How does the participant’s mental set affect his/her ability to solve the puzzle?

Connect the DotsProject11-2

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Psychology Projects and Lab Activities 39

Data Sheet

1. How would you rank yourself on the creativity scale below?

2. How would you rank yourself on the mental flexibility scale below?

3. Use the following spaces as directed by the person conducting this session.

1. 11.

2. 12.

3. 13.

4. 14.

5. 15.

6. 16.

7. 17.

8. 18.

9. 19.

10. 20.

Analyzing the Results


1. How did the number of uses a participant identified relate to the answers to the questions? Use a bar chart to illustrate your findings.

2. Did participants who knew the intended use of the object (secure wet clothing to aclothesline) come up with fewer other uses? Use a bar chart to illustrate your findings.

3. Do you think that this activity can actually identify individuals who are flexible and/orcreative? Why or why not?

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

1

not creative

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not very creative

3

slightly creative

4

creative

5

very creative

1

not flexible

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not very flexible

3

slightly flexible

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flexible

5

very flexible

38 Psychology Projects and Lab Activities

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

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Concept

Inflexible, rigid thinking leads to unoriginal solutions or no solutions at all.

Materials Needed

■ spring-type wooden clothespins■ pens with blue ink

Assembly

■ no assembly required

Procedure

1. Invite a total of 20 people between the ages of 13 and 19 to take part in the experi-ment. Conduct this activity with all of the participants in one large group or in severalsmall groups.

2. Have participants sit at empty desks or tables. Tell them that you will provide every-thing they need including pens and paper. Ask participants not to talk among them-selves.

3. Pass out copies of the data sheet and pens with blue ink. Ask participants to answerthe two questions at the top.

4. When everyone has finished with the two questions, hand each participant twospring-type wooden clothespins. Do not make any comments while passing out theclothespins except to remind participants not to talk among themselves.

5. Ask the participants to make a list of how these objects could be used as a pair orindividually.

6. Allow five minutes for the participants to make their lists. Use a digital timer or astopwatch to time the activity.

7. After five minutes, ask the participants to stop writing.8. Ask each participant to draw a circle around what they think was the original use

intended for these objects.9. Collect the pens and the data sheets.

10. Ask participants to share their ideas with each other. (This step is not integral to theproject, but can be enjoyable for the participants.)

Things to Observe

Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided.

■ How many participants knew the original use intended for a clothespin?

■ What was the average number of uses?

FlexibilityProject11-1

Vocabulary PuzzleMaker CD-ROM

ExamView®Assessment Suite CD-ROM

TeacherWorks™ CD-ROM

Glencoe Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook, Level 2

Presentation Plus! Software


Authentic Assessment Activity 11

Background

As children, we learned various problem-solving rules and algorithms. Often, we were taught or discov-ered heuristics which allowed us to solve problems more quickly.

Task

You are student teaching in an elementary school. Your supervising teacher has asked you to develop abulletin board to help students use heuristics or other problem-solving rules as they learn. Select one ofthe following skills as the purpose of your bulletin board:

phonics metric units of measurerules of punctuation names of the continentsaddition and subtraction names of the 50 statesmultiplication tables concepts of latitude and longitudemultiplying and dividing fractions concepts of money and making changeplanets in the solar system

Target Audience

The audience for your bulletin board will be the students that you are student teaching.

Objective

The purpose of the bulletin board is to teach students algorithms or heuristics that will help them learna topic.

Procedure

1. Consult the Assessment Lists for a bulletin board.2. Select a topic for your bulletin board. A topic not on the list may be used as long as your teacher

approves it.3. Research how the topic is taught and identify algorithms, heuristics, or other problem-solving rules

that are helpful in learning and remembering the information. Also, identify the age or grade atwhich children typically learn this information.

4. Create a sketch of the bulletin board that uses the information you researched in step 3. The bulletinboard should be designed to appeal to children of the correct age. For example, limit the number ofwords on a bulletin board designed for first or second graders.

5. Ask at least two other students in your class to review your sketch and give you suggestions forimprovement. If possible, ask a child of the correct age to tell you whether he or she would find thisbulletin board helpful.

6. Create the bulletin board from your sketch, incorporating the suggestions from the student reviewers. If a bulletin board is not available, use butcher paper or poster board mounted to a wall.

7. Prepare a list of the problem-solving rules that you used to develop your bulletin board.8. Present the bulletin board and list to your teacher.

Assessment

1. Use the classroom Assessment Lists to evaluate your bulletin board.2. Discuss what you might do differently for a similar project in the future.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

22 Performance Assessment Strategies and Activities

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Performance Assessment Activity 11 Problem-Solving

Bulletin Board

294D

Critical Thinking Skills Activity 11

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Critical Thinking Skills Activities 11

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Writing a Research

Report/Essay

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N GS K I L L S A C T I V I T Y 11

Directions: Read the information below and follow the steps to write a research report on dyslexia.

Dyslexia is a common reading disability that affects both boys and girls. Before dyslexia was identi-fied as a reading disability, many children were labeled “slow” or “not very bright.” Today we know thatmost dyslexics have normal or above average IQs.

There are various forms of dyslexia. Some forms lead to only minor reading problems; others lead togreat difficulty in reading. Leonardo da Vinci, the famous artist, suffered from an extreme form of dyslex-ia. He actually wrote backwards, from right to left. He was a very poor speller and his handwriting wasdifficult to read. Leonardo learned to express himself through his drawings, which are very detailed andprecise. His difficulties with reading and spelling did not limit his creative abilities. He found a way toexpress his thoughts and introduce us to his inventions with drawings instead of words.

Many famous people are dyslexic or have exhibited symptoms of dyslexia. They include:

As researchers learn more about genetics and the structures of the brain, they are learning the caus-es for dyslexia. At the moment, there is no “cure,” but there are many effective tools that can be used tohelp dyslexics learn to read and learn to manage their disability.

1. The topic for your report will be dyslexia. Begin your research by identifying the purpose for yourreport.

2. Write several main idea questions you want to answer about your topic such as: “How does the brainof a dyslexic differ from a normal brain?” “What tools can dyslexics use to learn to read?” “How havesuccessful people who have dyslexia overcome their disability?” Organize these questions into anoutline.

3. Conduct research about the topic and take notes. You may want to use index cards or small slips ofpaper that can later be grouped and rearranged.

4. Organize and analyze your information. Classify, synthesize, and outline the information that youhave collected.

5. Write a first draft. Your research report should have an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Theintroduction should explain the purpose of your report. After reading the introduction, your readershould be anxious to read the rest of the report. The body develops the main ideas of the report. Theideas are expressed in a logical manner with clear transitions between paragraphs and topics. Theconclusion summarizes your findings.

6. Edit the first draft. Reorganize information, improve sentence structure and transitions, and correctgrammar and spelling errors.

7. Write your final report.

Actors/Actresses Inventors/Scientists Artists/Writers World Leaders

Tom Cruise Alexander Graham Bell Pablo Picasso Winston Churchill

Jay Leno Thomas Edison Agatha Christie Thomas Jefferson

Whoopi Goldberg Albert Einstein Walt Disney John F. Kennedy

Enrichment Activity 11

22 Enrichment Activities

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Brainstorming

You have probably been a part of a group that has been asked to brainstorm to generate ideas or tofind solutions to a problem. The basic ground rule for brainstorming is that all ideas are welcome.During the brainstorming process, ideas are not evaluated or criticized. By brainstorming in a group,one person’s idea may spark an idea from another group member. A group is not required, however, foreffective brainstorming. By opening your mind to all the possibilities and forcing yourself not to evaluateeach idea, you can effectively brainstorm alone. For example, for the next five minutes write on a pieceof paper all the uses for a sponge. How many did you think of? If possible, compare your list with the listof a classmate. How did they compare? How did they differ?

Now think about an everyday problem in your life. Brainstorm a list of possible solutions. Let yourdivergent thinking do the work. When you have completed your list, use your convergent thinking toevaluate each solution. Cross out options that are not practical. How many are left? Can you use them tobegin to solve your problem?

Learning

Creative thinkers are usually lifelong learners. They try to learn new things every day. How doeslearning help creativity? It feeds your mind with new ideas. Reading books, going to plays, listening todifferent kinds of music are all great ways to expand your body of knowledge. We often discount what wecan learn from our senses of touch, taste, and smell. The next time you walk through a park, take time totouch the grass or the leaves on the trees and smell the flowers or the water in a fountain. The next timeyou order pizza, try a new ingredient on it. How did the ingredient change the taste of the pizza?

One fun and easy way to keep track of these new experiences is to keep a journal of the new thingsyou learn. Yes, you learn many things in school each day, but make this a journal of the things you learnoutside of school or the things you learn from unusual experiences.


1. Consider the following situation. They are building an additional high school in your school districtand the school board is running a contest to select the new mascot and team name for the school.You want to enter the contest. Create a question table using the model below to help you create yourentry for the contest.

2. Practice the personal brainstorming technique by thinking of at least 10 product names for a newenergy drink that will be marketed to young athletes.

3. Write a brief plan for making learning new things a priority in your life.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Selecting a mascot and team name for a new high school

What?

How?

Where?

When?

Who?

Why?

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Enrichment Activities 21

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Consider the following questions: What creative people do you know? Why do you think they are cre-ative? Do you think they were born with that creative ability or do you think they have worked to devel-op their creativity?

Creativity is often thought of as original or unique expressions of thoughts, ideas, or talents. In reali-ty, creative people use existing products in new ways, adapt products for new uses, and apply uniqueperspectives to solving new problems. Creative people are found in the arts, in business, in government,in research laboratories, and in schools. In other words, they are everywhere.

Creative people use two different thought process: convergent and divergent thinking. Convergentthinking sees the goal and uses logical processes to find a solution. Suppose you are a researcher who isseeking a cure for AIDS. You have read extensively on the advances that have been made in finding acure and you have developed several new avenues of research to explore. Because funding is limited,you can only explore one of these avenues. You use a step-by-step, logical process to evaluate each ofthese avenues and identify the most promising research project.

Divergent thinking does not aim at a specific goal, but uses free-flowing, nondirected thoughts toproduce unique insights. Many people report having insights while dreaming or daydreaming. Insightsoften occur when you let your conscious mind wander.

Although some people seem more naturally gifted in these thought processes, everyone can learnthem. Many different techniques can help you develop your creative thinking skills.

Asking Questions

Creative people are often inquisitive people. They ask questions when others think they know theanswers. The questions they ask often begin with What, How, Where, When, Who, and Why. Use the chartbelow to try this skill by creating as many questions as possible about the topic listed.

If you were truly looking for a way to reduce pollution in a large city, you could begin to answer thequestions on your list. The answers to the questions may lead to new questions or they may lead to cre-ative solutions. The creation of the questions uses divergent thinking. The answers to the questions useconvergent thinking.

Creativity

E N R I C H M E N TA C T I V I T Y 11

Directions: Read the following material then answer the questions on a separate sheet of paper.

(continued)

Topic: Reducing pollution in a large city

What?

How?

Where?

When?

Who?

Why?

Psychology Case Study 11

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Readings and Case Studies 55

Understanding the Case Study


1. Why is the United States Army interested in foreign language training?

2. What is Alice Healy’s hypothesis about the way people learn a second language?

3. What three common subject identifier strategies are used in both English and Chinese?

4. What were the results of the Healy/Tao study?

Thinking Critically


5. Why is it important for peacekeeping troops to be able to communicate clearly with other peace-keeping troops?

6. What recommendations would you make to the Army as it seeks to address its needs for languageskills among its troops?

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

54 Readings and Case Studies

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

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Increasingly, the United States, in conjunc-tion with the United Nations, sends peacekeep-ing troops around the globe. U.S. troops servealongside troops from other United Nationscountries. Barriers to communication andunderstanding are great. As a result, the U.S.Army has become keenly interested in foreignlanguage training.

Hypothesis

Psychologist Alice Healy, Ph.D., along withcolleagues at the University of Colorado, is working with the army using psycholinguisticsto analyze how people learn a second language.Their hypothesis is that: “People use strategiesfrom their native language to process and under-stand foreign language….”

Method for Testing Native LanguageStrategies

Healy and postgraduate assistant Liang Tao,Ph.D., examined the use of pronouns and nounphrases to identify subjects in sentences.Examples of common English phrasing include:

Noun/noun phrase sequence:Bill Clinton addressed the media. The

president spoke forcefully for the need forimproved educational opportunities.

Noun/pronoun sequence:Bill Clinton addressed the media. He spokeforcefully for the need for improved educa-tional opportunities.

Noun/zero anaphora (no noun or pronoun):Bill Clinton addressed the media and spokeforcefully for the need for improved educa-tional opportunities.

Chinese uses the same strategies; however,zero anaphora is much more common inChinese than in English.

To see how Chinese speakers whose secondlanguage was English used their native languagein understanding English, Healy and Tao devel-oped a study using standard reading compre-hension tests. Some tests were given intact; thatis, no modifications were made. Some tests werealtered using the zero anaphora strategy. Finallysome had changes to noun phrases and pro-nouns that would be considered inappropriatein both English and Chinese.

The three versions of the tests were adminis-tered to both native English and native Chinesespeakers.

Results

Native Chinese speakers scored consistentlylower on the intact and inappropriate versions.However, they did significantly better on testsusing the zero anaphora strategy. The findingsseem to indicate that the Chinese speakers didtransfer their native language skills to under-standing English.

The army can use these findings as theydesign foreign language training programs for troops who may be assigned for overseaspostings.

Source: Azar, B. (1995). Psycholinguistics helps keep the peace.The APA Monitor, 26 (5), p. 36.

C A S E S T U D Y 11 PeacekeepingWith Words

Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

The United Nations Flag

EXTENSION AND ENRICHMENT

Chapter 11 Test, Form A

Completion: Choose an item from the list below that best completes each sentence. Write the letter ofthat item in the blank to the left of the sentence. (4 points each)

A. non-directed thinking H. Benjamin WhorfB. image I. recombinationC. symbol J. B.F. SkinnerD. telegraphic speech K. prototypeE. rule L. subgoalsF. Noam ChomskyG. algorithm

16. When the elements of a problem are familiar but the required solution is not, it may beachieved by ________________.

17. A(n) ________________ is a fixed set of procedures that, if followed correctly, will lead to a solution.

18. Imagery, feelings, and daydreams are typical of ________________.

19. The first sentences a child utters usually follow a pattern called ________________.

20. ________________ argued that language affects our basic perceptions of the world.

21. A ________________ is a representative example of a concept.

22. The most primitive unit of thought is a(n) ________________.

23. ________________ believed that children possess an innate capacity for language.

24. A ________________ is a complex unit of thought that states the relation between concepts.

25. Intermediate steps in problem-solving are called ________________.

Short Answer: Answer both of the questions below. Use a separate sheet of paper for additional spaceif necessary. (5 points each)

26. Discuss creativity and the basic parts of this process.

27. Discuss the obstacles to problem solving and give an example.

54 Chapter and Unit Tests

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Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Chapter TestForm A 11 Thinking and

Language

Multiple Choice: Choose the item that best completes each statement or answers each question. Writethe letter of that item in the blank to the left of the sentence. (4 points each)

1. Which of the following is a combination of the other three?A. recombination C. flexibilityB. creativity D. original use of information

2. The “aha” experience, or suddenly realizing the solution to a problem, is calledA. functional fixedness. C. insight.B. a concept. D. symbolic thinking.

3. Which of the following is not a type of thinking?A. directed C. metacognitionB. non-directed D. heuristic

4. A symbol used to represent a class of objects is called a(n)A. rule. C. image.B. concept. D. set.

5. Changing and reorganizing the information stored in memory to create new or transformedinformation is called A. thinking. C. problem solving.B. creativity. D. language development.

Matching: Match each item in Column A with the items in Column B. Write the correct letters in theblanks. Not all of the terms in Column B will be used. (3 points each)

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Chapter and Unit Tests 53

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SCOREChapter TestForm A 11 Thinking and

Language

(continued)

Column A

6. phoneme

7. symbol

8. directed thinking

9. prototype

10. metacognition

11. morpheme

12. syntax

13. heuristic

14. functional fixedness

15. flexibility

Column B

A. rules for combining words into phrases and sentences

B. the smallest unit of meaning

C. rule-of-thumb problem-solving strategy

D. ability to overcome rigidity

E. habitual strategy

F. abstract unit of thought

G. representative example of a concept

H. awareness of one’s own cognitive process

I. statement of relation between concepts

J. the smallest unit of sound

K. systematic attempt to solve a problem

L. inability to imagine new functions for familiar objects

Chapter 11 Test, Form B

Completion: Choose an item from the list below that best completes each sentence. Write the letter ofthat item in the blank to the left of the sentence. (4 points each)

A. language G. morphemeB. insight H. convergentC. rigidity I. B.F. SkinnerD. linguistic relativity J. Benjamin WhorfE. flexibility K. symbolF. Noam Chomsky

16. The ability to overcome rigidity is called ________________.

17. A(n) ________________ is an abstract unit of thought that uses a sound or design to represent an object or quality.

18. A(n) ________________ is a sudden realization of the solution to a problem.

19. ________________ proposed that children inherit a mental program that enables them to learn language.

20. The idea that a person’s language influences his or her thoughts is called ________________.

21. Directed thinking, also called ________________ thinking, depends heavily on symbols, concepts, and rules.

22. A person can overcome ________________ by thinking about and analyzing situations from many perspectives.

23. A(n) ________________ is a system of communication that involves using rules to make andcombine symbols in ways that produce meaningful words and sentences.

24. A(n) ________________ is a unit of meaning.

25. ________________ believed children learn language through operant conditioning.

Short Answer: Answer both of the questions below. Use a separate sheet of paper for additional spaceif necessary. (5 points each)

26. Describe and give three examples of how language can express a particular value system.

27. Describe functional fixedness and how it results in rigidity.

56 Chapter and Unit TestsC

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Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Chapter TestForm B 11 Thinking and

Language

Multiple Choice: Choose the item that best completes each statement or answers each question. Writethe letter of that item in the blank to the left of the sentence. (5 points each)

1. Which of the following is a mental representation of an event or object?A. prototype C. symbolB. concept D. image

2. Metacognition occurs when you think aboutA. thinking. C. concepts.B. rules. D. heuristics.

3. “Mass remains constant despite changes in appearance” is an example of aA. concept. C. symbol.B. rule. D. image.

4. Mentally rearranging the elements of a problem in order to find a new solution is called A. functional fixedness. C. set thinking.B. flexibility. D. recombination.

5. A child who speaks in sentences, but does not use articles or prepositions is exhibitingA. a mental set. C. telegraphic speech.B. flexibility. D. linguistic relativity.

Matching: Match each item in Column A with the items in Column B. Write the correct letters in theblanks. (4 points each)

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Chapter and Unit Tests 55

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SCOREChapter TestForm B 11 Thinking and

Language

(continued)

Column A

6. nondirected thinking

7. concept

8. subgoals

9. prototype

10. algorithm

11. mental set

12. creativity

13. heuristic

14. syntax

15. semantics

Column B

A. intermediate steps toward a solution

B. rules for combining words to form phrases and sentences.

C. unit of meaning

D. ability to use information in a new or original way

E. a rule-of-thumb problem-solving strategy

F. free flow of thoughts with no plan

G. a representative example of a concept

H. abstract unit of thought

I. label for a class of objects or events with common attributes

J. step-by-step procedure for solving a problem

K. study of meaning in language

L. habitual strategy or pattern of problem solving

ASSESSMENT

Psychology Reading 11

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2. How did Peter Jusczyk test infants’ abilities to recognize their own names?

3. What did Jusczyk find about an infant’s attention to his or her own name compared to other soundpatterns?

4. What is the critical period theory of language learning?

5. What did Elissa Newport and Jacqueline Johnson conclude from their study of Chinese participantsin a language study?

Thinking Critically


6. Your school district is considering introducing children to a second language beginning in the firstgrade. Some people argue that young children have enough to learn already and second languageinstruction should begin in high school. Which view do you support? Why?

7. Although children may have a superior ability to learn language, at what types of learning do teensand adults excel?

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

52 Readings and Case Studies

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The infants listened longer to their own namesthan to any other name, even the ones with similarsound patterns. ‘This finding suggests that 4-and-a-half-month-olds have a rather detailed representationof the sound patterns of their names,’ the researchersconcluded.

This doesn’t mean they understand what theirnames mean, but it’s the first step, said Jusczyk.‘Infants as young as 4-and-a-half months of age arelearning to recognize sound patterns that will have aspecial personal significance for them,’ he concluded.

Younger is BetterThese incremental steps to learning language may

make children better learners than adults, according toa theory developed by psychologist Elissa Newport,PhD, of the University of Rochester. Because languagehas many components, learning it in small piecesmakes things easier, she reasons.

Her theory issued from work on the ‘critical peri-od’ theory of language learning: The idea that there’s afinite period when children can easily learn language,an idea based on anecdotal evidence that childrenlearn foreign languages faster than adults.

To test the theory, Newport and colleagueJacqueline Johnson, PhD, of the University of Virginiastudied Chinese subjects who had learned English as asecond language. The 44 subjects in the study differedby the age they arrived in the United States (from 3years old to 39 years old). None knew English beforearriving, all had been living in the United States for noless than five years and an average of 10 years, all hadlearned English by immersion in the culture and all hadattended American schools since their arrival.

The researchers found that the younger peoplewere when they arrived in the United States, the betterthey scored on a language test designed by theresearchers. The correlation between language abilityand age of arrival was as strong as that between heightand weight—one of the strongest correlations around,said Newport. ‘It’s clear that there is a superiority ofchildren over adults in language learning,’ said Newport.

Less is MoreThe critical learning period doesn’t end abruptly,

Newport said. Instead the ability to learn languagegradually declines as the brain matures. By late puber-ty, everyone learns at about the same rate.

Traditional neurobehavioral theory likens thedecline in learning to the winding down of a biologicalclock: The mechanism for language learning is at itsprime in young children and declines as they mature.

Newport’s theory examines the decline in learningability more as a difference in how children and adultsapproach learning. Research shows that children canonly handle small bits of information at a time becausethey have a more limited perspective than adults.

For example, when given novel information, suchas signs from American Sign Language, children dopoorly, often remembering only a piece of the sign—the hand shape, but not the hand movement or viceversa. Adults, on the other hand, have a wide perspec-tive; they’re quite good at remembering whole signs,for example.

In the case of language learning, Newportbelieves that ‘less is more.’ Children’s limited perspec-tive forces them to learn language in stages.

They acquire a few pieces at a time and learnslowly how to put them together. This system works forlearning language because language is composed ofmany little parts.

Adults, on the other hand, perceive all the piecesat once and have to find the organization within the bigpicture. Indeed, adults learn languages fast at first,picking up lots of vocabulary and entire sentences atone time.

But they soon fizzle out, taking a long time to trulyunderstand the organization of a foreign language.Newport likens it to the tortoise and the hare: Childrenstart out slowly, but far surpass adults over time….

Source: Azar, B. (1996). Sound patterns: Learning language keys.The APA Monitor, 27 (1), p. 20.

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

(continued)

Understanding the Reading


1. What is the first task an infant faces in learning his or her native language?

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Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Why are children able to learn a second language more readily than adults? Recentresearch suggests that infants first learn sound patterns and then attach meanings to thesound patterns. Researchers theorize that learning a second language incrementally insmall pieces is easier. As the brain matures, it loses its ability to process information inthese small bits. Instead it responds to whole thoughts, sentences, and ideas. This makeslearning a second language more difficult.

R E A D I N G 11Sound Patterns

Directions: Read the following selection, then answer the questions that follow.

(continued)

AmericanSign

Language

At age 15, Alex learned one of the embar-rassments of adult life: After a month in theMiddle East, his 7-year-old sister was trans-lating for him while he struggled to under-stand, let alone speak, Arabic. Why did shelearn the language so easily while Alex grap-pled with it?

Psychologists studying language acquisi-tion are beginning to understand Alex’s dilem-ma. They’re finding that language learning isincremental, with the first step simply recog-nizing sound patterns. According to onehypothesis, it’s the incremental nature of chil-dren’s language learning that makes it easy.But by puberty, the brain’s maturity makes itharder to learn in such small increments andlanguages become more difficult.

Sounding it OutAs evidence of how children learn lan-

guage incrementally, researchers find thatinfants first learn to distinguish sound pat-terns of their native languages. This abilitydevelops faster than any other aspect of lan-guage. It’s not surprising that sound percep-tion develops first and fastest, says psycholo-gist Peter Jusczyk, PhD, of the StateUniversity of New York-Buffalo. When theyaren’t sleeping, infants spend most of theirfirst year listening to speech sounds detachedfrom meanings. Even when parents try toteach their children a particular word, moretimes than not, they imbed it in a sentence.‘Babies need to break that sentence downinto sound patterns and pick out individualwords,’ explained Jusczyk.

Once that happens, they can relate indi-vidual sound patterns to particular meanings.This idea of putting an unknown object to a

known sound pattern is contrary to the tradi-tional view that babies learn sound patterns,such as words, to name objects they’re inter-ested in.

Jusczyk doesn’t deny that object-namingoccurs, but he contends that babies alsostore word patterns in memory and eventuallyattach them to objects in the environment.

To study how babies learn to go fromsound patterns to meaning, Jusczyk, graduatestudent Denise Mandel and David Pisoni,PhD, of Indiana University recently studied 4-and-a-half-month-old infants’ responses totheir names. Babies hear their own namesmore than most other words, so it will proba-bly be one of the first recognized. Decipheringthe age at which infants recognize theirnames might provide a first clue to theantecedents of relating sound to meaning, theresearchers reasoned.

They based their study on past research,which finds that when babies recognizesounds, they listen to them longer than lessrecognizable sounds. For example, 6-month-old infants listen longer to someone speakingtheir native language than to someone speak-ing a foreign language.

To measure how long babies listened totheir names, the researchers played eachinfant’s name through a loud speaker andtimed whether and for how long the babyturned its head toward the speaker. Theinfants also heard recordings of three othernames—one with a similar sound pattern totheir name and the other two with differentsound patterns. For example, Joshua wouldhear his name, then ‘Agatha,’ which has thesame sound pattern as ‘Joshua,’ then ‘Maria’and ‘Eliza.’

294

Chapter Overview Visit the Understanding PsychologyWeb site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter 11—Chapter Overviewsto preview the chapter.

PSYCHOLOGY

294

Psychology JournalIn your journal, answer the

following question: If you in-crease the size of your vocab-ulary, will you think better?Use past experiences toexplain your answer. ■

IntroductionIntroduction11C H A P T E R

Creative people have the ability to think flexibly and develop many unique solu-tions. One test developed by J.P. Guilford to test creativity is to find unique uses for common,everyday objects. Give every student in the class a common, everyday object such as a glass, apaper clip, a pair of scissors, and so on. Randomly assign students to work in pairs. Tell themthat they are to combine their items in some way to make a new object that serves some pur-pose. Ask volunteers to share their new invention. Ask: How did you use creativity to make thenew object? In what ways did you have to overcome set mental patterns to complete theassignment? What gave you the insight to complete the task?

TWO-MINUTE LESSON LAUNCHER

PSYCHOLOGY

Visit glencoe.com for a ChapterOverview for Chapter 11—Thinking and Language.

Psychology JournalExplain that the connection

between language and higher-levelthinking skills is well documented.We organize thought by language.Therefore, increasing your vocabu-lary will allow you to process moreinformation.

This journal activity provides thebasis for the Psychology Journalactivity exercise in the ChapterAssessment. ■

For a preview ofChapter 11 content,see MindJogger

Checkpoint on Presentation Plus!

http://glencoe.com

http://glencoe.com

295

Going beyond memory, how do we think? How do we solve prob-lems? How do we create ideas? How did Copernicus come upwith his idea? If storage and retrieval were the only processes we

used to handle information, human beings would be little more than glorified cameras and VCRs. Yet we are capable of doing things withinformation that make the most complex computers seem simple bycomparison. These processes—thinking and problem solving—are mostimpressive when they show originality or creativity.

Thinking and Problem Solving

■ Main IdeaThinking involves changing and reor-ganizing the information stored in memory to create new or transformedinformation, such as creative problem-solving strategies.

■ Vocabulary• thinking• image• symbol• concept• prototype• rule• metacognition• algorithm• heuristic• mental set• functional fixedness• creativity• flexibility• recombination• insight

■ Objectives• Identify the units of thought and the

kinds of thinking.• Explain strategies for and obstacles to

problem solving.

Reader’s GuideExploring Psychology

A Radical AssumptionHistorians often refer to “the

Copernican revolution” as a milestone inthe history of science. Copernicus was acareful and creative scientist who eventu-ally solved a problem that others beforehim had failed to solve: how to accountfor the movement of the planets in theheavens. . . . Copernicus finally created atheory that nicely predicted the move-ments of the planets. To do so, however,he had to make a radical assumption. Priorto Copernicus, everyone had taken it forgranted that the sun and the other planetsrevolve around the Earth, and indeed, itlooks that way to the naked eye.Copernicus argued that, if one made thisassumption, it would be impossible to pre-dict with accuracy the movement of theplanets. His theory began with an alternateassumption, namely, that the Earth and theother planets in our solar system revolvearound the sun.

—from The Ideal Problem Solver by John D.Bransford and Barry S. Stein, 1984

Chapter 11 / Thinking and Language 295

Reproducible Masters• Guided Reading Activity 11–1• Vocabulary Activity 11–1• Section Quiz 11–1

Transparencies• Daily Focus Transparency 11–1

SECTION RESOURCESMultimedia

ExamView® Assessment Suite CD-ROM


CHAPTER 11Section 1, pages 295–302CHAPTER 11

Section 1, pages 295–302

1 FOCUSSection Objectives1. Identify the units of thought and

the kinds of thinking.2. Explain strategies for and obsta-

cles to problem solving.

Use the Reader’s Guide to introduceconcepts and vocabulary.

■ Exploring PsychologyAsk students to read the ExploringPsychology feature. Then ask: Inwhat ways did Copernicus’s assump-tion show creativity and originality?Why was it difficult for people toaccept Copernicus’s discoveries?

■ Vocabulary PrecheckHave students create a matching puz-zle by writing the terms in one columnand the Glossary definitions in ran-dom order in a second column. Havepairs of students trade and completepuzzles.

Reader’s Guide

Project Daily Focus Trans-parency 11–1 and havestudents answer the questions.

Available as blackline master

Daily Focus Transparency 11–1

B E L L R I N G E RMotivational Activity

2 TEACHL1 Classifying InformationHave students work in small groupsto design a chart classifying examples of the five units of thought:images, symbols, concepts, proto-types, and rules. Encourage studentsto illustrate at least some of theentries. After students have sharedtheir charts, point out that to com-plete this assignment, they used acritical thinking skill known as classification. Ask: Is classificationan example of directed or nondi-rected thinking? BLOCKSCHEDULING

ELL

296

thinking: changing and reor-ganizing the information storedin memory to create new information

THINKINGYou may view thinking as changing and reorganizing the information

stored in memory to create new or transformed information. By thinking, forexample, humans are able to put together any combination of words frommemory and create sentences never devised before, such as this one.

Units of Thought The processes of thought depend on several devices, or units of

thought: images, symbols, concepts, prototypes, and rules. One very basicunit of thought is an image, a visual, mental representation of a specificevent or object. The representation is not usually an exact copy; rather, itcontains only the highlights of the original. For example, if an adult triesto visualize a grandmother who died when he was seven, he would prob-ably remember only a few details—perhaps the color of her hair or apiece of jewelry she wore—without a portrait or photo.

Imaging is an effective way to think about concepts. In 1971 tworesearchers (Shepard & Metzler) presented participants with 1,600 pairsof geometric images (see Figure 11.1). The researchers then asked theparticipants to determine if the objects in each pair were identical or dif-ferent. The researchers discovered that the participants completed thetask by rotating an image of one of the objects in their minds in an effortto see both patterns from the same perspective.

Another abstract unit of thought is a symbol, a sound, object, ordesign that represents an object or quality. The most common symbols inthinking are words; every word is a symbol that stands for somethingother than itself. An image represents a specific sight or sound, but a sym-bol may have a number of meanings. That symbols differ from the thingsthey represent enables us to think about things that are not present, toconsider the past and future, and to imagine things and situations thatnever will be or never were. Numbers, letters, punctuation marks, andicons are all familiar symbols of ideas that have no concrete existence.

When a symbol is used as a label for a class of objects or events withat least one common attribute—or for the attribute itself—it is called aconcept. Animals, music, liquid, and beautiful people are examples of con-cepts based on the common attributes of the objects and ex-periences belonging to each category. Thus the concept animalseparates a group of organisms from such things as automobiles, carrots,and Roquefort cheese. Concepts enable us to chunk large amounts ofinformation. We do not have to treat every new piece of information asunique, since we already know something about the class of objects orexperiences to which the new item belongs.

When we think of a concept, we often think of a representative exam-ple of it. When you think of a vehicle, for example, you might picture acar or a truck. This representation is called a prototype. The prototypeyou picture may not be an example that you have actually experienced.Most often it simply is an example that has most of the characteristics ofthe particular concept.

296 Chapter 11 / Thinking and Language

image: a visual, mental representation of an event or object

symbol: an abstract unit ofthought that represents anobject or quality; anything thatstands for or representssomething else

concept: a label for a class ofobjects or events that have atleast one attribute in common

prototype: a representativeexample of a concept

CHAPTER 11Section 1, pages 295–302CHAPTER 11Section 1, pages 295–302

Tell students that concepts arestored in memory using complexnetworks. These are links thatinterrelate concepts. For exam-ple, food would be linked tomeat, vegetables, and fruit. Net-works have many branches. Forexample, asparagus, peas, andcorn are linked to vegetables,which in turn are linked to food.Explain that researchers havediscovered that knowing oneword in a network allows otherwords in the network to berecalled more quickly.

Encouraging Creativity Organize students into groups and ask the members of eachgroup to imagine they are a team of child-care workers at a new learning center for youngchildren. Challenge them to write a list of “Dos” and “Do Nots” on a poster titled “CreatingCreativity.” Next, assign students to develop a list of activities and/or games that mightencourage creativity. Have a member from each group share its plan with the class. BLOCK SCHEDULING

COOPERATIVE LEARNING ACTIVITY

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Directions: Recalling the Facts Use the information in your textbook to answer the questions.

1. What four rules make up language? __________________________________________________________

2. How many morphemes are in the words book, love, and reason? ________________________________

3. A complete sentence must have a subject and verb. This is an example of what language rule?

4. The word produce can be used as a noun or a verb. What language rule allows you to understand

the meaning of this word in a sentence? ______________________________________________________

5. How did B.F. Skinner believe children learn language? _________________________________________

Guided ReadingActivity 11-2 Language

For use with textbook pages 304–308

Guided Reading Activity 11–1

297

A more complex unit of thought is a rule, astatement of a relation between concepts. Thefollowing are examples of rules: a person cannotbe in two places at the same time; mass remainsconstant despite changes in appearance.

Images, symbols, concepts, prototypes, andrules are the building blocks of mental activity.They provide an economical and efficient wayfor people to represent reality, to manipulateand reorganize it, and to devise new ways of act-ing. For example, a person can think about pur-suing several different careers, weigh their prosand cons, and decide which to pursue withouthaving to try every one of them.

Kinds of Thinking People think in several ways. Directed think-

ing is a systematic and logical attempt to reach aspecific goal or answer, such as the solution to amath problem. This kind of thinking, also calledconvergent thinking, depends on symbols, con-cepts, and rules. Directed thinking is deliberateand purposeful. It is through directed thinkingthat we solve problems; formulate and followrules; and set, work toward, and achieve goals.

In contrast, another type, called nondirected(or divergent) thinking, consists of a free flow ofthoughts with no particular plan and dependsmore on images (see Figure 11.2).

Nondirected thinking is usually rich withimagery and feelings such as daydreams, fan-tasies, and reveries. People often engage innondirected thought when they are relaxing orescaping from boredom or worry. This kind ofthinking may provide unexpected insights intoone’s goals and beliefs. Scientists and artists say that some of their bestideas emerge from drifting thoughts that occur when they have set asidea problem for the moment.

A third type of thinking is metacognition, or thinking about think-ing. When you tackle an algebra problem and cannot solve it, thinkingabout your strategy may cause you to change to another strategy.

PROBLEM SOLVINGOne of the main functions of directed thinking is to solve problems—

to bridge the gap mentally between a present situation and a desired goal.The gap may be between hunger and food, a column of figures and a


Using ImageryRotate pairs of images of the patterns below inyour mind to make them match. Do the drawingsin each pair represent the same object, or are theydifferent objects? (Check with your teacher to findout which pairs match.) How do we use imageswhen we are thinking about something?

Figure 11.1

a

b

c

rule: a statement of relationbetween concepts

metacognition: the aware-ness of or thinking about one’sown cognitive processes

Reading CheckWhat is the difference

between a symbol and a con-cept? An image and a prototype?



Reading Check AnswerA symbol is an abstract unit of

thought that represents an object orquality, while a concept is a label fora class of objects that share at leastone common attribute. An image is avisual, mental representation of anevent or object, while a prototype is arepresentative example of a concept.

Figure 11.1Visual Instruction Explain to stu-dents that they must create mentalimages to solve this puzzle. RogerShepard and Jacqueline Metzler usedsimilar images in an experiment in1971 and concluded that imaginedvision (mental imagery) is very similarto real vision. Pairs (a) and (b) are thesame objects, whereas the objects in(c) do not match.

Caption Answer We use images torepresent events or objects. Theimages are not usually exact copiesof the original.

Tell students that our boundariesfor concepts can be fuzzy. Manyitems may be classified in morethan one category. For example,visit a convenience store and sur-vey the variety of beveragesoffered for sale. Which ones wouldyou classify as soft drinks? Do yousee any beverages that one personmay think of as a soft drink andanother think of as a fruit drink orsome other category of beverage?Ask students to think of anotherconcept that may have fuzzyboundaries and have them set upan experiment to test their theo-ries.

Learning Style: Logical/Mathematical Provide students with various types of paper-based puzzles or brainteasers. Students may work individually or in pairs to solve them, keepinga copy of each attempted solution. Direct students to use storyboards to record each attempt ata solution. For each attempt, have students write down the strategies or approaches used tosolve the problem. Ask: Did thinking about problem-solving strategies and approaches help yousolve the puzzle more quickly? Explain. L2 BLOCK SCHEDULING

Refer to Inclusion for the High School Social Studies Classroom Strategies and Activities in the TCR for strategies for students with different learning styles.

MEETING SPECIAL NEEDS

298

total, a lack of money and bills to pay, or cancer and a cure. In all theseexamples, getting from the problem to the solution requires some di-rected thinking.

StrategiesProblem solving depends on the use of strategies, or specific methods

for approaching problems. One strategy is to break down a complexproblem into a number of smaller, more easily solved subgoals. Subgoalsare intermediate steps toward a solution. For example, it is the end of thesemester and your life is falling apart. You do not even have time to tieyour shoelaces. You solve the problem by breaking it down into smallpieces: studying for a science exam, finishing that overdue paper, cancel-ing your dinner date, scheduling regular study breaks to maintain what isleft of your sanity, and so forth.

For some problems, you may work backward from the goal you haveset. Mystery writers often use this method: They decide how to end thestory (“who did it”) and then devise a plot leading to this conclusion.

Another problem may require you to examine various ways of reach-ing a desired goal. Suppose a woman needs to be in Chicago by 11 A.M.on July 7 for a business conference. She checks train departures andarrivals, airline schedules, and car-rental companies. The only train toChicago that morning arrives at 5 A.M. (too early), and the first planearrives at 11:30 A.M. (too late). So she decides to rent a car and drive.


PSYCHOLOGY

Student Web Activity Visit the UnderstandingPsychology Web site at glencoe.com and click onChapter 11—Student WebActivities for an activity on thinking and problemsolving.

Directed vs. Nondirected ThinkingThis problem was devisedby psychologist EdwardDe Bono, who believesthat conventional directedthinking is insufficient forsolving new and unusualproblems. His approach toproblem solving requiresuse of nondirected think-ing to generate new waysof looking at the problemsituation. (The answer tothis problem is provided inFigure 11.7.) When arepeople most likely toengage in nondirectedthinking?

Figure 11.2

n old money-lender offered to cancel a merchant's debt and keep him from going to prison if the merchant would give the money-lender his lovely daughter. Horrified yetdesperate, the merchant and his daughter agreed to letProvidence decide. The money-lender said he would put a black pebble and a white pebble in a bag and the girl would draw one. The white pebble would cancel the debt and leave her free. The black one would make her the money-lender's, although the debt would be can- celed. If she refused to pick, her father would go to prison. From the pebble-strewn path they were standing on, the money-lender picked two pebbles and quickly put them in the bag, but the girl saw he had picked up two black ones. What would you have done if you were the girl?

A


Figure 11.2Visual Instruction Ask for a volunteerto read De Bono’s problem aloud.Then challenge students to solve it intwo minutes. Have class membersshare their answers.

Caption Answer People are mostlikely to engage in nondirected think-ing when they are relaxing or trying toescape from stress or boredom.

PSYCHOLOGY

Links and instructional guidelinescan be found in the Web ActivityLesson Plan at glencoe.com.

Psychology JournalAsk students to list examples

of problem-solving techniques thatthey have learned. For each, studentsshould write an example of the typeof problem for which they would usethe strategy. Ask them to illustratethe relationship between intermediategoals and terminal goals during prob-lem solving. ■

Synthesizing Information Request volunteers to play a game of charades for the class.Each volunteer should think of a phrase to act out through the use of gestures. Ask them tochoose a category, such as movies or song titles, from which to pick their phrases. The rest ofthe class should use the techniques of memory retrieval—such as recall and recognition—tosolve the problem of interpreting wordless communication. When the exercise is done, ask: Didyou devise a set of strategies to approach the charades? Did anyone experience a feeling ofinsight in figuring out the answer? L1 ELL

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

VocabularyActivity 11-1 Thinking and

Problem Solving

Directions: Use the clues below to find the hidden words.

RSTPLXLQGBMWM

ELYPCMQZRANER

CUFMERTODRTPU

OSLWBCUTCACRW

MKEKAONLCRROW

BPXMXELOEQHTI

IYIQUNGACAHOT

NZBMENTALSETU

AZIJIINGMMUYJ

TOLTVSOYMIRPC

IMIIRRVHXFIEC

OOTHINKINGSJU

NYYTINSIGHTIB

KAHDWQUAKWINV

HMGFEJOLLMCCG

Vocabulary Activity 11–1

http://glencoe.com

http://glencoe.com

299

To determine which strategy to use, most of us analyze the problemto see if it resembles a situation we have experienced in the past. A strat-egy that worked in the past is likely to work again. We tend to do thingsthe way we have done them before, and often, we shy away from new sit-uations that call for new strategies. The more unusual the problem, themore difficult it is to devise a strategy for dealing with it.

Algorithms An algorithm is a fixed set of procedures that, if followedcorrectly, will lead to a solution. Mathematical and scientific formulas arealgorithms. For example, to find the product of 345 and 23, we multiplythe numbers according to the rules of multiplication to get a correctanswer of 7,935. To play chess or checkers, we follow algorithms, or afixed set of rules.

Heuristics While algorithms can be useful in finding solutions, they are atime-consuming method. People often use shortcuts to solve problems, andthese shortcuts are called heuristics. Heuristics are experimental strategies,or rules of thumb, that simplify a problem, allowing one to solve prob-lems quickly and easily (see Figure 11.3). For example, when watching theWheel of Fortune game show, you might use what you already knowabout prefixes, suffixes, and roots of words to fill in the missing letters ofa word or phrase. If a friend comes to you with a problem, your advicemight include what has worked for you in the past.

Although heuristicsallow us to make quick deci-sions, they can result in baddecisions because we makethe decisions using short-cuts and sometimes ignorepertinent information.

Obstacles to ProblemSolving

There are times whencertain useful strategiesbecome cemented into theproblem-solving process.When a particular strategybecomes a habit, it is calleda mental set—you are setto treat problems in a cer-tain way. For example, achess player may alwaysattempt to control the fourcenter squares of the chess-board. Whenever her oppo-nent attacks, she respondsby looking for ways to

Types of HeuristicsHeuristics are mental shortcuts. Although they are not rules thatalways provide the correct answers, they are strategies that experi-ence has taught us to apply. What is the availability heuristic?

1. Availability Heuristic: We rely on information that is more prominent or easily recalled and overlook information that is available but less prominent.Example: In the news, we see people winning the lottery all the time and overestimate our chances at winning it also.

2. Representativeness Heuristic: We tend to assume that if an item is similar to members of a particular category, it is probably a member of that category, too.Example: I have flipped a coin 10 times and it has landed on tails every time. The odds are it will land on heads this time. (The odds are 50–50, as they are for each coin toss.)

3. Anchoring Heuristic: We make decisions based on certain ideas, or standards, that are important to us.Example: In my family, everyone gets up by 8:00 A.M. every

day, including weekends. I believe that only lazy people sleep past 8:00 A.M. (I formed a judgment about other people based on a standard in my family.)

algorithm: a step-by-stepprocedure for solving a problem

heuristic: a rule-of-thumbproblem-solving strategy


Figure 11.3

mental set: a habitual strat-egy or pattern of problem solving



Figure 11.3Visual Instruction Remind studentsthat although heuristics are fasterthan algorithms, they are not alwaysas reliable.

Caption Answer the mental shortcutwe use when we rely on informationthat is more prominent or easilyrecalled and overlook information thatis available but less prominent

Mathematics Write the followingon the board:

1. H H H H H H2. H T T H T H

Ask: What would you predict thenext flip to be in each sequence?Most students will predict tailsas the next flip for both. They are using a heuristic known asrepresentativeness, in which they compare an event to a prototype.Students don’t expect a cointoss to repeatedly turn up heads,so they predict tails for the nexttoss. According to probabilityrules, however, each flip is anindependent action, meaning thatthere is a 50 percent chance foreither outcome regardless of pre-vious results. Thus, while repre-sentativeness can be useful, itcan lead to illogical decisions.

Directed and Nondirected Thinking Use the following demonstrationto determine if a person is a directed thinker. On a sheet of paper, have participants quickly writedown the answer to these questions: What is the color of snow? (white) What do cows drink?(The answer is “water,” but a surprising number of people will say “milk.”) Explain to participantsthat directed thinkers may not answer the question spontaneously. Instead they will think itthrough and come up with the correct answer—water. Participants who respond with their firstfree association will probably say milk because they will link milk and white with cows. This is anexample of nondirected thinking. Ask: Which method of thinking do you think is most creative?Why? L1 BLOCK SCHEDULING

PSYCHOLOGY LAB EXPERIMENT

300

Connectingthe DotsFigure 11.4


regain control of those four squares. She has a set for this strategy. If thisset helps her win, fine. Sometimes, however, a set interferes with problemsolving, and then it is called rigidity. You probably know the old riddle“What is black, white, and read all over? A newspaper.” When you say theriddle, the word read sounds like red, which is why some people cannotguess the answer. Read is heard as part of the black and white set—it isinterpreted as being a color. If you asked, “What is black and white andread by people every day?” the correct answer would be obvious—and boring.

One form of set that can interfere with problem solving is functionalfixedness—the inability to imagine new uses for familiar objects. Inexperiments on functional fixedness, people are asked to solve a problemthat requires them to use a familiar object in an unfamiliar way (Duncker,1945). Because they are set to use the object in the usual way, people tendto pay attention only to the features of the object that relate to its every-day use (see Figures 11.4 and 11.5). They respond in a rigid way.

Another type of rigidity occurs when a person makes a wrongassumption about a problem. In Figure 11.6, for example, the problem isto arrange the six matches into four equilateral triangles. Most peoplehave trouble solving this puzzle because they falsely assume that theymust stay within a two-dimensional figure.

People trying to solve the kind of problem described in the Psychologyand You feature on page 301 experience a third kind of rigidity. Most peo-ple look for direct methods of solving problems and do not see solutionsthat require several intermediate steps.

Rigidity can be overcome if the person realizes that his or her strategyis not working and looks for other ways to approach the problem. The morefamiliar the situation, the more difficult this will be. Rigidity is less likely tooccur with unusual problems. Many individuals are trained, through formal

education, to think of only one way to do things. Rigidity canbe overcome by thinking about—or being taught to

think about—and analyzing situations frommany perspectives.

CREATIVITYThe ability to use information in such a

way that the result is somehow new, original,and meaningful is creativity. All problemsolving requires some creativity. Certainways of solving problems, however, are simplymore brilliant or beautiful or efficient than oth-ers. Psychologists do not know exactly whysome people are able to think more creativelythan others, although they have identifiedsome of the characteristics of creative thinking,including flexibility and the ability to recom-bine elements to achieve insight.

Connect all nine dotsshown by drawing fourstraight lines withoutlifting your pencil fromthe paper or retracingany lines. (The answerappears in Figure 11.7.)How does following amental set sometimesinterfere with prob-lem solving?

Given the materials pictured here, how wouldyou go about mounting a candle vertically on awooden wall in such a way that it can be lit?(The solution is presented in Figure 11.7.) Howmight functional fixedness make it difficultto solve this problem?

Figure 11.5 Overcoming Functional Fixedness

functional fixedness: theinability to imagine new usesfor familiar objects

creativity: the capacity to useinformation and/or abilities innew and original ways


Figure 11.4Visual Instruction Have studentsdraw nine dots on a separate sheet ofpaper. Ask them to work out the solu-tion and put their pencils down whenthey have completed the activity. Afterone minute, provide the following hint:the lines can extend beyond the dots.Give students a few more minutes tocomplete the activity, then have a vol-unteer share the solution.

Caption Answer Our mental setsmake us see the nine dots as aclosed shape and we think that wemust stay within its boundaries.

Figure 11.5Visual Instruction Have studentswork in pairs, with one as the partici-pant and the other the observer. Theparticipant should talk through theprocess that he or she is performingto solve this problem. The observershould write down how the participantsolved the problem.

Caption Answer Functional fixednessmay prevent the participant from see-ing the boxes as having functionsother than holding candles andmatches.

History Remind students of Copernicus’s radical assumption. Assign them to research otherfamous inventors or geniuses. Examples include Marie Curie, Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, orHenry Ford. Have students write a short biography that presents the original solution, idea, orinvention developed by each person. Then have them assess some of the character traits thatencouraged creativity in the individual. In a follow-up discussion, share the following statementsfrom John Dryden (“Genius must be born, and never taught”) and Thomas Edison (“Genius is 10percent inspiration and 90 percent perspiration”). Ask: In terms of psychology, which statementdo you agree with? Which is more valid? L2 BLOCK SCHEDULING

INTERDISCIPLINARY CONNECTIONS ACTIVITY

3 ASSESSAssign Section 1 Assessment ashomework or as an in-class activity.

301


flexibility: the ability to over-come rigidity, to remain open toalternate strategies

recombination: rearrangingthe elements of a problem toarrive at an original solution

FlexibilityThe ability to overcome rigidity is flexibility. Psychologists have

devised a number of ingenious tests to measure flexibility. In one test, psy-chologists ask people how many uses they can imagine for a single object,such as a brick or a paper clip. The more uses a person can devise, themore flexible he or she is said to be. Whether such tests actually measurecreativity is debatable. Nevertheless, it is obvious that inflexible, rigidthinking leads to unoriginal solutions or no solutions at all.

RecombinationWhen the elements of a problem are familiar but the required solution

is not, it may be achieved by recombination, a new mental arrangementof the elements. In football and basketball, for example, there are no newmoves—only recombinations of old ones. Such recombination seems to bea vital part of creativity. Many creative people say that no truly great poem,no original invention, has ever been produced by someone who has notspent years studying his or her subject. The creative person is able to takethe information that he or she and others have compiled and put it togeth-er in a totally new way. The brilliant philosopher and mathematician SirIsaac Newton, who discovered the laws of motion, once said, “If I have seenfurther, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.” In other words, he wasable to recombine the discoveries of the great scientists who had precededhim to uncover new and more far-reaching truths.

InsightThe sudden emergence of a solution by recombination of elements is

called insight. Insight usually occurs when problems have proved resis-tant to all problem-solving efforts and strategies. The scientist, artist, or,in fact, anyone can reach a point of high frustration and temporarilyabandon a task. Yet the recombination process seems to continue on anunconscious level. When the person is absorbed in some other activity,the answer seems to appear out of nowhere. This sudden insight hasappropriately been called the “aha” experience.

Certain animals appear to experience this same cycle of frustration, tem-porary diversion (during which time the problem incubates), and then sudden insight. For example, WolfgangKöhler (1976) placed a chimpanzee in acage where a cluster of bananas washung out of its reach. Also in the cagewere several wooden boxes. At first thechimpanzee tried various unsuccessfulways of getting at the fruit. Finally it satdown, apparently giving up, and simplystared straight ahead for a while. Thensuddenly it jumped up, piled three boxeson top of one another, climbed to thetop of the pile, and grabbed the bananas.

Arrange these six matchesso that they form fourequilateral triangles. (Thesolution appears in Figure11.7.) What are twocharacteristics of creative thinking?

insight: the apparent suddenrealization of the solution to aproblem

Overcoming WrongAssumptionsFigure 11.6

Solve ThisProblem

How would you go about solving this problem? A man andhis two sons want to get across a river. The boat they haveavailable can hold a maximum of only 200 pounds. Thefather weighs 200 pounds and the sons weigh 100 poundseach. How can all three people cross the river? (You’ll findthe answer in Figure 11.7.)



Figure 11.6Visual Instruction Provide matchesor sections of wooden sticks for stu-dents to manipulate into triangles.

Caption Answer Creative thinkingrequires flexibility and recombination.

Functional Fixedness Arrange two rulers and a number of distracter objects (such as asmall ball, coins, and toy blocks) on a table. Using masking tape, create a border around theobjects. Next to the table, place two desks so that there is approximately one and one-half feetbeyond arm’s length between them. Place a peg and a ring on one desk. Ask a volunteer to sit atthe second desk. Give the student the following task: place the ring over the peg without leavingor moving the desk. The problem can be solved by using the tape border to connect the tworulers, which can then be used to complete the task. Explain that the activity demonstrates theconcept of functional fixedness—the tape’s function as a border inhibits its recognition as apotential tool. L2 ELL

EXTENDING THE CONTENT

Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

SCORESectionQuiz 11-1 Thinking and

Problem Solving

Column A

1. habitual strategy or pattern of problem solving

2. label for a class of objects or events that share commonattributes

3. awareness of one’s own cognitive process

4. the capacity to use information and/or abilities in a newand original way

5. mental representation of an event or object

Column B

A. metacognition

B. concept

C. creativity

D. image

E. mental set

Matching

Match each item in Column A with the items in Column B. Write the correct letters in the blanks.(10 points each)

Section Quiz 11–1

Use the following questions todirect a class discussion after stu-dents have read the Psychologyand You feature.Ask: What creative processes didyou use to solve this problem? Howis this a good test of creativity?

302


Answers to Pages 298, 300, and 301Figure 11.7

FSS

F SS

start

finish FSS

SF S

F SS

SS F

SS F

page 300

W hen the girl put her hand into the bag to draw out the fateful pebble, she fumbled and dropped it, where it was immediately lost among the others. “Oh,” she said, “well, you can tell which one I picked by looking at the one that’s left.” The girl’s lateral thinking saved her father and herself.

page 298

page 301page 300 page 301

“F” represents“Father,” andeach “S”represents a“Son.”

1. Review the Vocabulary Describe twoobstacles to problem solving.

2. Visualize the Main Idea In a diagramsimilar to the one below, describe thecharacteristics of creative thinking.

3. Recall Information What is the differencebetween convergent and divergent think-ing? Give specific examples.

4. Think Critically If you were a teacher,would you allow students to solve mathproblems using different approaches ifthey reached the same answer? Why?

Assessment

5. Application Activity Focus on a favorite boardgame. Provide a written description of problem-solving techniques you would use to win thegame. Compare your strategies with those ofyour classmates.

Characteristics of Creative Thinking


ReteachHave students share instances whena solution to a seemingly unsolvableproblem came out of nowhere. Askstudents how the solution demon-strates insight.

EnrichWrite the following quote by SidneySugarman on the board: “Teach theyoung people how to think, not whatto think.” Ask students to write a one-page essay explaining the differencebetween learning how to think andlearning what to think.

4 CLOSEAssign groups of students to list com-mon algorithms and heuristics thatare used in different academic disci-plines, such as mathematics, geogra-phy, history, and chemistry.

1. A mental set is a strategy that has been used repeat-edly and has become a habit. Functional fixedness isthe inability to imagine new uses for objects.

2. Flexibility is the ability to overcome rigidity and func-tional fixedness. Recombination is the ability to groupitems in new and different ways. Insight is the apparentsudden realization of the solution to a problem.

3. Convergent thinking is a systematic, logical approach toproblem solving that relies on symbols, concepts, andrules. Most people use convergent thinking to balance

their checkbooks. Nondirected thinking involves freeassociation of ideas in random order with no particulargoal or plan. A person may create a layout for a newflower bed using nondirected thinking.

4. Teachers should allow different approaches as long asthe approach does not lead to faulty thinking or incor-rect solutions when applied to other types of problems.

5. Students’ answers will vary. Recommend board gameslike Monopoly that involve some element of skill, notsimply chance.

S E C T I O N 1 Assessment Answers

Figure 11.7Visual Instruction Point out to stu-dents that the answers to Figures11.2, 11.4, 11.5, 11.6, and the Psychology and You feature areincluded in Figure 11.7.

303


of the 1997 model. A victory for Deep Bluecould mean computers would not have to oper-ate like a human brain to surpass it.

For his rematch with Deep Blue, Kasparovplanned to copy his strategy from the previousyear. This would involve using the early match (in a series of matches) to inspect the mightycomputer for weaknesses and then to exploitthose weaknesses (Anand, 1997).

Results: Deep Blue, the computer, defeatedKasparov. Experts explained that Kasparov’sdefeat was the result of comparing Deep Blue toomuch to the version he had played against theyear before. The new and improved Deep Blueseemed to use moves that were very human-like.

For every seeminglywell-conceived moveKasparov made, thecomputer countered indevastating ways.

The time-consumingchess game robbed Kasparov of much of hisconcentration, whereasDeep Blue displayed nofatigue, frustration, orother human weak-nesses. Now that psy-chologists know a

human’s mental capacity can be outmatched bya computer’s programming, what assumptionscan they make? Can a machine really prove tobe more intelligent than the person who createsit? Do the physical limitations or the emotions ofhumans prevent us from using our full braincapacity? These questions and others like themmay not be answered for years to come. Thissituation is new, and further testing in this areais needed to assess the issues accurately.

CheckmatePeriod of Study: 1997

Introduction: On May 11, 1997, the finalmatch of a rematch took place in the contem-plative game of chess. The champion of the pre-vious match, which had taken place a year ear-lier, was Garry Kasparov, a former scientist.Many consider Kasparov to be the best chessplayer to have ever lived. Kasparov’s opponentwas Deep Blue, a computer.

Hypothesis: The idea of a human versus amachine fascinated experts in a wide range ofscientific studies. Mostof them had the high-est confidence inKasparov’s chances todefeat the computerfor the second time.Psychologists believedthat a computer pre-programmed with infor-mation of any kindwould prove no matchfor the thought capacityand perceptions of thehuman mind. Eventhough Deep Blue was programmed to playthe game of chess with perfection, a nonfeel-ing and nonthinking machine could not defeatthe ability of the human mind to think abstract-ly. A machine could also not match the humanmind’s feelings of determination and desire.

Method: As we know, computers are notthinkers––they can only do what they are programmed to do. Deep Blue, however, hasamazing capacities. It can consider 300 million possible chess moves per second. With each of these 300 millionpossibilities, Deep Blue is programmedto assess the situation these moves willput it in. The human brain can evaluateonly a very small fraction of moves compared to what Deep Blue can do.The Deep Blue defeated by Kasparovthe previous year was an earlier version

Analyzing the Case Study1. Why was Kasparov favored to win the rematch?

2. What advantages did each opponent bring to the contest?

3. Critical Thinking Why were psychologists interestedin the rematch between these two opponents?

Going FurtherKasparov vs. the World

In a unique chess match via theInternet that began in June 1999 andcontinued for several months,Kasparov squared off against all theplayers in the world who wanted toparticipate. A panel of grand masterssuggested the world team’s possiblemoves. An estimated 10,000 playersworldwide then cast their votes on theworld team’s moves. The move thatreceived the greatest number of voteswas used. The game lasted fourmonths, longer than most expertsexpected. Kasparov won the hard-fought battle, retaining the title of theworld’s greatest human chess player.

Discussing the Case StudyAsk: What did psychologists learnfrom this match? (Psychologistslearned that a computer can be pro-grammed to defeat the human abilityto think abstractly and creatively.) Doyou think computers can be moreintelligent than the humans whomake them? In what ways? (In thisscenario, computers can processmore information and arrive at thebest solution to a given set of prob-lems. This computer would stillrequire human programming to useits processing power in other ways.)What are the possible consequencesto society if computers can be mademore intelligent than humans? (Society may benefit if the intelligenceis geared toward solving complexproblems.)

Case StudiesCase Studies

Answers for Analyzing the Case Study 1. Kasparov was believed to have greater thought power

and creativity. Experts believed that a computer prepro-grammed with information would prove no match forthe abstract thought capacity and perceptions of thehuman mind. In addition, Kasparov had defeated a previous version of Deep Blue one year earlier.

2. Kasparov brought experience, ability to spot and exploitweaknesses, and passion. Deep Blue brought the

capacity to process 300 million possible moves persecond. Deep Blue also would not become fatigued orfrustrated.

3. Psychologists wanted to know if computers could bemore intelligent than their human makers. They alsosought to understand how emotions and physical limi-tations affect human behavior.

1 FOCUSSection Objectives1. Explain the structure of language.2. Describe how children develop

language.

304

Of all the things we do, nothing seems as complex and as impor-tant as understanding and speaking a language. We must learnthousands of words and a limited number of rules of grammar to

make sense of those words to communicate and share ideas.

THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGEDo you ever talk to yourself? Some people talk to themselves when

they are thinking or solving a problem. When we are talking or thinking,we are using language. What is language? Language is a system of

Language

■ Main IdeaLanguage and thought are closely re-lated. Language requires the learning ofa set of complex rules and symbols, yetmost people have little difficulty learn-ing their native language.

■ Vocabulary• language• phoneme• morpheme• syntax• semantics

■ Objectives• Explain the structure of language.• Describe how children develop

language.

Reader’s GuideExploring Psychology

What Language Do You Understand?Listen to someone speaking a language

you do not know. You hear an unsungsong, ever changing, rising and falling, occa-sionally illuminated by flashes of feeling.The sounds themselves are little more thanvocal noises. If there are words, you cannotdisentangle them; if there is a message, youcannot understand it. Interest evaporates.You might as well stare at a brick wall.

Now listen to a good friend. It is thesame kind of vocalization, but you cannothear it in the same way. The noises arethere, but they are totally transparent. Yourmind passes right through the sounds,through the words, through the sentences,and into the mind of your friend. Yourexperience is totally different.

—from The Science of Words by George A.Miller, 1991


language: the expression ofideas through symbols andsounds that are arrangedaccording to rules


Project Daily Focus Trans-parency 11–2 and havestudents answer the questions.

Available as blackline master

Daily Focus Transparency 11–2

B E L L R I N G E RMotivational Activity

Use the Reader’s Guide to introduceconcepts and vocabulary.

■ Exploring PsychologyAsk students to read the ExploringPsychology feature and then discuss:Why are the experiences of hearingyour own language spoken so differ-ent from hearing another languagespoken?

■ Vocabulary PrecheckHave students read the Glossary defi-nition of each word. Then have stu-dents create a list of at least threeexamples for each of the terms.

Use the Vocabulary PuzzleMakerCD-ROM to create crossword andword search puzzles.

Reader’s Guide

Reproducible Masters• Guided Reading Activity 11–2• Vocabulary Activity 11–2• Section Quiz 11–2

Transparencies• Daily Focus Transparency 11–2

SECTION RESOURCESMultimedia

Vocabulary PuzzleMaker CD-ROM

ExamView® Assessment Suite CD-ROM


305

communication that involves using rules to make and combine symbolsin ways that produce meaningful words and sentences. Language lets uscommunicate facts and ideas. It allows us to tell each other about thepast, present, and future. We solve problems and make decisions based onlearning that is transmitted through language. Language consists of threeelements: phonemes (units of sound), morphemes (units of meaning), andsyntax (units of organization). The study of meaning, or semantics, is themost complex aspect of language.

PhonemesThe smallest units of sound in human languages are phonemes.

Phonemes can be represented by a single letter (such as consonants liket or vowels like e) or a combination of letters, such as sh (see Figure 11.8).

We can produce about 100 different recognizable sounds, but not all sounds are used in all languages. For instance, the English languageuses about 43 sounds while some languages use as few as 15 sounds andothers use as many as 85 sounds.

MorphemesA morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning (see Figure 11.8). It is

made up of one or more phonemes. Morphemes can be a word, a letter(s), a prefix (un- in uncertain), or a suffix (-ly in slowly). For example, thewords book, love, and reason are single morphemes, while loves, relearn, andwalked have two morphemes (love and -s, re- and learn, walk and -ed).

SyntaxSyntax refers to rules for combining words into meaningful phrases or

sentences to express thoughts that can be understood by others. For exam-ple, the following string of words probably does not make sense: “Boy smallbike large rode.” In English we follow grammatical rules, such as placingadjectives in front of nouns. If you applied these rules to the sentenceabove, it could read: “The small boy rode a large bike.” Every language hasthese rules, although the rules differ from language to language.

SemanticsThe study of meaning or

extracting meaning from mor-phemes, words, sentences, andcontext is semantics. The sameword can have different mean-ings. Consider the following sentences: “A mind is a terriblething to waste. Do you mind if Isit next to you?” The word mindis understood differently in thetwo sentences. How did you

syntax: language rules thatgovern how words can be com-bined to form meaningfulphrases and sentences

morpheme: the smallest unitof meaning in a given language

phoneme: an individualsound that is a basic structuralelement of language


Phonemes and Morphemes

The word fearlessness has nine phonemes and three morphemes.What is the difference between phonemes and morphemes?

Phonemes(units of sound):

Morphemes(units of meaning):

FEARLESSNESS

Figure 11.8

semantics: the study ofmeaning in language

2 TEACHL1 Discussion Place severaldeclarative sentences in an illogicalorder on the board or on an overheadprojector transparency. For example:(1) store I to meet a to friend wentJudy and the. (2) oldest world thetoday Russia lives person in the in.Make sure that at least two of thesentences have more than one possi-ble recombination. Have studentswrite the possible logical sentencesfrom the words. Ask: What syntaxrules did you use to determine thelogical order? What differences insemantics can you identify amongthese sentences? ELL



Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

Directions: Recalling the Facts Use the information in your textbook to answer the questions.

1. What four rules make up language? __________________________________________________________

2. How many morphemes are in the words book, love, and reason? ________________________________

3. A complete sentence must have a subject and verb. This is an example of what language rule?

4. The word produce can be used as a noun or a verb. What language rule allows you to understand

the meaning of this word in a sentence? ______________________________________________________

5 How did B F Skinner believe children learn language?

Guided ReadingActivity 11-2 Language

For use with textbook pages 304–308

Guided Reading Activity 11–2

Figure 11.8Visual Instruction Have students whoare taking a foreign language sharephonemes that are different from thephonemes in English.

Caption Answer A phoneme is only asound; a morpheme has meaning.

American Sign Language Organize students into small groups to prepare a multimediapresentation on American Sign Language (ASL). Tell students that ASL is the preferred method ofcommunication in the hearing-impaired community. Explain that it does not use the same syntaxas English. Suggest the following areas of research to find information needed for the presenta-tion: history of signing; ASL grammar rules; differences between ASL and finger spelling; varia-tions in signs based on region of the country, age, or ethnicity; and whether ASL should beconsidered a separate language. Encourage students to use any multimedia resources availablein a creative and informative way.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING ACTIVITY

306

know what the word mindmeant in each sentence?From your knowledge ofsemantics, you knew thatin the first sentence mindwas a noun, while in thesecond sentence it was averb. Your knowledge of aword’s meaning dependspartly on context.

LANGUAGEDEVELOPMENT

For many years adebate over exactly howchildren learn languageraged. B.F. Skinner believedthat children learned lan-guage as a result of operantconditioning. When chil-dren utter sounds that aresimilar to adult speech pat-terns, their behavior is rein-forced through smiles andextra attention; therefore,children repeat thosesounds. Eventually chil-dren learn to producespeech. Critics state that

children understand language before they speak—and before they receiveany reinforcement. They also believe that children learn the rules of lan-guage before they receive any feedback on speaking correctly.

Some psychologists argue that children learn language through obser-vation, exploration, and imitation. These social learning advocates pointout that children use language to get attention, ask for help, or to gain otherforms of social contact. Parents can stimulate language acquisition byresponding to and encouraging language development. These psycholo-gists believe that both innate and environmental factors play a part in howa child learns language.

Although Noam Chomsky believed that reinforcement and imitationdo contribute to language development, he did not believe that all the complex rules of language could be learned that way. Chomsky (1957) the-orized that infants possess an innate capacity for language; that is, childreninherit a mental program that enables them to learn grammar.


A vram Noam Chomskycreated the idea of

transformational grammar.Transformational grammar isa system for describing therules that determine all thesentences that can possiblybe formed in any language.Chomsky claims that each of us is born with brain structures thatmake it relatively easy to learn the rules of language. Chomskycalled those innate brain structures the language-acquisition device,or LAD. The LAD includes inborn mechanisms that guide a per-son’s learning of the unique rules of his or her native language.

Noam Chomsky1928–

“[A] human being is abiological organism like

any other. It’s a bio-logical organism with avery unique intellectual

capacity that we areonly barely beginning to understand. I think

our intellectual capaci-ties are very highly

structured.”

Profiles In Psychology


Psychology JournalAsk students to—if possible—

find a letter, paper, or report that theywrote when they were in elementaryschool. Have them compare it to asimilar document that they have writ-ten in the last year. Tell students towrite an essay in their journal explain-ing how their writing has changed.They should consider the followingquestions: Has the syntax changed?How do the changes reflect changesin your thinking and reasoning abilities? ■

Readings and CaseStudies in Psychology Have students read the Chapter 11Reading selection in Readings andCase Studies in Psychology andanswer the questions that follow thereading.

Profiles In Psychology

Ask students to read theProfiles In Psychologyfeature and then discussthe following questions:

1. What does Noam Chomskythink is inborn? (the mecha-nism to learn the rules of language)

2. Is the language-acquisitiondevice (LAD) of an Americanthe same as the LAD of aSpaniard? Explain. (Yes, themechanism is the same, butthe language learneddepends on the one that theinfant hears spoken.)

Learning Style: Intrapersonal Assign students to write two letters to a good friend. Tellthem that the letters are private and no one else will see them. In the first letter, the studentsshould write about a recent event that was exciting or interesting. The second letter should beabout the same event, but they should assume that things turned out badly. Tell them to com-pare the two letters and make a list of the words used in each letter that express emotion orfeeling. The list should have two headings: Positive and Negative. Ask students to write one paragraph beneath the list expressing which letter was more difficult to compose and why. L2

BLOCK SCHEDULING

MEETING SPECIAL NEEDS

307

HOW LANGUAGE DEVELOPSIf Chomsky is right, then we

would expect that all children gothrough similar stages of languagedevelopment, no matter what cultureor language group they belong to.Infants, in fact, do go through fourstages of language development.

Beginning at birth, infants can cryand produce other sounds indicatingdistress. Around 2 months of age,infants begin to coo. Cooing refers tolong, drawn-out sounds such as ooohor eeeh. At around 4 months of age,infants reach the first stage of lan-guage development and begin to bab-ble. Babbling includes sounds found inall languages, such as dadada andbababa. When babbling, infants learnto control their vocal cords and tomake, change, repeat, and imitate thesounds of their parents. At around 9months of age, infants refine theirbabbling to increasingly includesounds that are part of their native language. Whereas in children whocan hear, babbling is oral, deaf children babble by using hand signals.They repeat the same hand signals over and over again.

At around 12 months of age, infants begin to utter single words.They use these words to describe familiar objects and people, such asda-da or doggie. At this stage, children use single words to describelonger thoughts. For example, a child may say “da” to mean “Where ismy father?” or “I want my father.”

Toward the end of their second year, children place two words together to express an idea. Children may say “Milk gone” to indicatethat the milk has spilled or “Me play” to mean “I want to play.” Thisstage indicates that the child is beginning to learn the rules of grammar.The child’s vocabulary has expanded to about 50 to 100 words and continues to expand rapidly, as was discussed in Chapter 3.

By age 2–3, children form sentences of several words. These firstsentences follow a pattern called telegraphic speech. This is a pattern ofspeaking in which the child leaves out articles such as the, prepositionssuch as with, and parts of verbs. For example, a child may say, “I gopark,” to mean, “I am going to the park.” By age 5, language develop-ment is largely complete, although vocabulary and sentence complexi-ty continue to develop.


Reading CheckWhat is the nature versus

nurture debate concerning thedevelopment of language?

BilingualismBilingualism is the ability to speak and understand two

languages. How do bilingual people, though, keep the twolanguages separate? They do not. Try this experiment. Saythe ink color of the following words aloud.

If you speak only English, you probably had a littletrouble with the first four and had less trouble with the lastfour. If you speak Spanish, though, you knew that verde,azul, amarillo, and rojo are the Spanish words for green, blue, yellow, and red. You had difficulty with all the items.

Although it takes children longer to master two lan-guages rather than just one, bilingual people can expresstheir thoughts in a wide variety of ways. Bilingual childrenalso learn early that there are different ways of expressingthe same idea.

YELLOW GREEN RED BLUE VERDE AZUL AMARILLO ROJO



Reading Check AnswerThe nurture argument

assumes that we learn languagethrough reinforcement. The natureargument assumes that the capacityfor language is inborn.

Use the following question todirect a class discussion after stu-dents have read the Psychologyand You feature.Ask: Why would someone whospoke Spanish have difficulty withsome of the words?

3 ASSESSAssign Section 2 Assessment ashomework or as an in-class activity.

Distinguishing Fact From Opinion Have students use the Internet or the local libraryto review the studies that have been done on chimpanzees and their abilities to acquire lan-guage. From their research, students should answer the following questions: What distinguisheslanguage from communication? Have chimpanzees learned to communicate in a meaningfulway? Have chimpanzees demonstrated an ability to learn language? Ask students to write anessay that offers an answer to these questions. Students should include examples from thestudies they research. Encourage students to share their research with the class. L3

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. EMPEHON

2. ASNXTY

3. AENGULAG

4. EANTSCIMS

5. PEEMRHOM

Name ___________________________________ Date ______________ Class ________________

VocabularyActivity 11-2 Language

Directions: Unscramble the following vocabulary terms and enter the terms on the lines provided. Thenmatch each numbered term to the correct lettered definition by placing the number of the term on theline to the right of the definitions.

A. the combination of ideasthrough symbols andsounds that are arrangedaccording to rules

B. the smallest unit of mean-ing in a given language

C. language rules that governhow words can be com-bined to form meaningfulphrases and sentences

D. the study of meaning inlanguage

E. an individual sound that

Vocabulary Activity 11–2

308

DO ANIMALS LEARN LANGUAGE?Animals communicate with one another. We have all seen dogs bark or

growl at each other. Do animals, though, learn language? Language involvesmore than just communicating—it involves rules of grammar. It involvescombining words or phrases into meaningful sentences. Although animalsdo not possess the ability to use grammatical rules, they have been taught tocommunicate with humans. (Refer to Chapter 3 for an in-depth discussion.)

GENDER AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCESPeople use language to communicate their culture and express their

ideas. Do people who speak different languages actually think differentlyfrom one another? Benjamin Whorf (1956) argued that language affects ourbasic perceptions of the physical world. Whorf used the term linguisticrelativity to refer to the idea that language influences thoughts. For instance,consider the word snow. Whorf estimated that the Inuit have many words forsnow (including separate words for damp snow, falling snow, and meltingsnow) because their survival depends upon traveling and living in snow.According to Whorf ’s theory, different terms for snow help the Inuit see thedifferent types of snow as different. On the other hand, Whorf claimed thatAmericans have one word for snow. Critics have pointed out that Americansactually have many words for snow. Whorf ’s theory of linguistic relativity stillclaims supporters, but it is difficult to separate culture from language whenstudying the use of language and the perceptions it influences.

Does the English language express a particular value system? Some peo-ple argue that certain words in language create gender stereotypes. For exam-ple, a chairman may be a man or a woman. The use of pronouns also affectsour thinking. Nurses, secretaries, and schoolteachers are often referred to asshe, while doctors, engineers, and presidents are often referred to as he. Manyorganizations have instituted guidelines for the use of nonsexist language.


1. Review the Vocabulary How manyphonemes are in the word “thoughtfully”?How many morphemes?

2. Visualize the Main Idea Using a flowchartsimilar to the one below, list the stages oflanguage development.

3. Recall Information How might we expressgender values in our use of language?

4. Think Critically You have taught your petparrot to speak perfect English and under-stand several commands. Have you taughtit language? Explain.

Assessment

5. Application Activity In ordinary English,there is no resemblance between the writtenappearance of a word and the idea for which itstands. Write the following words in such a waythat the word illustrates the idea: war, empty, fly,kick, Mommy.

12

34

Stages of Language Development


Name __________________________________ Date ______________ Class _______________

SCORESectionQuiz 11-2 Language

Column A

1. communication of ideas through symbols and sounds thatare arranged according to rules

2. individual sound that is the basic structural element oflanguage

3. study of meaning in language

4. language rules that govern how words can be combined toform meaningful phrases and sentences

5. smallest unit of meaning in a given language

Column B

A. syntax

B. morpheme

C. language

D. phoneme

E. semantics

Matching

Match each item in Column A with the items in Column B. Write the correct letters in the blanks.(10 points each)

Section Quiz 11–2

ReteachTell students that context determinesthe meaning of the word. Ask for vol-unteers to use the word “square” asan adjective, a verb, an adverb, and anoun. Write each sentence on theboard.

EnrichHave students write an essay titled“Language Expresses My Values.”

4 CLOSEHave students draw a time line show-ing the progression of language devel-opment in children from birth throughage 4.

1. 7 phonemes (th ough t f u ll y), 3 morphemes(thought ful ly)

2. (1) babble at about 4 months, (2) single words ataround 1 year, (3) place two words together, (4) tele-graphic speech in which words are omitted but mean-ing is clear at about 2 years of age.

3. Gender values are expressed by the use of male andfemale pronouns to refer to people in certain roles

(nurse, she; doctor, he) and by use of gender-biasedlanguage such as chairman, salesman, and saleslady.

4. No, it is simply mimicking what it has been taught. Forexample, it cannot form new sentences from words itknows and it cannot use grammatical rules.

5. Students’ answers will vary. Have students share theiranswers with the class and discuss the similarities anddifferences among the answers.

S E C T I O N 2 Assessment Answers

309


Chapter Vocabularythinking (p. 296)image (p. 296)symbol (p. 296)concept (p. 296)prototype (p. 296)rule (p. 297)metacognition (p. 297)algorithm (p. 299)heuristic (p. 299)mental set (p. 299)functional fixedness (p. 300)creativity (p. 300)flexibility (p. 301)recombination (p. 301)insight (p. 301)language (p. 304)phoneme (p. 305)morpheme (p. 305)syntax (p. 305)semantics (p. 305)

Thinking and Problem Solving■ Thought depends on several processes or com-

ponents: images, symbols, concepts, prototypes,and rules.

■ There are several kinds of thinking: directed, orconvergent, thinking; nondirected, or divergent,thinking; and metacognition.

■ Problem solving depends upon the use of strategiesor specific methods for approaching problems.

■ People use algorithms, or fixed sets of proce-dures, and heuristics, or mental shortcuts, to solve problems.

■ At times certain useful strategies become socemented into the problem-solving process thatthey actually interfere with problem solving. Whena particular strategy becomes a habit, it is called amental set.

■ Functional fixedness, or the inability to imaginenew functions for familiar objects, can interferewith problem solving.

■ Some characteristics of creative thinking includeflexibility and the ability to recombine elements toachieve insight.

Solving problems, creating ideas, and expressing our ideasthrough language are some of the most important skills that we acquire in our lives.

Main Idea: Thinkinginvolves changing,reorganizing, and recom-bining the informationstored in memory to create new or trans-formed information, suchas creative problem-solving strategies.

Language■ Language consists of three parts: phonemes,

morphemes, and syntax.■ According to B.F. Skinner, children learn language

as a result of operant conditioning.■ Noam Chomsky theorized that children inherit a

mental program that enables them to learn grammar.

■ Infants go through four stages of language development—babbling at around 4 months of age,uttering single words at around 12 months of age, placing words together to express ideas ataround 2 years of age, and forming complex,compound sentences by 4 years of age.

■ People use language to communicate their cultureand express their ideas.

Main Idea: Languageand thought are closelyrelated. Language re-quires the learning of aset of complex rules andsymbols, yet most peo-ple have little difficultylearning their native language.


Summary and Vocabulary

Using the Chapter 11 Summary and VocabularyUse the Chapter 11 Summary andVocabulary to preview, review, con-dense, or reteach the chapter.

Preview/ReviewUse the Chapter Vocabulary list tohelp students review and study.

Activity Have students create amatching game by placing the termon one card and an example of theterm on another card. Ask studentsto trade games with a classmateand match all the terms with theirexamples.

Vocabulary PuzzleMaker CD-ROMreinforces the vocabulary terms usedin Chapter 11.

CondenseHave students read the Chapter 11Summary.

Chapter 11 Guided ReadingActivities

ReteachReteaching Activity 11

Summary andVocabulary

Summary andVocabulary 11

Creating a New Product New products are invented by people who see a need and figureout a way to satisfy it. Brainstorm as a class various needs that students have. Have studentswork in groups and use this list to create a plan for a new or improved product. Tell them to keepa written record of how they selected the need and will create the product, showing how theyused flexibility, recombination, or insight during the process. BLOCK SCHEDULING

Refer to the Authentic Assessment booklet for additional activities and information aboutevaluating student performance.

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

310

Assessment


Reviewing VocabularyChoose the letter of the correct term or conceptbelow to complete the sentence.

1. A(n) __________ is a fixed set of proceduresthat, if followed correctly, will lead to a solution.

2. __________ is the study of the meaning of wordsor phrases when they appear in sentences orcontexts.

3. Changing or reorganizing the informationstored in memory to create new or transformedinformation is __________.

4. A person experiences __________ when he orshe comes upon a solution to a problem by cre-ating a new mental arrangement of the elementsof the problem.

5. The strategy of problem solving that you useover and over again is your ________.

6. __________ is a set of rules for combiningwords, phrases, and sentences to expressthoughts that can be understood by others.

7. Thinking about thinking is called____________.

8. When you think of a car as an example of avehicle, you are thinking of a(n) __________.

9. The smallest units of sound in the human lan-guage are called __________.

10. The inability to imagine new functions for famil-iar objects is called __________.

a. prototypeb. algorithmc. functional fixednessd. insighte. phonemes

f. syntaxg. semanticsh. mental seti. thinkingj. metacognition

Recalling Facts1. Define the five units of thought. Then list the

five units of thought in order of increasing complexity.

2. What is creativity? What are the three charac-teristics of creative thinking? Give an example ofone of the three characteristics.

3. Using a graphic organizer similar to the one below,identify and explain the structures of language.

4. What are three strategies people often use tosolve problems? Explain how you have used oneof these strategies to solve a problem.

5. How did B.F. Skinner and Noam Chomsky differ in their ideas about how children learnlanguage?

Critical Thinking1. Applying Concepts Do you think using algo-

rithms rather than heuristics is always the bestway to solve problems? Why or why not?

2. Making Inferences What kind of thinking—directed or nondirected—do you think isrequired for creativity? Why do you think so?

3. Analyzing Concepts Based on what you havelearned about language development, do youthink all students in elementary school shouldbe taught a foreign language? Why or why not?

4. Synthesizing Information According to thetheory of linguistic relativity, a person’s languageinfluences his or her thoughts. Do you believethat bilingual people have more complexthought processes than people who speak onlyone language? Explain your answer.

5. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Whattheory of language development do you agreewith the most? Why?

Structures of Language

Self-Check QuizVisit the Understanding Psychology Web site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter 11—Self-CheckQuizzes to prepare for the Chapter Test.

PSYCHOLOGY

Reviewing Vocabulary1. b 6. f2. g 7. j3. i 8. a4. d 9. e 5. h 10. c

Recalling Facts1. Images are mental representations of events

or objects. Symbols are abstract units ofthought that represent objects or qualities.Concepts are symbols used for classes ofobjects or events that share at least onecommon attribute. Prototypes are represen-tative examples of concepts. Rules arestatements of relations between concepts.In order of increasing complexity, the units of thought are image, symbol, concept,prototype, and rule.

2. Creativity is the ability to use information innew and original ways. Three characteristicsof creative thinking are flexibility, recombina-tion, and insight. Students’ answers will vary.

3. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound.Morphemes are the smallest units of mean-ing. Syntax is the set of rules for expressingthoughts with words and sentences. Seman-tics is the meaning of words or phrases asthey appear in context.

4. People solve problems by (1) breaking theproblem into smaller, more easily solvedsubgoals, (2) using algorithms, and (3)using heuristics. Students’ answers will varybut should demonstrate an understanding ofproblem-solving strategies.

5. Skinner believed that language developed asa result of reinforcement—through nurture.Chomsky believes that the ability to acquirelanguage is innate and will develop naturally.

Critical Thinking1. No one problem-solving strategy is appropriate for all sit-

uations. Algorithms are quite effective for some types ofproblems like multiplication. Heuristics may be moreappropriate for solving problems quickly.

2. Students’ answers will vary. Both types of thinking can beused in creativity. Students should support their view-points with examples from their own life or from the livesof others.

3. Students’ answers will vary. Language development maybe slowed by the introduction of a second language, butmany will support the benefits of learning a second language. For example, bilingual people can express their

thoughts in a wide variety of ways.4. Students’ answers will vary. In general, the larger one’s

vocabulary, the greater his or her thinking capacity. Bilin-gual individuals have a larger vocabulary and may havemore complex thought processes.

5. Students’ answers will vary. Those who support Skinnerwill likely point to experiences in which a child hasresponded to encouragement (reinforcement) from oth-ers. Those who support Chomsky will state that the pat-tern of language development appears much the sameacross languages, indicating an inborn brain structurethat makes it easy to acquire language skills.

PSYCHOLOGY

Have students visit the Web site atglencoe.com to review Chapter11 and take the Self-Check Quiz.

AssessmentAssessment11

For a review ofChapter 11 content,see MindJogger

Checkpoint on Presentation Plus!

http://glencoe.com

http://glencoe.com

311

Psychology Projects1. Problem Solving Suppose you wanted to put

together a jigsaw puzzle. What are the problem-solving strategies you might use? Which one doyou think would work best? Present your strate-gies in an illustrated “how-to” pamphlet for oth-ers to refer to.

2. Language Listen to the speech of a childbetween the ages of 2 and 4. Pay special atten-tion to the child’s language skills. Then write areport explaining what parts of language struc-ture the child is exhibiting.

3. Thinking Ask 15 to 20 people to give youdirections to a specific location, such as theschool gym. Notice how they describe the direc-tions (by using only words, creating a map, orusing their hands). After they have finished, askthem to describe the mental imagery they used.In a brief report, summarize your findings.

Technology ActivityThe Internet has several sites

designed for parents of preschoolchildren. Locate some of these sites to find outwhat suggestions parents can obtain to improvelanguage development in their young children.Report and evaluate the suggestions in light ofthe information about language developmentyou have learned in this chapter.

Psychology JournalConsider how language shapes yourthinking and how language and thought

are integrated processes. Recall an episode inyour life in which you used language (your com-munication skills) to solve an important problem.Describe the event and analyze why you wereequipped to resolve this particular issue.

Assessment


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Practice and assess key socialstudies skills with Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook CD-ROM, Level 2.

Building SkillsInterpreting a Graph Many factors con-tribute to a child’s language develop-ment. Review the graph, then answer thequestions that follow.

1. What does the graph illustrate?2. What conclusion can you draw about

the relationship of the number ofwords that a parent says to a childand the size of the child’s vocabulary?

3. What theory of language develop-ment does the information in thisgraph best support?

See the Skills Handbook, page 628, for anexplanation of interpreting graphs.

1,800

1,600

1,400

The number of words in the child’s recordedvocabulary at age 3

The average number of words said per hourby the parent to the child

before the child was 3 years old

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

600 1,200

Source: Robert S. Feldman, Understanding Psychology, 1999.

1,800 2,400 3,000 3,6000

r = .58r = .58

( = individual child)

Parent Involvement in Language Development

Building Skills1. It shows the relationship between the num-

ber of words said by a parent to a child andthe child’s vocabulary at age 3.

2. There is a positive relationship between thenumber of words a parent says to a childand the size of that child’s vocabulary.Usually, the more words a child hears fromthe parent, the larger that child’s vocabularywill be.

3. The information presented in this graph bestsupports B.F. Skinner’s theory of languagedevelopment. The child’s vocabulary can beexpanded through parental reinforcement.

AssessmentAssessment

Psychology Projects1. Answers will vary. Students might mention associating puz-

zle pieces by color, shape, and so on.2. Answers will vary. Students should note the use of tele-

graphic speech, incorrect grammar that follows logicalrules, and the use of expressions that the children havemimicked from adults.

3. Answers will vary. The sample size of 15 should allow for awide variety of responses. The reports should indicate thedifferent ways that people express themselves.

Technology ActivityStudents should find a wealth of information on the Web. Bysearching under “early childhood development,” several of thesearch engines will respond with recommended sites. Some ofthese deal directly or indirectly with language development.

Psychology JournalAnswers will vary. Challenge students to think about how theywould have solved the problem if the other people involvedspoke a different language.

This question may be used for extracredit on the Chapter Assessment.Answer the following question:I transmit learning and communi-cate facts and ideas. What am I?

Answer: language

Chapter BonusTest Question

CD-ROMGlencoe Skillbuilder Inter-active Workbook, Level 2

This interactive CD-ROM isdesigned to reinforce student mastery of essential social studiesskills.

Documents

Chapter 11 Resource Guide · Chapter 11 Resource Guide ACTIVITY Patrick Mattimore South San Francisco High School San Francisco, CA 294B From the Classroom of… The Gray Box Purpose: