THE AMERICAN PEOPLECREATING A NATION AND A SOCIETY

NASH JEFFREY HOWE FREDERICK DAVIS WINKLER MIRES PESTANA

Chapter 11: Slavery and the Old South

Pearson Education, Inc, publishing as Longman © 2006

7th Edition

BUILDING A DIVERSE COTON KINGDOM Large plantation agriculture was dominant in the South but 75% of

southern landholders did not own slaves– Middling yeomen played a significant role– Most southerners lived in modest two-room cabins

Cotton was the key cash crop but more acreage was planted in corn

Older Upper South (Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, and Kentucky) grew different crops from those grown in “Black Belt” South from South Carolina to eastern Texas

– Economies of flat coastal areas differed from those of Appalachian highlands

– Southern cities differed from rural areas Slavery was paternalistic in older areas but became increasingly a

capitalistic enterprise aimed at maximizing profits– Tied into growing international web of economic relations

The Varied Economic Life in the South

THE EXPANSION OF SLAVERY IN A GLOBAL ECONOMY In 1860 the American South, if independent, would have been one

of the wealthiest countries in the world in per capita income based on the revenue of the cotton trade

Cotton cultivation and its expansion depended on technological development, land, labor, demand, and a global system of trade

– Technology: cotton gin invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney– Cotton gin increased land and labor needs leading to western

expansion– The industrial revolution spurred demand for cotton clothing

From 1815 to 1860 cotton was more than half of all American exports

– Cotton encouraged economic growth in the U.S. as well as in England– Cotton production grew from 461,000 bales in 1817 to 4.8 million in

1860

SLAVERY IN LATIN AMERICA Europeans depended on African slavery in their New

World colonies– Brazil with 1 million slaves in 1800 had the largest slave

population– Historians used to believe that a variety of differences due to

Spanish culture and Catholic religion made slavery there less harsh but they no longer believe this

African slaves were imported to replace the indigenous populations that were eradicated by disease

Sugar production was the cash crop for the Latin American holdings of the European powers

– Did work in a variety of other agricultural and mining fields as well as in construction, cowherding, transportation and as servants

– Women were expected to perform same physical tasks as men

SLAVERY IN LATIN AMERICA Conditions in sugar production were especially bad since

increasing productivity meant slaves could be cheaply replaces as they paid for themselves within two years

– Average working life of slaves fell from 15 to 7 years– Death rate increased from 6 to 10%– Slaves were predominantly male with a 3:2 ratio in general and a 2:1

ratio on sugar plantations of Brazil and Cuba– Birthrate was 40 per 1000 compared to 50 per 1000 in U.S., while the

death rate was appalling– Slave population actually dropped in nineteenth century– Slave trade replaced lost labor and after it was ended, smuggling

served that role Intermarriages among Indians, slaves and Europeans led to an

increase in population of free people of color who outnumbered slaves by mid-century

SLAVERY IN LATIN AMERICA

Latin American slaves obtained their freedom through interracial marriage, as payment for special favors and other contracts, in wills on a master’s death and by purchasing their own freedom– Relative autonomy and incentives were given to

many slaves Conditions were as harsh or harsher than in

United States but rights of slaves were more fluid

WHITE AND BLACK MIGRATIONS IN THE SOUTH Between 1830 and 1860, southerners began to migrate in a

southwest direction to fill up the fertile land and increase cotton production for the mills of England

– The center of cotton production shifted from the Carolinas and Georgia to Mississippi in the 1830s then to Arkansas, Louisiana and eastern Texas in the 1850s

– Migrants were also pushed west by exhaustion of former lands and deteriorating economic conditions

– Those who did not move, diversified Internal slave trade from Upper South to Lower South became a

huge industry– Congress ended the external slave trade on January 1,1808, the

same year as Great Britain., though enforcement was weak– Increase in slave population came primarily from reproduction

SOUTHERN DEPENDENCE ON SLAVERY Number of slaves rose form 1.5 million in 1820 to 4

million in 1860– Most worked on farms or plantations but 15% were domestic

servants and the other 300,000 worked in a variety of areas– While some southern industrialists argued should favor poor

whites in hiring, most switched to slaves who were cheaper and unlikely to organize

Slavery was profitable as a source of labor and capital investment

– “Crop value per slave” increased from $15 in 1800 to $125 in 1860

– Slave women were likely to produce 2 to 6 children Dependence on cotton and slave economy was

limiting, inhibiting growth of cities and industry

PATERNALISM AND HONOR IN THE PLANTER CLASS The aversion to industrialism stemmed from

adherence to traditions medieval chivalry, Protestantism and Celtic Scots-Irish heritage which led to a refined paternalism based on a rigid sense of social-class hierarchy and obligations

– Wealthy planters insisted on deference– Head of plantation had to care for “inferiors,” like a kindly

father An intensely masculine code of honor placed the

virtue of women on a pedestal and expected women to maintain sexual purity, spiritual piety, and submissive patience while managing the household

The masculine code had a rigid code of honor and the slightest insult could lead to a duel

SLAVERY, CLASS, AND YEOMAN FARMERS The proportion of southern white families who owned slaves

declined from 40 to 25% though the ideal of slave ownership permeated all classes and determined the South’s patriarchal and hierarchical character

– At the top was the planter aristocracy of some 3000 families with more than 50 slaves

– A slightly larger group owned 10 to 50 slaves– Most slaveholders, 70%, had fewer than 10 slaves and were

considered yeoman farmers Economic, social and political standing depended on owning

slaves– Gave all whites feelings of superiority over blacks– Few southerners supported emancipation

Yeoman farmers defended their independence and property and focused most of their political attention on local issues

– Adamantly believed in evangelical Christianity

THE NONSLAVEHOLDING SOUTH Seventy-five percent of white southerners owned no

slaves and some 30 to 50% were landless– Lived especially in Appalachian highlands and were largely

self-sufficient– Were politically marginalized despite their numerical

superiority Herdsmen raised hogs and other livestock

– South raised two-thirds of nation’s hogs Below herdsmen were poorest 10% of population

often called “crackers” or “dirt eaters”– Often suffered from diseases whose side effects earned

them a reputation as lazy

MORNING: MASTER AND MISTRESS IN THE BIG HOUSE

Morning was a time for slaves to get up and go to work

For whites it involved contact with slaves in many ways

THE BURDENS OF SLAVEHOLDING

Sickness and death of slaves headed concerns of slaveowners– Many tried to keep families together but sold

slaves when necessary Felt a need to control lower class whites as

well as slaves Many owners felt they worked harder than the

slaves to feed and clothe them

THE PLANTATION MISTRESS

Women were expected to improve their husbands’ morals and beautify their parlors for proper hospitality

Suffered under a double standard of morality. Were responsible for the food, clothing, health

and welfare of the slaves

JUSTIFYING SLAVERY Biblical Justification: ancient curse upon Ham, a child of Noah

and other references Historical Justification: all great civilizations participated in

slavery Legal Justification: the U.S. Constitution refused to address

slavery directly Pseudo-Scientific Justification: multiple theories regarding

inferiority of the black race Sociological Justification: the black race as societal “children”

that needed paternalistic guidance Problem was slavery ran against the main trend of nineteenth-

century America: the expansion of individual liberty, mobility, economic opportunity and democratic political participation

NOON: SLAVES IN HOUSE AND FIELDS

Lunch for slaves was usually pork and cornmeal

DAILY TOIL Slaves were expected to work an average of 14 hours per day

during warm weather and 10 hours in the winter, with 18 hours common during harvest

Slaves were organized either in gangs or by the task system– Work gangs of 20 to 25 slaves labored under the whip of a “slave

driver.– The task system allowed slaves to finish a designated task each day

at their own pace and was thus preferred by slaves– A normal slave was expected to pick 130 to 150 pounds of cotton a

day House slaves had relatively easier assignments, ate and

dressed better– Slaves did most of skilled artisan work on plantations– House slaves suffered from closer supervision and more conflict

with whites

SLAVE HEALTH AND PUNISHMENTS Slaves led sickly lives in one-room cabins with dirt floors

– Cabins let in pests and often housed more than one family– Clothing was issued once or twice a year and was shabby and uncomfortable– Compared to Latin American slaves, U.S. slaves ate well though they rarely

enjoyed fresh meat, dairy products, fruits or vegetables which resulted in a variety of maladies

Enslaved women especially suffered weaknesses caused by vitamin deficiency, hard work, and disease along with those associated with menstruation and childbirth

– Mortality of slave children under 5 was twice as high as for white children American slave life expectancy was higher than that of Latin

American or Caribbean slaves but they were very susceptible to epidemics

– Average of 20% of slaves on a plantation would be sick at any one time Frequent physical punishment aggravated the poor physical

conditions of slaves so many slave holders preferred reward to punishment

SLAVE LAW AND THE FAMILY Slaves were both human beings and property which complicated

their legal status– After the 1831 Nat Turner rebellion and increased abolitionist

attacks by Northerners, Southerners tightened up the slave system, preventing manumission while strengthening laws designed to protect slaves from overly severe treatment

– Laws were rarely enforced and treatment depended on the master While some masters believed families made slaves more docile,

there was no protection for them or for slave women who were often sexually abused

– Masters encouraged slave women to have children– Masters sometimes chose mates but more often slaves chose their

own– Caring for children doubled a female slaves burden– Masters dissolved one third of slave marriages through sale

NIGHT: SLAVES IN THEIR QUARTERS

In the slave quarters, slaves preserved much of their African heritage and created an elaborate black community

BLACK CHRISTIANITY Christian worship was an integral part of life in the

slave quarters– Black Christianity often included aspects of Islamic and

African religions Black religious gatherings were usually forbidden

unless a white overseer was present or a white preacher led them

– Independent black Baptist and Methodist churches steered a careful path to maintain their freedom

– Majority of slaves attended plantation churches established by their masters who saw religion as a form of social control

Slaves often countered with secret meetings and an “invisible church.

THE POWER OF SONG

Music was a crucial form of both secular and religious expression– Slaves were adept at creating a song– Spirituals reiterated the theme of a chosen people,

held in bondage but who would be delivered– Some slave songs had double or hidden meanings

THE ENDURING FAMILY Family relationships were central to the lives of most

slaves Slaves could draw love, protection, support,

knowledge, and cultural identity from these extended families

Slaves often performed extra work for money to provide sugar or clothing; hunted and fished for extra food or tended vegetable garden

Slaves sought to use family intervention, appeals for mercy, conjurers’ magic and even force to prevent abuse

RESISTANCE AND FREEDOM

Songs, folktales and other forms of cultural expression allowed slaves to articulate their resistance to slavery

FORMS OF BLACK PROTEST Daily acts of resistance might include breaking of

tools, burning houses or crops, stealing food, self mutilation or simple work slowdowns

Females might fake sickness or menstrual cramps.– Often formed networks of support

Slaves also played on struggles between overseers and masters

– Many masters resorted to using black drivers though this caught the driver between his fellow slaves and the master

FORMS OF BLACK PROTEST Another form of resistance was running away which

was most frequently done by young black men to avoid punishment or protest conditions

– Would often return after a few days though some hid out for months or years or even escaped to maroon communities

– The Underground Railroad, a series of safe houses and stations where slaves could eat and rest, helped slaves escape north

– Most slaves who attempted to escape to the North or Canada, and there were not many, were caught

Slaves also petitioned Congress and state legislatures for their freedom or sought to buy it through extra work

SLAVE REVOLTS The ultimate act of resistance was rebellion

– While there were many conspiracies, few led to action, often because of betrayal by fellow slaves such as in the Gabriel uprising in Virginia in 1800 and the Denmark Vesey incident in South Carolina in 1822

Few revolts, especially compared to Latin America, actually occurred in U.S.

– Nat Turner revolt in Virginia in 1831 which resulted in the death of 55 white people was the most severe in the country

FREE BLACKS: Becoming One’s Own Master About twelve percent of the African American

population was free, doubling from 233,500 in 1820 to 488,000 in 1860

More than half the free blacks lived in the Upper South

– One-third lived in cities or towns– Tended to be older, more literate and lighter skinned than

other African Americans– Most were poor farmhands, day laborers or wood cutters– Men could work at skilled jobs such as barbering,

shoemaking and plastering while women tended to be cooks, laundresses and domesitcs

FREE BLACKS: Becoming One’s Own Master The 15% of free African Americans who lived in the Lower South

were divided into two castes: a majority of poor blacks but also a small, usually mixed-blood, elite often closely connected to white society

Urban whites sought to restrain blacks from mixing with whites and to either confine them to certain parts of the city or leave altogether

Key institution was the African American church which gave spiritual solace, set community standards and offered a host of educational, insurance, self-help and recreational opportunities

– African American Catholics were not left out though the low ordination of black priests gave a special place to black sisterhoods who ministered to the aged and started schools

– Served as springboards for activist black preachers seeking changes in the larger community

Strength of free black communities combined with growing crisis over slavery led to increasing pressures from white southerners to either deport or enslave free blacks

DISCOVERING U.S. HISTORY ONLINE

Slave Culturehttp://www.kingtisdell.org/exhibit.htm Letters from the Slave Stateshttp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1857stirling.html Africans in America, 1791-1831http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/index.html Songs of the Underground Railroadhttp://www.appleseedrec.com/underground/songs.html Virginia Runawayshttp://people.uvawise.edu/runaways/ North American Slave Narratives, Beginnings to 1920http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/