THE SEARCH FOR EQUALITY

CRAIG JOHNSON

Chapter 11

The Search for Equality

Modest beginning in 1930’s and 1940’s

A lot of public and professional attention in the 1950’s and 1960’s

End of 1970’s substantial gains were made, but results were mixed.

Expanding Access to Secondary and Higher Institutions

From the 1920s to 1970s the population had doubled and attendance in school’s tripled.

Attendance grew from 5 million in the 1920s to 15 million in the 1970s.

In 1975 nearly 80 percent of all American's had completed 4 years of high school.

In 1925 10 percent of students attended college compared to over 50 percent in 1975.

Comparison of US and European youth finishing a secondary school course

1950 19600

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

USWestern EuropeRussia

Disparities in Availability More highly industrialized and richer

states had better opportunities for education in the 1970s.

To equalize education, forward looking states adopted a principle that the entire wealth of the state should be tapped to serve the entire population of the state.

Early Equalization Efforts Consolidate local rural districts into

larger units to provide more efficient schools. This compares to consolidation today.

120,000 school systems in 1940 down to 16,000 in 1976

Continuing Inequalities

Southern schools had less resources than northern states.

Two separate school systems added expense in the South. One for whites and one for blacks.

The Federal Government and Equality of Opportunity 1920’s and 1930’s view was

education expense was a matter for state and local control.

Federal government tried to pass legislation in the late 1940’s and early 1950’s but could not pass both houses of Congress.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965

Gave special attention to the poor of urban and rural areas.

Allotted for school library resources, textbooks, and other instructional materials for public and private institutions. No money could go for religious instruction.

This was one of the first steps of Federal Government’s search for equality in public schools.

Dismantling the Dual Systems of Public Schools

Truman in 1948 started the search for equality. This was the start of the dismantling of segregation.

1960s brought more progress through the NAACP, Urban League, Southern Regional Council, and other groups to equal pay for black and white teachers and equal admittance of blacks to graduate and professional schools in the South.

Brown vs. Board of Education (1954)

A landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional.

Many north-south border states abided, but many Southern states met this with open differences.

Cooper vs. Aaron (1958)

Held that the states were bound by the Court's decisions, and could not choose to ignore them.

Public school officials were state officials and the had the duty to uphold the constitutional rights of black children as defined by Brown.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 Authorized the Justice Dept. to

initiate law suits on behalf of individuals to compel compliance with desegregation in the schools and to give assistance to school districts.

Withheld federal funds from state and local agencies, including school districts, that continued to discriminate.

Progress of Desegregation of Southern Schools

Riots and violence picked up in the 1960s.

Martin Luther King emerged as the leader of the nonviolent civil rights movement.

Violence rose to an all time high in 1966 and 1967.

Martin Luther King was assassinated in 1968 giving way to more riots and little noticeable success.

The Great “Busing” Debate

Swann vs. Charlotte-Mecklenburg (1971) Busing was an appropriate remedy for the

problem of racial imbalance among schools

Milliken vs. Bradley (1974) Planned desegregation busing of public school

students across district lines among 53 school districts in metropolitan Detroit

Morgan vs. Hennigan (1974) School Committee had “knowingly carried out

a systematic program of segregation affecting all of the city’s students, teachers and school facilities.

American Indian Education

Indian children in 1970 were predominantly in public school (63%) with 31% in Bureau of Indian Affairs government schools and 6% in mission schools.

Indians in Public Schools faced more alien and hostility than on the reservation which resulted in poor vocational skills.

Public school teachers had little training, understanding, or appreciation for the Indian heritage.

Equalizing Financial Support of Public SchoolsSerrano

Serrano decision held that relying heavily on local property taxes for public school funding discriminated against the poor and violated the equal protection clause.

Serrano tried to make education a fundamental right that could not be conditioned on the wealth of individuals or of school districts.

Equalizing Financial Support of Public SchoolsRodriquez (1973)

Property Taxes Not Unconstitutional Ruled the Texas system of local

property taxation for school finance did not discriminate against any, nor did it result in the absolute deprivation of education.

Schooling and Economic InequalityEquality of Opportunity

Equality of Condition

No legal or financial barriers should be allowed to prevent individuals or groups from obtaining an education.

No person should be denied access to education institutions.

All persons should be required or expected to have the same amount of wealth or power.

Minimal economic level guaranteed to all persons.

Schooling and Academic Achievement

Christopher Jencks claimed that schools cannot make as much difference in cognitive achievement as family characteristics and social class.

He said what did make a difference were racial discrimination, family background, and luck.

He says schools should make children happy, giving them the basics, and permitting all kinds of alternatives that a voucher system would make.

Hobson vs. Hansen (1967)

Decision that a tracking system based on IQ testing is unconstitutional

Discriminates against poor children and Afro-American students.

Aptitude tests used to assign children were standardized primarily on white middle class children.

Affirmative Action

Cannot discriminate on the basis of race, gender, religion and national origin.

Purpose was to create equal opportunity.

Problems came up through the educational system with discrimination against women over lower salaries and rarity of administrative positions for women.

“Reverse Discrimination” against Whites Males

1971 University of Washington Law School refused to admit a white applicant because of preferential treatment and reservation of quotas for less-qualified minority students.

Originally admitted by lower court, then reversed by Supreme Court.

Court battle took so long, he graduated before final ruling.

The Bakke Case (1977)

Allan Bakke was denied admission because he was white, even though he was more highly qualified than some minority students who were admitted.

Civil rights leaders were concerned that the outlook of the Supreme Court might stop affirmative action if it decided that reverse discrimination on behalf of minorities was just as unconstitutional as discrimination against them.

Summary

Started in 1930’s with a dream of equality. 1950’s and 60’s there was a big change in

our communities as well as schools. Many thought wealth should not determine

the quality of education you receive. Many laws were created to create equality

in the north as well as the south. Black and Whites fully desegregated in the

1964. Started having reverse discrimination