Chapter 12: Life-Span Chapter 12: Life-Span DevelopmentDevelopmentChapter 12: Life-Span Chapter 12: Life-Span DevelopmentDevelopment

Amanda MorenoAmanda MorenoAmanda MorenoAmanda Moreno

Prenatal PhasePrenatal PhasePrenatal PhasePrenatal Phase

Approximate age is conception through Approximate age is conception through birthbirth

Highlights include rapid physical Highlights include rapid physical development of the nervous system and development of the nervous system and the bodythe body

Stages of the Prenatal PeriodStages of the Prenatal PeriodStages of the Prenatal PeriodStages of the Prenatal Period

Zygote stageZygote stage ZygoteZygote: cell formed : cell formed

at conceptionat conception Lasts about 2 weeksLasts about 2 weeks Zygote divides many Zygote divides many

times, begins to form times, begins to form internal organsinternal organs

Embryo stageEmbryo stage Lasts about 6 weeksLasts about 6 weeks Marked by rapid Marked by rapid

developmentdevelopment Heart begins to beat, Heart begins to beat,

brain functionsbrain functions Major body structures Major body structures

begin to formbegin to form Sexual development Sexual development

beginsbegins

Sexual Development Sexual Development Sexual Development Sexual Development

XX chromosomes=femaleXX chromosomes=female XY chromosomes=maleXY chromosomes=male GonadsGonads: precursor to sex organs: precursor to sex organs AndrogensAndrogens: sex hormones produced by : sex hormones produced by

testes, spur development of male sex testes, spur development of male sex organsorgans

Figure 12.1, page 373Figure 12.1, page 373

Fetal StageFetal StageFetal StageFetal Stage

Third and final stage Third and final stage Lasts for about seven monthsLasts for about seven months Begins with the appearance of bone Begins with the appearance of bone

tissue tissue Ends with birthEnds with birth

Threats to Prenatal Threats to Prenatal DevelopmentDevelopment

Threats to Prenatal Threats to Prenatal DevelopmentDevelopment

TeratogensTeratogens: Substances that can cause : Substances that can cause birth defects, such as drugs birth defects, such as drugs (prescription or illegal), alcohol, and (prescription or illegal), alcohol, and cigarettescigarettes

Mother malnourishmentMother malnourishment Number one cause of birth defects?Number one cause of birth defects?

Infancy and Childhood Infancy and Childhood PhasesPhasesInfancy and Childhood Infancy and Childhood PhasesPhases InfancyInfancy

Birth to 2 yearsBirth to 2 years Motor development Motor development Attachment to Attachment to

primary caregiverprimary caregiver

ChildhoodChildhood 1.5 years to 121.5 years to 12 Logical thinkingLogical thinking Abstract reasoningAbstract reasoning Motor skill Motor skill

refinementrefinement Peer influencesPeer influences

Motor DevelopmentMotor DevelopmentMotor DevelopmentMotor Development

Reflexes present at Reflexes present at birthbirth RootingRooting SuckingSucking SwallowingSwallowing

Patterns of motor Patterns of motor developmentdevelopment See Figure 12.2, See Figure 12.2,

page 375page 375 MaturationMaturation: A : A

relatively stable relatively stable change in thought, change in thought, behavior or physical behavior or physical of growth due to the of growth due to the aging processaging process

Perceptual DevelopmentPerceptual DevelopmentPerceptual DevelopmentPerceptual Development

Perception of Perception of PatternsPatterns Salapatek’s (1975) Salapatek’s (1975)

study, results shown study, results shown on page 376, Figure on page 376, Figure 12.312.3

By 3 mos., babies By 3 mos., babies prefer seeing facial prefer seeing facial patterns (Rosser, patterns (Rosser, 1994)1994)

Perception of SpacePerception of Space Gibson and Walk Gibson and Walk

(1960) and the visual (1960) and the visual cliffcliff

StereopsisStereopsis:: depth depth perception gained perception gained fron each eye’s fron each eye’s slightly different view slightly different view

Critical PeriodsCritical PeriodsCritical PeriodsCritical Periods

Specific timeframes for experiences to Specific timeframes for experiences to occur in order to have normal occur in order to have normal developmentdevelopment

Applies to behavioral, perceptual and Applies to behavioral, perceptual and cognitive abilitiescognitive abilities

Stresses importance of interaction Stresses importance of interaction between organism and environmentbetween organism and environment

Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive DevelopmentCognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

The importance of the environmentThe importance of the environment Watson and Ramey’s (1972) study with Watson and Ramey’s (1972) study with

mobiles and movement, Figure 12.4, page mobiles and movement, Figure 12.4, page 377377

Retardation of infants raised in Retardation of infants raised in unstimulating environmentsunstimulating environments

Jean Piaget’s WorkJean Piaget’s WorkJean Piaget’s WorkJean Piaget’s Work

Cognitive StructuresCognitive Structures: Rules or mental : Rules or mental representations used to understand the representations used to understand the world and solve problemsworld and solve problems

SchemataSchemata: representations or rules for : representations or rules for a specific category of behavior; a specific category of behavior; encompasses execution and context of encompasses execution and context of behaviorbehavior

Piaget’s Basic ConceptsPiaget’s Basic ConceptsPiaget’s Basic ConceptsPiaget’s Basic Concepts

AssimilationAssimilation: New experiences are : New experiences are changed to fit old schematachanged to fit old schemata

AccomodationAccomodation: Old schemata are : Old schemata are changed by new experiences; results in changed by new experiences; results in new schemata or modified existing onesnew schemata or modified existing ones

Piaget’s 4 Periods of Piaget’s 4 Periods of Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive DevelopmentPiaget’s 4 Periods of Piaget’s 4 Periods of Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development SensorimotorSensorimotor

Birth to 2 yearsBirth to 2 years Object PermanenceObject Permanence Deferred imitationDeferred imitation Symbolic thinkingSymbolic thinking

Preoperational Preoperational 2 to 6 or 7 years2 to 6 or 7 years Increased symbolic Increased symbolic

thought abilitythought ability EgocentrismEgocentrism Not yet able to solve Not yet able to solve

conservation conservation problemsproblems

Piaget’s Periods (cont’d)Piaget’s Periods (cont’d)Piaget’s Periods (cont’d)Piaget’s Periods (cont’d)

Concrete Concrete operationaloperational 6 or 7 years to 11 6 or 7 years to 11

yearsyears Mastery of Mastery of

conservationconservation Understand Understand

categorizationcategorization No abstract thinkingNo abstract thinking

Formal operationalFormal operational 11 years and up11 years and up Abstract thinking and Abstract thinking and

hypothetical thoughthypothetical thought

Criticisms of PiagetCriticisms of PiagetCriticisms of PiagetCriticisms of Piaget

Some studies show that conservation Some studies show that conservation can occur earlier than proposed when can occur earlier than proposed when appropriate tasks usedappropriate tasks used

Children can be less egocentric than Children can be less egocentric than Piaget thoughtPiaget thought

Did not always define terms Did not always define terms operationallyoperationally

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Vygotsky’s Sociocultural TheoryTheoryVygotsky’s Sociocultural Vygotsky’s Sociocultural TheoryTheory Culture plays a significant role in Culture plays a significant role in

cognitive developmentcognitive development Studies support this hypothesisStudies support this hypothesis Language serves as basis for cognitive Language serves as basis for cognitive

development in remembering, problem development in remembering, problem solving, etc.solving, etc.

Importance of social interactionsImportance of social interactions

Case’s M-Space ModelCase’s M-Space ModelCase’s M-Space ModelCase’s M-Space Model

Mental Space (M-Mental Space (M-SpaceSpace: much like : much like short-term memory, short-term memory, functions to process functions to process info from the info from the environmentenvironment

Variables involved in Variables involved in expansion of M-expansion of M-SpaceSpace Brain maturation Brain maturation

(physical capacity)(physical capacity) Practice effectsPractice effects Acquisition of Acquisition of central central

conceptual conceptual structuresstructures

Fischer’s Skill ModelFischer’s Skill ModelFischer’s Skill ModelFischer’s Skill Model

Cognitive development requires skill Cognitive development requires skill learninglearning

Optimal Level of Skill PerformanceOptimal Level of Skill Performance: : brain’s maximal capacity for processing brain’s maximal capacity for processing informationinformation

New skills are acquired, practiced and New skills are acquired, practiced and perfected--lead to increases in perfected--lead to increases in reasoning and abstract thoughtreasoning and abstract thought

TV and Cognitive TV and Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopmentTV and Cognitive TV and Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment ContentContent

Sesame Street Sesame Street vs. vs. Jerry SpringerJerry Springer Commercials aimed toward kidsCommercials aimed toward kids

MediumMedium ““Mesmerizing effects”Mesmerizing effects” Replacing reading or activityReplacing reading or activity Attention span Attention span Cognitive passivenessCognitive passiveness

Social DevelopmentSocial DevelopmentSocial DevelopmentSocial Development

AttachmentAttachment: the lasting social and : the lasting social and emotional bond between the infant and emotional bond between the infant and the caregiverthe caregiver

Interactions between infant and parent Interactions between infant and parent are crucial to attachmentare crucial to attachment

Cultural variables have a strong Cultural variables have a strong influence in the attachment behaviorsinfluence in the attachment behaviors

Attachment BehaviorsAttachment BehaviorsAttachment BehaviorsAttachment Behaviors

SuckingSucking CuddlingCuddling

Harlow’s (1974) Harlow’s (1974) monkeys and monkeys and surrogate motherssurrogate mothers

LookingLooking Figure 12.8, p. 389Figure 12.8, p. 389 Tronick et al, 1978Tronick et al, 1978

SmilingSmiling An effective An effective

reinforcer for both reinforcer for both baby and parentbaby and parent

CryingCrying Different patterns Different patterns

may serve different may serve different purposespurposes

Negative Negative reinforcement effectreinforcement effect

The Nature of AttachmentThe Nature of AttachmentThe Nature of AttachmentThe Nature of Attachment

Stranger AnxietyStranger Anxiety: : Fearful responses Fearful responses exhibited in the exhibited in the presence of presence of strangersstrangers

Separation AnxietySeparation Anxiety: : Fearful responses Fearful responses made when the made when the caregiver leaves the caregiver leaves the infantinfant

Ainsworth’s Ainsworth’s Strange SituationStrange SituationAinsworth’s Ainsworth’s Strange SituationStrange Situation

Test of attachment that exposes the infant Test of attachment that exposes the infant to events or stimuli that can cause distressto events or stimuli that can cause distress

Secure AttachmentSecure Attachment: Ideal pattern of : Ideal pattern of attachmentattachment

Resistant AttachmentResistant Attachment: Tension present in : Tension present in mother-child relationmother-child relation

Avoidant AttachmentAvoidant Attachment: Infant ignores : Infant ignores mothermother

Interactions with PeersInteractions with PeersInteractions with PeersInteractions with Peers

Harlow’s Monkeys--Early social contact Harlow’s Monkeys--Early social contact is crucial to forming later relationshipsis crucial to forming later relationships

Isolation effects can be eliminated with Isolation effects can be eliminated with “therapist monkeys”“therapist monkeys”

Fuhrman, Rahe and Hartup (1979) Fuhrman, Rahe and Hartup (1979) generalized these results to human generalized these results to human childrenchildren

Parenting ApproachesParenting ApproachesParenting ApproachesParenting Approaches

Authoritarian parents: firm rules and Authoritarian parents: firm rules and punishment for breaking thempunishment for breaking them

Permissive parents: few rules, not very Permissive parents: few rules, not very many consequencesmany consequences

Authoritative parents: establish and Authoritative parents: establish and enforce rules, but make allowances and enforce rules, but make allowances and explain consequencesexplain consequences

Single-Parent and Divorced Single-Parent and Divorced FamiliesFamiliesSingle-Parent and Divorced Single-Parent and Divorced FamiliesFamilies Child’s development--similar to children Child’s development--similar to children

from traditional family if mother finishes from traditional family if mother finishes school and has social supportschool and has social support

Younger children more negatively Younger children more negatively affected by divorceaffected by divorce

Decreased parent conflict and Decreased parent conflict and interaction w/both parents reduce interaction w/both parents reduce adverse affectsadverse affects

Development of Gender RolesDevelopment of Gender RolesDevelopment of Gender RolesDevelopment of Gender Roles

Gender identityGender identity: an individual’s own : an individual’s own sense of being male or femalesense of being male or female

Gender rolesGender roles: cultural expectations : cultural expectations about the behaviors of men and womenabout the behaviors of men and women

Gender stereotypesGender stereotypes: beliefs about the : beliefs about the differences between men and women, differences between men and women, has a strong effect on one’s acquisition has a strong effect on one’s acquisition of gender roles and identityof gender roles and identity

Gender DifferencesGender DifferencesGender DifferencesGender Differences

Girls:Girls: Develop earlier Develop earlier

verballyverbally Express and Express and

interpret emotion interpret emotion more effectivelymore effectively

More compliant with More compliant with adults and peersadults and peers

Boys:Boys: Show stronger Show stronger

spatial abilitiesspatial abilities Show more Show more

aggressionaggression Are more likely to Are more likely to

take riskstake risks More likely to have More likely to have

developmental developmental problemsproblems

Causes of Gender Role Causes of Gender Role DifferencesDifferencesCauses of Gender Role Causes of Gender Role DifferencesDifferences Biological CausesBiological Causes

Exposure to male Exposure to male sex hormones in the sex hormones in the brainbrain

Differences in Differences in cognitive ability, cognitive ability, reproduction issues reproduction issues may be results of may be results of evolutionevolution

Cultural CausesCultural Causes Perceptions of boys Perceptions of boys

and girls by adults and girls by adults and peersand peers

Socialization by Socialization by parentsparents

Piaget’s Theory of Moral Piaget’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentDevelopmentPiaget’s Theory of Moral Piaget’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentDevelopment Moral RealismMoral Realism: :

From 5 to 10 yearsFrom 5 to 10 years EgocentrismEgocentrism Blind adherence to Blind adherence to

rulesrules Can consider only Can consider only

the outcomes of an the outcomes of an act, not the intentact, not the intent

Morality of Morality of cooperationcooperation:: Begins at 10 yearsBegins at 10 years Rules are more Rules are more

flexible because they flexible because they are social are social conventionsconventions

Can consider the Can consider the effects of acts on effects of acts on others as wellothers as well

Kolhberg’s TheoryKolhberg’s TheoryKolhberg’s TheoryKolhberg’s Theory

Preconventional Preconventional LevelLevel Morality of Morality of

punishment and punishment and obedienceobedience

Morality of naïve Morality of naïve instrumental instrumental hedonismhedonism

Conventional LevelConventional Level Morality of Morality of

maintaining good maintaining good relationsrelations

Morality of Morality of maintaining social maintaining social orderorder

Kohlberg (cont’d)Kohlberg (cont’d)Kohlberg (cont’d)Kohlberg (cont’d)

Postconventional LevelPostconventional Level Morality of social contractsMorality of social contracts Morality of universal ethical principlesMorality of universal ethical principles Morality of cosmic orientationMorality of cosmic orientation

Very few people reach this levelVery few people reach this level

See Table 12.3, page 398 See Table 12.3, page 398

Criticisms of These TheoriesCriticisms of These TheoriesCriticisms of These TheoriesCriticisms of These Theories

Piaget’s idea of moral realism may Piaget’s idea of moral realism may extend to adults in certain situationsextend to adults in certain situations

Kohlberg and the wording of Heinz’s Kohlberg and the wording of Heinz’s dilemmadilemma

Kohlberg’s theory gender-biased?Kohlberg’s theory gender-biased?

Adolescent PhaseAdolescent PhaseAdolescent PhaseAdolescent Phase

13 years to about 20 years13 years to about 20 years End of this phase is culturally influencedEnd of this phase is culturally influenced

Thinking and reasoning become more Thinking and reasoning become more “adultlike”“adultlike”

Identity crisisIdentity crisis Continued peer influencesContinued peer influences

Physical Development in Physical Development in AdolescenceAdolescencePhysical Development in Physical Development in AdolescenceAdolescence PubertyPuberty: The period of the maturation : The period of the maturation

of the reproductive system, starts the of the reproductive system, starts the transition into adulthoodtransition into adulthood

Gonads secrete sex hormones that Gonads secrete sex hormones that cause the development of both primary cause the development of both primary and secondary sex characteristicsand secondary sex characteristics

Social DevelopmentSocial DevelopmentSocial DevelopmentSocial Development

Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial DevelopmentDevelopment People will encounter crises in social People will encounter crises in social

relationsrelations Resolving these conflicts results in Resolving these conflicts results in

developmentdevelopment Psychosocial development never endsPsychosocial development never ends See Table 12.4, page 401See Table 12.4, page 401

Marcia’s 4 Identity StatusesMarcia’s 4 Identity StatusesMarcia’s 4 Identity StatusesMarcia’s 4 Identity Statuses

Identity Achieved

Foreclosure

Moratorium Identity Diffusion

YESYES NONO

YESYES

NONO

Crisis

Com

mitm

ent

Identity and Self-PerceptionIdentity and Self-PerceptionIdentity and Self-PerceptionIdentity and Self-Perception

Adolescents begin to expand their Adolescents begin to expand their definitions of themselves using values definitions of themselves using values or social characteristicsor social characteristics

Sexual behavior increasesSexual behavior increases Friendships deepenFriendships deepen Family conflictsFamily conflicts Variable mood statesVariable mood states

The Phases of Adulthood and The Phases of Adulthood and Old AgeOld AgeThe Phases of Adulthood and The Phases of Adulthood and Old AgeOld Age AdulthoodAdulthood

20 years to 65 years20 years to 65 years Love and marriageLove and marriage CareerCareer Stability, then Stability, then

decrease in physical decrease in physical abilityability

Old AgeOld Age 65 years until death65 years until death ReminiscingReminiscing Physical health Physical health

deterioratesdeteriorates Preparation for deathPreparation for death DeathDeath

Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive DevelopmentCognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

Alzheimer’s DiseaseAlzheimer’s Disease Occurs in ~5% of the populationOccurs in ~5% of the population Most prevalent form of dementiaMost prevalent form of dementia Progressive loss of memory and other mental Progressive loss of memory and other mental

functionsfunctions Associated with lower levels of acetylcholine, Associated with lower levels of acetylcholine,

degeneration of the hippocampus and degeneration of the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, esp. association cortex of cerebral cortex, esp. association cortex of frontal & temporal lobesfrontal & temporal lobes

Cognitive Development Cognitive Development (cont’d)(cont’d)Cognitive Development Cognitive Development (cont’d)(cont’d) Depression: another cause of mental Depression: another cause of mental

deteriorationdeterioration Crystallized and fluid intelligenceCrystallized and fluid intelligence

Abstract reasoning capacity (fluid) declines Abstract reasoning capacity (fluid) declines with agewith age

Older people excel in crystallized Older people excel in crystallized intelligenceintelligence

Speed of responses go downSpeed of responses go down

Social DevelopmentSocial DevelopmentSocial DevelopmentSocial Development

Erikson’s Stages in AdulthoodErikson’s Stages in Adulthood Intimacy vs. IsolationIntimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. StagnationGenerativity vs. Stagnation Integrity vs. despairIntegrity vs. despair

Levinson’s CrisesLevinson’s Crises Early in adulthoodEarly in adulthood Mid-LifeMid-Life

DeathDeathDeathDeath

Kubler-Ross’ 5 Phases of Coping with Kubler-Ross’ 5 Phases of Coping with DeathDeath DenialDenial AngerAnger BargainingBargaining DepressionDepression AcceptanceAcceptance

The EndThe End