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Chapter 12. Observational and Survey Research Methods Chapter Objectives
Distinguish between naturalistic and participant observation methods
Articulate the problems that can occur in observational research and how researchers address those problems
Explain why sampling issues are more relevant for survey research than for most other research in psychology
Distinguish between probability and nonprobability sampling
Chapter Objectives
Describe three varieties of probability sampling and know when each is used
Describe four different types of survey research and list the advantages and disadvantages of each
Articulate the principles of good survey construction
Explain the problems that can make it difficult to interpret survey data
Observational Research
Naturalistic observation Describing behaviors in natural settings
• Observer is unobtrusive, or• Habituation assumed
• e.g., with animal observations (Goodall example)• Examples:
• Snack selection at movie theaters• Gender differences in fighting behaviors at a bar• Helping behaviors in a preschool setting
Observational Research
Naturalistic observation Participant observation
• Experimenter joins group being observed• e.g., Festinger’s study of a cult
• Data recording problems• Ethical issues
• Experimenters changing the group
Observational Research
Challenges facing observational methods Absence of control
• But falsification of strong claims possible Observer bias
• Use of behavior checklists• Interobserver reliability• Time and event sampling
Participant reactivity• Use of unobtrusive measures helps
Ethics• Consent and privacy issues
Observational Research
Research example• Naturalistic observation in a science museum• Consent obtained (unusual in observational research)• Event sampling used• Results parents (Dads and Moms) explain science
concepts more to their sons than to their daughters
Survey Research
Need for sampling procedures (unlike most research in psychology)
Samples vs. populations Biased vs. representative samples
Self selection bias• e.g., election of 1936 (Literary Digest example)
Probability sampling Random sampling
• Each member of pop. has equal chance of being selected as member of sample
Survey Research
Probability sampling Stratified sampling
• Proportions of important subgroups in pop. are represented precisely in sample
• 75% female; 25% male (2 strata) Cluster sampling
• randomly select a cluster of individuals all having some feature in common
• campus survey sample first-year students who live on-campus
Survey Research
Nonprobability sampling Does NOT provide representative samples, but are
easier to do Convenience sampling
• Select subjects who are available and convenient (e.g., Introductory Psychology “subject pool”)
• Purposive sampling (e.g., Milgram non-use of university students)
Quota sampling• Similar to stratified sampling, but non-random
Snowball sampling• Ask subjects to get their acquaintances to participate• Often done with online surveys
Survey Research
Varieties of survey methods Interview surveys
• Plus in-person, comprehensive, follow-ups possible• Minus representative samples, cost, logistics, interviewer
bias Phone surveys
• Plus cost, efficiency• Minus must be brief, response rate, sugging
Electronic surveys• Plus cost, efficiency• Minus sampling issues, ethics
Survey Research
Varieties of survey methods Written surveys
• Plus in-person, ease of scoring• Minus cost, response rate, social desirability bias
Survey Research
Creating an effective survey Types of survey questions or statement
• Open-ended vs. closed questions• Use of Likert scales
• Avoid response bias (response acquiescence) • Assessing memory and knowledge
• Moderate use of DK alternative Adding demographic information
• Basic identifying data (e.g., age, income)• Place at end of survey
Survey Research
Creating an effective survey A key problem: survey wording
• Avoid ambiguity (pilot study helps)• Don’t ask for two things in one question
• Double-barreled questions• Avoid biased and leading questions
Summary
Observational and survey research methods are fairly benign, unobtrusive methods for obtaining information about various psychological phenomena.
Observational methods are used to assess natural behaviors either in their natural setting or in a lab setting.
Surveys are used to obtain information primarily about attitudes, beliefs, and/or preferences.
Both types of methods require clear operational definitions of variables, clear measures, clear instructions, and results should be used in an ethical manner.