Chapter 12. Observational and Survey Research Methods Chapter Objectives

Distinguish between naturalistic and participant observation methods

Articulate the problems that can occur in observational research and how researchers address those problems

Explain why sampling issues are more relevant for survey research than for most other research in psychology

Distinguish between probability and nonprobability sampling

Chapter Objectives

Describe three varieties of probability sampling and know when each is used

Describe four different types of survey research and list the advantages and disadvantages of each

Articulate the principles of good survey construction

Explain the problems that can make it difficult to interpret survey data

Observational Research

Naturalistic observation Describing behaviors in natural settings

• Observer is unobtrusive, or• Habituation assumed

• e.g., with animal observations (Goodall example)• Examples:

• Snack selection at movie theaters• Gender differences in fighting behaviors at a bar• Helping behaviors in a preschool setting

Observational Research

Naturalistic observation Participant observation

• Experimenter joins group being observed• e.g., Festinger’s study of a cult

• Data recording problems• Ethical issues

• Experimenters changing the group

Observational Research

Challenges facing observational methods Absence of control

• But falsification of strong claims possible Observer bias

• Use of behavior checklists• Interobserver reliability• Time and event sampling

Participant reactivity• Use of unobtrusive measures helps

Ethics• Consent and privacy issues

Observational Research

Research example• Naturalistic observation in a science museum• Consent obtained (unusual in observational research)• Event sampling used• Results parents (Dads and Moms) explain science

concepts more to their sons than to their daughters

Survey Research

Need for sampling procedures (unlike most research in psychology)

Samples vs. populations Biased vs. representative samples

Self selection bias• e.g., election of 1936 (Literary Digest example)

Probability sampling Random sampling

• Each member of pop. has equal chance of being selected as member of sample

Survey Research

Probability sampling Stratified sampling

• Proportions of important subgroups in pop. are represented precisely in sample

• 75% female; 25% male (2 strata) Cluster sampling

• randomly select a cluster of individuals all having some feature in common

• campus survey sample first-year students who live on-campus

Survey Research

Nonprobability sampling Does NOT provide representative samples, but are

easier to do Convenience sampling

• Select subjects who are available and convenient (e.g., Introductory Psychology “subject pool”)

• Purposive sampling (e.g., Milgram non-use of university students)

Quota sampling• Similar to stratified sampling, but non-random

Snowball sampling• Ask subjects to get their acquaintances to participate• Often done with online surveys

Survey Research

Varieties of survey methods Interview surveys

• Plus in-person, comprehensive, follow-ups possible• Minus representative samples, cost, logistics, interviewer

bias Phone surveys

• Plus cost, efficiency• Minus must be brief, response rate, sugging

Electronic surveys• Plus cost, efficiency• Minus sampling issues, ethics

Survey Research

Varieties of survey methods Written surveys

• Plus in-person, ease of scoring• Minus cost, response rate, social desirability bias

Survey Research

Creating an effective survey Types of survey questions or statement

• Open-ended vs. closed questions• Use of Likert scales

• Avoid response bias (response acquiescence) • Assessing memory and knowledge

• Moderate use of DK alternative Adding demographic information

• Basic identifying data (e.g., age, income)• Place at end of survey

Survey Research

Creating an effective survey A key problem: survey wording

• Avoid ambiguity (pilot study helps)• Don’t ask for two things in one question

• Double-barreled questions• Avoid biased and leading questions

Summary

Observational and survey research methods are fairly benign, unobtrusive methods for obtaining information about various psychological phenomena.

Observational methods are used to assess natural behaviors either in their natural setting or in a lab setting.

Surveys are used to obtain information primarily about attitudes, beliefs, and/or preferences.

Both types of methods require clear operational definitions of variables, clear measures, clear instructions, and results should be used in an ethical manner.