Chapter 13

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Training and Development

McGraw-Hill/IrwinHuman Resource Management, 10/e © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Introduction

Training and development are processes that provide employees with: InformationSkillsAn understanding of the organization and its goalsThe ability to make positive contributions in the form

of good performance

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Introduction

Orientation is designed to start the employee in a direction that is compatible with the firm’s: MissionGoalsCulture

Orientation is also used to: Explain what the organization stands for Explain the type of work that will be performed Introduce employees to managers and work groups

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Introduction

Newness anxiety is caused by: Not knowing what to expect Having to cope with a major life change (the job) Feeling unsure about the future

A good orientation program can: Make the first few days a positive experience Get the employee on the right track Start him/her off with a positive attitude

Different levels of orientation may be required

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Introduction

Any orientation is designed to make the person: More comfortableMore knowledgeableReady to work within the firm’s culture, structures,

and employee mix

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Introduction to Orientation

The orientation process is similar to socialization The established group communicates systematic sets

of expectations for how newcomers should behave

People undergoing socialization respond both cognitively and emotionally They receive and try to understand the cultural

messages being sent If the messages are not understood or accepted,

they must invent their own behaviors

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Goals of Orientation

Clear messages that are understood and accepted can achieve a number of orientation goals, including: Reducing anxietyReducing turnoverSaving timeDeveloping realistic expectations

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Who Orients New Employees?

In smaller organizations, operating managers usually do the orienting In unionized organizations, union officials are

involved HRM helps train the operating manager for more

effective orientation

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How Orientation Works

Orientation programs vary from informal to formal:Informal orientations are often oralFormal orientations often include:

A tour of the facilities or slides, charts, and pictures of them

A systematic and guided procedure

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How Orientation Works

Guidelines for an orientation program: Begin with the most relevant and immediate kinds of

information, then move to more general policies Devote significant time to the human side Assign an experienced worker or supervisor to

“sponsor” the new employee Gradually introduce new workers to the people with

whom they will work Allow new employees sufficient time to get their feet

on the ground before increasing their job demands

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Orientation Follow-Up

The final phase of orientation is assigning the new employee to the job The supervisor takes over and continues the

orientation

Ensure adequate orientation with a feedback system A job information form could transmit feedback from

the trainee back to the company A follow-up meeting with the orientation group

allows evaluation of the employee’s adjustment and the success of the orientation program

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Introduction to Training

Training is the systematic process of altering employee behavior in a way that will achieve organizational goals It should be related to present job skills and abilities It has a current orientation It helps employees master the specific skills and

abilities needed to be successful

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Introduction to Training

A training program is an opportunity for employees to acquire skills, attitudes, and knowledge Learning is the act by which an individual acquires

skills, knowledge, and abilities that result in a relatively permanent change in behavior

Any behavior that has been learned is a skill Motor, cognitive, and interpersonal skills are training

targets

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Needs Assessment

Needs assessment is a process used to determine if, and what type of, training is necessary Organizational analysis: examining a firm’s mission,

resources, and goals Person analysis: determining who needs training and

their readiness for training Task analysis: identification of the tasks, knowledge,

skill, and behaviors that should be included in a training program

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Needs Assessment

A needs assessment is conducted through: InterviewsSurveysReviews of recordsObservationDiscussions with management and SMEs

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Needs Assessment

The information gathering provides a profile of: What type of training is neededWho should be trainedWhen training should be conductedWhether training is the preferred approach

Instructional objectives lead to the selection and design of instructional programs: If assessment and program design are done carefully,

training and development can be monitored and evaluated

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Goals of Training

Important goals of training:Training validityTransfer validityIntra-organizational validityInter-organizaitonal validity

The goals result in evaluation procedures to determine what the training and development accomplished

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Learning Theory and Training

Learning principles can be applied to job training: The trainee must be motivated to learn The trainee must be able to learn The learning must be reinforced The training must provide for practice of the material The material presented must be meaningful The material must be communicated effectively The training taught must transfer to the job

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Learning Organizations

In The Fifth Discipline, Peter Senge described learning organizations as places where: People continually expand their capacity to create

the results they desire New and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured Collective aspiration is set free People are continually learning how to learn together

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Learning organizations are proficient in a number of activities Systematic problem solving Experimentation with new approaches Learning from their own experience and history Learning from the experiences and best practices

of others Transferring knowledge quickly and efficiently

throughout the organization

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Learning in firms such as Xerox and General Electric has a three-stage learning perspective:CognitiveBehavioralImprovement of performance

Learning organizations do not simply appear Encouraging learning is essential

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Training Activities

Instructor-led training is the preferred and dominant method of delivering training, followed by: Public seminars Case studiesPerformance supportWeb-based self-studyRole playing

Use of the Internet, intranet, and extranet has increased each year for the past five years

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Training Activities

These types of training rely heavily on e-learning and traditional classroom methods: Computer systems/applications Computer systems/programming Technological skills/knowledge Management skills/development

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Training Activities

The consensus accounting model of the American Society for Training and Development helps assess the costs/benefits of training and developmentThe consensus model has four steps:

Establish a definition of training Determine all training cost categories Calculate training costs Code the costs

Costs include such things as trainer salaries, lost work time, materials, travel, and accommodations

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Training Needs and Objectives

Needs assessment involves analyzing: The organization’s needs The knowledge, skill, and ability

needed to perform the jobThe person or jobholder’s needs The firm’s long- and short-term

objectives

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These things are also typically reviewed: Objectives RatiosOrganization chartsHistorical records on absenteeismQuality of productionEfficiencyPerformance appraisals

Employee needs must also be considered

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To determine employee training needs: Observe Listen Talk to supervisors Examine the problems employees have

Gaps between expected and actual results suggests a need for training

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Performance Analysis Steps

Insert Exhibit 13-5 here

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Performance Analysis

A performance analysis may reveal that training is not the best solution If this is the case, other solutions will surface during

the performance analysis

If training is needed, establish specific, measurable training objectives If possible, training objectives should be expressed in

behavioral terms If behaviors can’t be identified, training may not be

justified

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Choosing Trainers and Trainees

Success of the training program also depends on the trainer, who should be able to:Speak wellWrite convincinglyOrganize the work of othersBe inventiveInspire others to greater achievements

Analyzing needs and developing a training program is done by company trainers or outside consultants

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Choosing Trainers and Trainees

Managers can also be good trainers:This is especially true if technical skills are involved Qualified trainers can help prepare training materialsThis overcomes the frequent criticism that the

training won’t work back on the job

Principles of learning to follow:Provide time for practice Require practice and repetition Communicate the material effectively

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Instructional Methods

This phase of training includes: Selection of content and training methods

The actual training

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On-The-Job Training

This is the most widely used method of trainingAlthough OJT is simple and relatively inexpensive,

hidden costs can include: Damaged machinery Unsatisfied customersMisfiled formsPoorly taught workers

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On-The-Job Training

Trainers should be:Placed with a trainee who is similar in background

and personality MotivatedRewardedEffective

During WWII, a systematic on-the-job training system was developed Trainers first trained supervisorsThe supervisors then trained the employees

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Case Method

The case method uses a written description of a real decision-making situation Managers are asked to study the case in order to:

Identify the problems Analyze the problems Propose solutionsChoose the best solutionImplement it

More learning takes place if there is interaction with the instructor

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Case Method

When using the case method, guard against: Dominating the discussion Permitting a few people to dominate the discussion Leading the discussion toward a preferred solution

As a catalyst, the instructor should: Encourage divergent viewpoints Initiate discussion on points the managers are missing Be thoroughly prepared

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Incident Method

With the incident method: The outline of a problem is given Students are given a role in the incident More data are given if the right questions are askedEach student solves the case, and groups based on

similarity of solutions are formed Each group formulates a statement of position The groups then debate or role-play their solutions The instructor describes what actually happened in

the case and the consequences The groups compare their solutions with the results

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Role Playing

Role-playing is a cross between the case method and an attitude development program Each person is assigned a role in a situation and is

asked to react to other players’ role-playing The player is asked to react to the stimuli as that

person would Players are provided with background information

on the situation and the players A script is usually provided

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Role Playing

The success of this method depends on the ability of the players to play the assigned roles believably Role-playing can help a manager become more aware

of, and more sensitive to, the feelings of others

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Case Study vs. Role Play

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In-Basket Technique

The participant is given typical items from a specific manager’s mail, email, and telephone list Important and pressing matters are mixed in with

routine business matters

The trainee is analyzed and critiqued on: The number of decisions made in the time allotted The quality of the decisionsThe priorities chosen for making them

To generate interest, in-basket materials must be: Realistic, job-related, and not impossible to make

decisions on

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Management Games

Management games describe the operating characteristics of a company, industry, or enterprise The descriptions take the form of equations that are

manipulated after decisions are made These games emphasize development of problem-

solving skills

Examples of games:Looking GlassSimmons Simulator, Inc.Financial Services Industry

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Management Games

Advantages of the games: Integration of several interacting decisions Ability to experiment with decisions Provision of feedback on decisions Requirement that decisions be made with inadequate

data

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Management Games

Criticisms of the games: Limited novelty or reactivity in decision making The cost of development and administration The unreality of some of the models Participants tend to look for the key to winning the

game instead of focusing on good decision making Many participants feel the games are rigged; too few,

or even a single factor, may be the key to winning

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Behavior Modeling

Behavior modeling is also called: Interaction managementImitating models

Modeling is a “vicarious process” that emphasizes observation

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Behavior Modeling

One approach begins by identifying interpersonal problems that managers face:

Gaining acceptance

Handling discrimination

Delegating responsibility

Improving attendance

Disciplining effectively

Overcoming resistanceto change

Setting performance goals

Motivating average performance

Handling emotional situations

Reducing tardiness

Taking corrective action

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Behavior Modeling

There are four steps in this process:Modeling of effective behavior (films) Role playingSocial reinforcement (role playing)Transfer of training to the job

Modeling offers promise for developing leadership skills, if used in conjunction with videotape methods

Research evidence is generally positive

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Outdoor-Oriented Programs

Outdoor, action-oriented programs are becoming increasingly popularLeadership, teamwork, and risk-taking are top-

priority items in these programs

Popular types of outdoor training include: River raftingMountain climbingNight searchingTeam competitionBoat racesRope climbing

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Outdoor-Oriented Programs

Program popularity is based on the opinion that: They are action packed Participants like themThey involve healthy exercise

Little research shows these programs are effective Critics also question whether an organization has the

right to encourage or require participation in such programs

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Which Approach Should be Used?

The choice should be based on:How many managers need to be developedRelative costs per manager for each methodAvailability of development materialsThe instructor’s capabilitiesEmployees’ learning efficiency and motivation

If there are only a few instructors, individualized programmed instruction may be considered Outside instructors, movies, or videotapes may also

be used

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The techniques of behaviorism include:Behavioral modelingRole playingPositive reinforcementSimulations

Preferred techniques include:Self-assessmentVisualizationGuided reflection

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Advocates of cognitive approaches recommend:LecturesDiscussionReadingsDebates

Simpler tasks, like word processing or filing, are learned efficiently by behaviorist techniques More complex tasks often require cognitive and

humanistic approaches

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Three Approaches to Knowledge

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On-The-Job Training for Managers

On-the-job management training is relevant and immediately transferable to the jobThree widely used approaches to manager OJT:

Coaching and counselingTransitory anticipatory experiencesTransfers and rotation

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Coaching and Counseling Key Points

Effective managers teach new onesHe/she answers questions and explains why things are

done the way they areThe manager-trainee is introduced to the proper

contacts The coach-superior and manager-trainee relationships

resemble the buddy system in employee training If a trainee is to learn, he/she must have enough

authority to make decisions and/or mistakes Appropriately chosen committee assignments can be

used as a form of coaching and counseling

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Coaching and Counseling Key Points

Coaching is likely to fail when:There is inadequate time for coaching and counseling The subordinate isn’t allowed to make mistakes A rivalry developsThe dependency needs of the subordinate are not

recognized or accepted by the superior

Proponents contend that:Coaching and counseling, coupled with planned

rotation through jobs and functions, are effective techniques

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Transitory Anticipatory Experiences

This process allows a person to perform most duties of the old job while learning duties of the new one This arrangement is also called:

Assistant understudyMultiple managementManagement apprenticeship

In some approaches, the trainee performs part of the job for the incumbent

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Transitory Anticipatory Experiences

In multiple management:Several decision-making bodies make decisions

about the same problem and then compare them A variation is to provide trainees with a series of

assignments that are part of the new job

Transitory anticipatory experiences provide a reasonable approach to management development Little systematic study has been made of the

effectiveness of this approach, however It is used less often than coaching or counseling

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Transfers and Rotation

Trainees are rotated through a series of jobs to broaden their managerial experience Organizations often have programmed career plans

that include functional and geographic transfers

Advocates contend that this approach: Broadens the manager’s background Accelerates the promotion of competent individuals Introduces more new ideas into the organization Increases the effectiveness of the organization

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Some research questions these conclusions: Individual differences affect whether the results

will be positive Generalists may not be the most effective managers

in specialized positions

Geographic transfers are desirable when fundamentally different jobs exist at various places

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In general, on-the-job experience should be provided in management development programs Off-the-job development programs should

supplement it where expertise is not available inside the organization

Using on-the-job programs exclusively leads to a narrow perspective and inhibits new ideas

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Off-The-Job Training

Organizations with the biggest training programs often use off-the-job training Programmed instruction: most effective if knowledge

is the objective Case method: improves problem-solving skills

Most popular off-the-job methods: Lecture-discussion, supplemented with audiovisual Programmed instruction Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)

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Computer-Assisted Instruction

Advantages of CAI: Allows trainees to learn at their own pace Trainees can study areas that need improvement Flexibility Learning is more self-initiated and individualized

The Internet offers ways to: Increase learning Link resources Share knowledge inside and outside an organization

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Training can be delivered in these ways, individually or in combination with other instruction methods: E-mail Bulletin boards, forums, and newsgroups Interactive, online tutorials and courses Real-time conferencing

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Intranets are internal, proprietary electronic networks, similar to the Internet An intranet facilitates delivery of training materials Intranets can also support CD-ROM-based training

HRM practitioners and trainers should have a working knowledge of multimedia technology Learning is enhanced with audio, animation,

graphics, and interactive video It lets trainees retrieve information when they want it,

and in the way that makes the most sense to them

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Multimedia-based training (MBT) is an interactive learning experienceIt incorporates either CD-ROM or World Wide Web

technology (via Internet or intranet)

Virtual reality (VR) enables users to learn in a three-dimensional environment One interacts in real time with simulations by

viewing a computer screen or using a head-mounted display

This can replace sending employees to training centers, which is difficult and expensive

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Distance training, or distance learning, is also called “just-in-time training” Trainers are evolving into facilitators, guides, and

mentors The goal of the corporate trainer should now be to

find, interpret, and assess information and technologically sophisticated products

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Large companies and the U.S. government have become high-tech training trendsettersThe government has used

information-sharing technology for years

Distance-learning is cost-efficient/effective because: Various agencies don’t have to reinvent the wheelAgencies can share data and training materials

through electronic government learning gateways

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What is Management Development?

Development that uses behavioral science knowledge to deal with problems of changeIt is a continuous process in the most effective firms

Management development should be planned because it requires: Systematic diagnosisDevelopment of a programThe mobilization of resourcesTop-management commitment for success

There is no best development approach

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Individual Development Techniques

Development techniques can be classified on the basis of the target area they are intended to affect: IndividualGroupsOrganizational

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Goal Setting

Goal setting is designed to improve an individual’s ability to set and achieve goals Behavioral modification is the use of individual

learning through reinforcement Team building focuses on the group Total quality management (TQM) targets the

organizational as a whole

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Goal Setting

A goal is the object of an actionLocke proposes that goal setting is a cognitive

process of some practical utility Intent plays a prominent role in Locke’s theory

Harder conscious goals result in higher levels of performance, if these goals are accepted by the individual

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The Goal-Setting Process

Locke’s attributes of the cognitive processes of goal setting: SpecificityDifficultyIntensity

Specific goals lead to higher output than vague goals, such as “Do your best” In 99 out of 100 studies, specific goals produced

better results

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The Goal-Setting Process

The key steps in goals setting:DiagnosisPreparing employees for goal setting via increased

interpersonal interaction, communication, training, and action plans

Emphasizing the attributes of goals that should be understood by a manager and subordinates

Conducting intermediate reviews to make necessary adjustments in established goals

Performing a final review to check the goals set, modified, and accomplished

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Individual Differences and Goal Setting

Multiple studies examined the effects of individual differences on the goal-setting process:A study of electronics technicians found that goal

difficulty was related to performance only for technicians with 12 or more years of education

A field study found that participative goal setting affected only the performance of less educated loggers

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A study of white-collar employees examined three explanations of why participation in goal setting leads to improved job performance: A social factor (group discussion) A motivational factor (involved in the goal-setting) A cognitive factor (sharing information)

The social and motivational factors increased:Quantity of performance, learning the task, goal

acceptance, group commitment, and satisfaction

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Another study examined race as a variable Goal clarity and goal feedback were related to

performance for African-Americans only Goal difficulty was related to performance for

whites only

Researchers proposed that clarity and feedback affected African-Americans because they had a higher need for security

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Criticisms of Goal Setting

Arguments against goal setting:Goal setting is complex and difficult to sustain It works well for simple jobs, but not for jobs in

which goals are not easily measured It encourages game playing It is used as a control device to monitor performance Accomplishment of goals can become an obsession

Under the right conditions, goal setting can be a powerful motivation technique Employees must set and strive for specific, relatively

hard goals

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Organizational Behavior Modification

The basic assumption of operant conditioning is that behavior is influenced by its consequences B. E. Skinner’s work with animals led to the term

operant conditioning The more common term is behavior modification OBM is “individual learning through reinforcement”

Organizational behavior modification is a more general term that means:The systematic reinforcement of desirable

organizational behavior and the non-reinforcement or punishment of unwanted behavior

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Reinforcement

Reinforcement is an important principle of learningMotivation is an internal cause of behavior;

reinforcement is an external cause Positive reinforcement is anything that increases the

strength of response and induces repetition of the behavior

Without reinforcement, no measurable modification of behavior takes place

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Reinforcement

In some cases, positive reinforcers work as predicted; in others they do not When reinforcers are not contingent on behavior,

desired behaviors do not occur Giving reinforcers too long after the desired behavior

occurs decreases the probability of their recurrence

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Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement refers to:An increase in the frequency of a response following

removal of a negative reinforcer

Example: Working hard to complete a job may be negatively

reinforced by not having to listen to a nagging boss The unpleasant boss is removed because the

employee works hard

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Punishment

Punishment is an uncomfortable consequence of a particular behavioral response Punishment sends a message not to do something

Punishment may be a poor approach to learning: Punishment effects are not as predictable as rewards Punishment effects are less permanent than rewards Punishment is frequently accompanied by negative

attitudes toward:The administrator of the punishmentThe activity that led to the punishment

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Punishment

Despite the potential costs of punishment, it will continue to be a method of altering behavior Where the cost of not punishing outweighs the

disadvantages, punishment may be appropriatePunishment and its use depend on the situation and

the manager’s style of altering behavior

Extinction reduces undesired behavior through non-reinforcement If the non-reinforcement continues, the behavior

decreases and eventually disappears

People tend to repeat behaviors that lead to positive consequences

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OBM: A Managerial Perspective

Behavior modification in organizations follows a five-step problem-solving process: Identify and define the specific behavior Measure/count the occurrences of the behavior and

formulate a baseline point Conduct an ABC analysis of the behavior processFormulate an action plan and strategies Evaluate baseline to after-action behaviors

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Criticisms of Behavior Modification

There is no real change underlying behavior It is a mistake to view reinforcements as modifying

responses, independent of a person’s beliefs, values, or mental processes

Individuals can become dependent on the reinforcer Individuals can become too dependent on extrinsic

reinforcers When reinforcement is no longer available, the behavior

eventually becomes extinct

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Team Building

Team building is a development process that helps organization members work better in groups It is designed to enhance individual’s:

Problem-solving skillsCommunicationSensitivity to others

An organization depends on the cooperation of a number of people to be successful Consequently, teams of people must work in harmony Teams include task forces, committees, project teams,

and interdepartmental groups

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Team Building

When team building is successful: Participation is encouraged and sustained There is improved communication and problem

solving within and between teams

Team building is most successful when the technique is tailored to the needs/problems of the groups involved

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Total Quality Management (TQM)

TQM is a philosophy, a process, and a set of principles that provide an organization with what is needed to continuously improve its effectiveness TQM involves everyone in the firmProcesses are developed and fine-tuned to be

customer-oriented, flexible, and responsive The goal is to improve the quality of every activity

and function of the organization

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Total Quality Management (TQM)

To convert to TQM, there must be changes in: AttitudesCommunicationEmployee involvementCommitment

Because of the effect of attitude on productivity and quality, it must be addressed in any TQM program Too often, managers are aware of resistance, but

don’t address its causes

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The Chief Executive Officer

The power to make change happen is largely vested in management, which must: Show the wayArticulate the visionShow by example that TQM is mandatoryMake communication a top priorityInvolve both workers and managersBe prepared for resistance to change

Although TQM can be initiated by a CEO, it must be practiced by staff lower in the hierarchy

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Evaluation of Training & Development

Evaluation is the final phase of the training and development program Cost-benefit analysis is more feasible for training and

development than for many other HRM functions Costs are relatively easy to compute:

direct costs + indirect costs

The evaluation is made by comparing the results (the benefits) with the objectives that were setThe criteria used to evaluate the program depend on

the objectives and who sets the criteria: management, trainers, or trainees

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Criteria for Evaluation

Three types of criteria for evaluating training:InternalExternalParticipants’ reaction

Internal criteria are directly associated with the content of the program, such as whether the employee learned the facts covered

External criteria are related to the ultimate purpose of the program, such as improving the effectiveness of the employee

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Criteria for Evaluation

Some argue that it is more effective to use multiple criteria to evaluate training; others recommend a single criterionA proponent of a multiple-criterion evaluation

system, Kirkpatrick suggests measuring: Participants’ reaction LearningBehaviorResults

Many firms currently assess reactions, but few measure behavioral results

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A Matrix Guide for Evaluation

A systematic evaluation matrix can be used to systematically review relevant issues or questions The issues and questions provide only the direction

that evaluation can take Actual design and data collection require following

the scientific method used by behavioral scientists Simply asking participants if they like the program

is not scientific The most pressing question is whether what is

learned in training transfers to the job

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Someone in authority must hold those who train and develop employees accountable Efficient use of people, dollars, and facilities must be

shown This can only be done if the evaluation phase is

completed and sound research designs are used Evaluation is not easy, but it is a necessary and often

glossed-over part of training and development

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Training Effectiveness

Formal training and development are more effective than informal training, or no training at all However, training and development programs

tend to be assumed rather than evaluated

Documents

Chapter 13