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Chapter 13: Leadership
PSYC 352
Overview
Leadership vs. management
Major topics in leadership
Theoretical approaches to leadership
Points of convergence among approaches
Cross-cultural leadership issues
Diversity issues in leadership
Concluding comments
Leadership vs. Management
Mintzberg (1973) stated that leadership was merely a form or subset of management.
Figurehead Negotiator Liaison Monitor Disseminator
Minzberg also suggested that managers had the following roles or functions:
Spokesman Entrepreneur Distribution handler Resource allocator
Leadership vs. Management
Other researchers (Bennis & Nanus, 1985) suggest that there are differences between leaders and managers. “To manage means to bring about, to
accomplish, to have charge of or responsibility for, to consider!”
“Leading is influencing, guiding in direction, course, action, opinion.”
Leaders are people who do the right thing.
Major Topics in Leadership
Positional power: higher position = more powerThe leader: characteristics of leadersThe led: characteristics of followersThe influence process: coercion, manipulation, authority, persuasion Types of leader behavior: instrumental, supportive
The situation: characteristics of situationLeader emergence versus leader effectiveness: how do leaders emerge, why are they effective?
Theoretical Approaches to Leadership
1. The trait approach
2. The behavioral approach
3. The power and influence approach
4. The situational approach
5. Transformational leadership
6. Charismatic leadership
7. The implicit leadership theory
8. Substitutes for leadership
1. The Trait Approach
Focuses on: Personal attributes: high energy level,
tolerance for stress, emotional maturity, integrity, self-confidence
Motivation: need for power, achievement, affiliation
Skills: technical, conceptual, interpersonal
Thomas Carlyle (1907) commented that“the history of the world was the biography of great men”
2. The Behavioral Approach
Emphasizes what leaders actually do on the job.
2 lines of research: Classification of leadership behaviors into
categories Identification of behaviors related to leadership
effectiveness
2. The Behavioral ApproachHow to Classify Behavior?
Ohio State researchers (1950) Initiating structure (task-oriented) Consideration (people-oriented)
Yukl, Wall, and Lepsinger (1990) 11 generic categories of leadership behavior
- Networking- Supporting- Managing conflict and team building- Motivating- Recognizing and rewarding
- Planning and organizing- Problem solving- Consulting and delegating- Monitoring- Informing- Clarifying
3. Power and Influence Approach
Emphasizes the use of power and influence exercised by a person within a group
3 major topics Power and leader effectiveness LMX theory Influence tactics
3. Power and Influence:Power and Leader Effectiveness
5 types of power (French & Raven, 1960): Reward Coercive Legitimate
Expert Referent
3 outcomes of power: Commitment Compliance Resistance
Empirical research
3. Power and Influence:Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
Emphasizes the nature of the relationship between a leader and her/his subordinates
Leaders differentiate subordinates by: Competence and skill Extent to which they can be trusted Motivation to assume greater responsibility
3. Power and Influence:Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
Leaders develop relationships with each member of their work group (dyads)
High quality relationships: member of “in-group;” greater responsibility, satisfaction
Low quality relationships: member of “out-group;” less responsibility, satisfaction
Psychological bases for exchange: Personal contribution Loyalty
Affect Professional respect
3. Power and Influence:Influence Tactics
9 influencing tactics: Rational persuasion Inspirational appeals Consultation Ingratiation Personal appeals
Exchange Coalition tactics Legitimating tactics Pressure
Empirical research results
4. Situational Approach
Emphasizes situational factors (e.g., nature of work performed, attitudes of subordinates) that promote the occurrence of leadership
Path-goal theory: emphasizes the importance of telling followers what behaviors are needed in order to attain desired outcomes (House, 1971)
4. Situational Approach:Path-Goal Theory
Leader must manifest 4 styles of behavior:ParticipativeAchievement oriented
DirectiveSupportive
Leaders can influence subordinates’ perceptions of jobs by: Removing obstacles from path to desired goal Rewarding goal attainment Helping clarify paths to goals
Conceptual limitations of theory
5. Transformational Leadership
Leadership is the process of inspiring a group to pursue goals and attain results.4 components:
Intellectual stimulationIndividualized consideration
Idealized influenceInspirational motivation
Transformational leadership is strongly related to work unit effectiveness; especially idealized influence (Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996)
6. Charismatic Leadership
Follower perception that a leader possesses a divinely inspired gift (charisma) and is unique and larger than life, which inspires confidence and support (in followers) for the ideas and beliefs of the leaderBehaviors typical of charismatic leaders: Impression management Articulation of appealing vision Communication of high expectations Expression of confidence
Negative charismatics
7. Implicit Leadership Theory
Leadership exists only in the mind of the follower.
Individuals have an idea of what a leader should look like; they evaluate actual leaders based on this idea (Lord, Foti, & Phillips, 1982).
Problems with measurement
8. Substitutes for Leadership
Idea that there are other influences that can act in place of, or substitute for, formal leadershipFour environmental sources that provide structure and direction (Pierce et al., 1984): The job itself Technology Work unit Leader
Points of Convergence among Approaches
Importance of influencing and motivating
Importance of maintaining effective relationships
Importance of making decisions
Cross-Cultural Leadership Issues
Japanese vs. American managers (Graen & Wakabayashi, 1994):
Language differences Japanese perception that Americans have
underdeveloped sense of obligation to company Americans do not understand Japanese tendency to not
use punishment for insubordination Americans see lack of perks as loss of status Americans do not spend entire career in one company
There is not a single conceptualization of leadership
Diversity Issues in Leadership
Most research is based on white menReasons for gender differences in leadership: Cultural Biases
Gender differences in evaluation: Tendency for women to be evaluated lower
More so when when their leadership style was stereotypically masculine
More so when evaluators were women
Women experience more barriers in leadership (Lyness & Thompson, 2000)
Conclusion
New trends in leadership: Managing a diverse workforce Leaders are not only heroes, but “hero makers”