Chapter 14 “LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS”Chapter 14 “LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS”

Learning Targets- Monday Learning Targets- Monday 5/115/11

Learning Targets:Learning Targets:14-2 Know the difference between 14-2 Know the difference between intermolecular and intramolecular forces.intermolecular and intramolecular forces.

14-3 Identify the 3 types of intermolecular 14-3 Identify the 3 types of intermolecular forces: dispersion, dipole-dipole, and hydrogenforces: dispersion, dipole-dipole, and hydrogen

14-1 Condensed States of Matter: 14-1 Condensed States of Matter: Liquids and SolidsLiquids and Solids

Condensed matterCondensed matter has much higher density has much higher density ((mass/volumemass/volume) than gases.) than gases.

Unlike gases, particles of condensed matter Unlike gases, particles of condensed matter experience different amounts and types of experience different amounts and types of attractive forces.attractive forces.

Kinetic-Molecular Theory can help explain the Kinetic-Molecular Theory can help explain the properties of condensed matter.properties of condensed matter. The state of a substance at room temperature The state of a substance at room temperature

depends on the attractive forces between its particles.depends on the attractive forces between its particles.

Comparing the States of MatterComparing the States of Matter

GasGas Total disorderTotal disorder Particles free to move past each otherParticles free to move past each other Particles far apartParticles far apart

LiquidLiquid DisorderDisorder Particles free to move past each otherParticles free to move past each other Particles close togetherParticles close together

SolidSolid Ordered arrangementOrdered arrangement Particles vibrate, but remain in a fixed positionParticles vibrate, but remain in a fixed position Particles close togetherParticles close together

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Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces: attractive forces between molecules.

Intramolecular forces: hold atoms together, attractive forces within a molecule.

Generally, intermolecular forces are much weaker than intramolecular forces.

PROPERTYPROPERTY GASGAS LIQUIDLIQUID SOLIDSOLID

COMPRESS-COMPRESS-IBILITYIBILITY

DENSITYDENSITY

VOLUMEVOLUME

SHAPESHAPE

EXPANSION EXPANSION (with Heat)(with Heat)

Comparing Properties of Gases, Liquids Comparing Properties of Gases, Liquids & Solids& Solids

Review of Chemical BondingReview of Chemical Bonding

IonicIonic: transfer of electrons from a metal to a : transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal.nonmetal. Resulting ions have opposite charge and are attracted Resulting ions have opposite charge and are attracted

to each other, forming an ionic bond.to each other, forming an ionic bond. MetallicMetallic: sharing of valence electrons of the : sharing of valence electrons of the

metal atoms.metal atoms. Results in a network of positive ions in a “sea of Results in a network of positive ions in a “sea of

electrons.”electrons.” CovalentCovalent: strong intramolecular forces from the : strong intramolecular forces from the

sharing of valence electrons between atoms.sharing of valence electrons between atoms. Results in individual molecules with specific shapes.Results in individual molecules with specific shapes. Intermolecular forces exist between molecules.Intermolecular forces exist between molecules.

Hydrogen Bonding ForcesHydrogen Bonding Forces

Involves F-H, N-H or O-H bonds.How different are the electronegativity values of these atom pairs?What does this do to the bond polarity?Consider water. As you will soon see, many of water’s unusualProperties result from “hydrogen bonding”!

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Dipole-Dipole Forces: Polar MoleculesDipole-Dipole Forces: Polar Molecules

Consider HCl (a dipole or polar molecule):

Compare CO2 and SO2 (covalent molecules with polar bonds):

H Cl H Cl

O C O O

S

O

Polar or Nonpolar? Why?

B.P. = -78°CB.P. = -10°C

::::::::::::::::::::

δ+ δ- δ+ δ-

+++ +

Dispersion Forces: Boiling Points of Noble Dispersion Forces: Boiling Points of Noble Gases (Gases (°C)°C)

-269-246

-186

-107

-67

-153

-300

-250

-200

-150

-100

-50

0

0 20 40 60 80 100

Atomic Number

Boi

ling

Poi

nt (d

eg C

)

HeNe

Ar

Kr

Xe

Rn

(Data from Figure 14-7, page 462 of your textbook.)

What causes the boiling point of helium to be so low and that of radon to be so high? Consider the effects shown in Figure 14-8 of text.

Consider Boiling PointsConsider Boiling Points As mass increases, we expect Boiling Point to rise.As mass increases, we expect Boiling Point to rise. CHCH44, SiH, SiH44, GeH, GeH44, SnH, SnH44

Observed: CHObserved: CH44 < SiH < SiH44 < GeH < GeH44 < SnH < SnH44 (follow trend) (follow trend)

NHNH33, PH, PH33, AsH, AsH33, SbH, SbH33

Observed: PHObserved: PH33 < AsH < AsH33 < SbH < SbH33 ~= NH~= NH33 (anomaly) (anomaly)

HF, HCl, HBr, HIHF, HCl, HBr, HI Observed: HCl < HBr < HI Observed: HCl < HBr < HI << HF (anomaly)<< HF (anomaly)

HH22O, HO, H22S, HS, H22Se, HSe, H22TeTe Observed: HObserved: H22S < HS < H22Se < HSe < H22Te Te << H<< H22O (anomaly)O (anomaly)

See Table on next slide.See Table on next slide.

FormulaFormula

PeriodPeriod↓↓XHXH44 XHXH33 HH22XX HXHX

Period 2 Period 2 CHCH44

(93)(93)

NHNH33

(243)(243)

HH22O O

(373)(373)

HF HF

(303)(303)

Period 3Period 3 SiHSiH44

(163)(163)

PHPH33

(183)(183)

HH22S S

(213)(213)

HCl HCl

(193)(193)

Period 4Period 4 GeHGeH44

(193)(193)

AsHAsH33

(203)(203)

HH22Se Se

(243)(243)

HBr HBr

(213)(213)

Period 5Period 5 SnHSnH44

(223)(223)

SbHSbH33

(243)(243)

HH22Te Te

(273)(273)

HI HI

(253)(253)

Consider Boiling Points (kelvins)Consider Boiling Points (kelvins)

What causes these anomalies (shown in yellow)? HYDROGEN BONDING!

Data is plotted on page 466 of text.

Intermolecular Forces have…Intermolecular Forces have…

……a wide range of strengths.a wide range of strengths. They are much weaker than ionic, They are much weaker than ionic,

covalent and metallic bonds.covalent and metallic bonds. Basic types of Intermolecular Forces:Basic types of Intermolecular Forces:

DispersionDispersion ForcesForces = attraction between = attraction between temporary ‘induced dipoles.’temporary ‘induced dipoles.’• Consider noble gas boiling points and Fig. 14-8.Consider noble gas boiling points and Fig. 14-8.

Intermolecular Forces have…Intermolecular Forces have…

……a wide range of strengths.a wide range of strengths. They are much weaker than ionic, They are much weaker than ionic,

covalent and metallic bonds.covalent and metallic bonds. Basic types of Intermolecular Forces:Basic types of Intermolecular Forces:

DispersionDispersion F Forcesorces = attraction between = attraction between temporary ‘induced dipoles.’temporary ‘induced dipoles.’• Consider noble gas boiling points and Fig. 14-8.Consider noble gas boiling points and Fig. 14-8.

Dipole-DipoleDipole-Dipole = attraction between polar = attraction between polar molecules (dipoles) having permanent charge molecules (dipoles) having permanent charge separation.separation.• Consider HCl, HBr, COConsider HCl, HBr, CO22 (linear) and SO (linear) and SO22 (bent). (bent).

Intermolecular Forces have…Intermolecular Forces have…

……a wide range of strengths.a wide range of strengths. They are much weaker than ionic, covalent and They are much weaker than ionic, covalent and

metallic bonds.metallic bonds. Basic types of Intermolecular Forces:Basic types of Intermolecular Forces:

DispersionDispersion F Forcesorces = attraction between temporary = attraction between temporary ‘induced dipoles.’‘induced dipoles.’

• Consider noble gas boiling points and Fig. 14-8.Consider noble gas boiling points and Fig. 14-8. Dipole-DipoleDipole-Dipole = attraction between polar molecules = attraction between polar molecules

(dipoles) having permanent charge separation.(dipoles) having permanent charge separation.• Consider HCl, HBr, COConsider HCl, HBr, CO22 (linear) and SO (linear) and SO22 (bent). (bent).

Hydrogen BondsHydrogen Bonds = strong attraction between H atom = strong attraction between H atom of a molecule and a very electronegative atom (F,O,N) of a molecule and a very electronegative atom (F,O,N) of another molecule.of another molecule.

• See data on the next slides.See data on the next slides.

Comparison of Comparison of IntramolecularIntramolecular & & IntermolecularIntermolecular Forces Forces

FORCEFORCE ATTRACTIONATTRACTION ENERGY, ENERGY, kJ/molkJ/mol

EXAMPLEEXAMPLE

IonicIonic Anion-cationAnion-cation 400 – 4000400 – 4000 NaClNaCl

CovalentCovalent Shared ElectronsShared Electrons 150 - 1100150 - 1100 Cl-ClCl-Cl

MetallicMetallic Cations in “Sea of Cations in “Sea of Electrons”Electrons”

75 - 100075 - 1000 CuCu

Ion-DipoleIon-Dipole Ion with DipoleIon with Dipole 40 – 60040 – 600 ClCl--……HH22OO

Dipole-DipoleDipole-Dipole Dipole chargesDipole charges 5 – 255 – 25 Br-ClBr-Cl……Br-ClBr-Cl

H-BondH-Bond H to N, O, FH to N, O, F 10 - 4010 - 40 HH22O to HO to H22OO

Ion-induced Ion-induced dipoledipole

Ion & e- cloud of Ion & e- cloud of neighborneighbor

3 – 153 – 15 FeFe2+2+……OO22

Dipole-induced Dipole-induced dipoledipole

Dipole charge & e- Dipole charge & e- cloud of neighborcloud of neighbor

2 – 102 – 10 H-BrH-Br……BrBr22

Dispersion Dispersion (London)(London)

Electron clouds of Electron clouds of neighborsneighbors

0.05 – 400.05 – 40 Cl-ClCl-Cl……Cl-ClCl-Cl

Summary: Intermolecular Forces have…Summary: Intermolecular Forces have…

……a wide range of strengths.a wide range of strengths. They are much weaker than ionic, covalent and They are much weaker than ionic, covalent and

metallic bonds.metallic bonds. Basic types of Intermolecular Forces:Basic types of Intermolecular Forces:

DispersionDispersion F Forcesorces = attraction between temporary = attraction between temporary ‘induced dipoles.’‘induced dipoles.’

Dipole-DipoleDipole-Dipole = attraction between polar molecules = attraction between polar molecules (dipoles) having permanent charge separation.(dipoles) having permanent charge separation.

Hydrogen BondsHydrogen Bonds = strong attraction between H atom = strong attraction between H atom of a molecule and a very electronegative atom of a molecule and a very electronegative atom (F,O,N) of another molecule.(F,O,N) of another molecule.

Exit TicketExit Ticket

1.1. What is the difference between What is the difference between intramolecular and intermolecular forces?intramolecular and intermolecular forces?

2.2. Which is the weakest intermolecular Which is the weakest intermolecular force?force?

3.3. Which is the strongest intramolecular Which is the strongest intramolecular force?force?

4.4. What type of molecules form dipole-What type of molecules form dipole-dipole?dipole?

Learning Targets- Tuesday 5/6Learning Targets- Tuesday 5/6

Learning Targets:Learning Targets:

14-4 Know the properties of water and other 14-4 Know the properties of water and other liquids with respect to boiling/melting point, surface liquids with respect to boiling/melting point, surface tension, capillary action and viscosity.tension, capillary action and viscosity.

Learning Outcome:Learning Outcome:

Be able to identify the properties based on Be able to identify the properties based on the IMF that are involved in the liquid.the IMF that are involved in the liquid.

14-2 Properties of Liquids14-2 Properties of Liquids

ViscosityViscosity = resistance to motion between molecules of a = resistance to motion between molecules of a liquid as they move past each other.liquid as they move past each other.

Water, acetone, vegetable oil!Water, acetone, vegetable oil! Surface TensionSurface Tension = unbalanced attractive forces at the = unbalanced attractive forces at the

surface of a liquid that causes the surface to act like a surface of a liquid that causes the surface to act like a film.film.

Water bugs, and the paperclip experiment!Water bugs, and the paperclip experiment! Capillary ActionCapillary Action= the tendency of a liquid to flow = the tendency of a liquid to flow

through a small opening or tube.through a small opening or tube. ““Wicking” of fabric when it gets wet.Wicking” of fabric when it gets wet.

Miscibility Miscibility = “Mixability” – 2 solutions ability to mix= “Mixability” – 2 solutions ability to mix Vapor Pressure Vapor Pressure = The pressure exerted by a vapor over = The pressure exerted by a vapor over

the surface of a liquidthe surface of a liquid

CompoundCompound FormulaFormula Mass (u)Mass (u) State @ 25CState @ 25C MP*MP* BP*BP*

MethaneMethane CHCH44 ~16~16 GasGas 9090 112112

AmmoniaAmmonia NHNH33 ~17~17 GasGas 195195 240240

WaterWater HH22OO ~18~18 LiquidLiquid 273273 373373

NitrogenNitrogen NN22 ~28~28 GasGas 6363 7777

OxygenOxygen OO22 ~32~32 GasGas 5555 9090

Comparing Small Molecules

*MP = Melting Point; BP = Boiling Point (kelvins).

Water: A very special compoundWater: A very special compound

The most abundant substance on Earth’s surface.The most abundant substance on Earth’s surface. (The “Blue Planet.”)(The “Blue Planet.”)

Critical to life forms as we know them.Critical to life forms as we know them. Some unusual properties of water are:Some unusual properties of water are:

Unexpectedly high boiling point for its size.Unexpectedly high boiling point for its size. Unusually high specific heat.Unusually high specific heat. Solid form (ice) has lower density than liquid.Solid form (ice) has lower density than liquid. High surface tension.High surface tension. High heat of vaporization.High heat of vaporization. Excellent solvent (“universal solvent”).Excellent solvent (“universal solvent”). Why? HYDROGEN BONDING!Why? HYDROGEN BONDING! What are some consequences of these properties?What are some consequences of these properties?

Learning Targets- Wednesday Learning Targets- Wednesday 5/7/20145/7/2014

Learning Targets:Learning Targets:

14-5 Know the difference between 14-5 Know the difference between amorphous and crystalline solids.amorphous and crystalline solids.

Learning Outcome:Learning Outcome:

Be able to identify the structures of metallic Be able to identify the structures of metallic solids, molecular solids, ionic solids and covalent-solids, molecular solids, ionic solids and covalent-network solids.network solids.

14-3 The Nature of Solids14-3 The Nature of Solids

Crystalline SolidsCrystalline Solids Highly ordered, repeating arrangement of particles.Highly ordered, repeating arrangement of particles. Ionic (NaCl), covalent (sugar) or metallic (Fe).Ionic (NaCl), covalent (sugar) or metallic (Fe). Characterized by specific ‘unit cells.’ (Fig. 14-20)Characterized by specific ‘unit cells.’ (Fig. 14-20) Generally have sharp melting points.Generally have sharp melting points. Fracture occurs along definite planes when stressed.Fracture occurs along definite planes when stressed.

Amorphous SolidsAmorphous Solids (“supercooled liquids”) (“supercooled liquids”) Highly disordered, random arrangement of particles.Highly disordered, random arrangement of particles. Wax, plastics (PET, PE, PS, Nylon).Wax, plastics (PET, PE, PS, Nylon). Characterized by lack of organized structure.Characterized by lack of organized structure. Generally soften over a wide temperature range.Generally soften over a wide temperature range. Fracture occurs randomly with stress.Fracture occurs randomly with stress.

Bonding in SolidsBonding in Solids

Metallic SolidsMetallic Solids All metallic elements.All metallic elements.

Molecular SolidsMolecular Solids Most ‘organic’ compounds (contain carbon) & Most ‘organic’ compounds (contain carbon) &

many ‘inorganic’ compounds (COmany ‘inorganic’ compounds (CO22, H, H22O, SOO, SO22).). Ionic SolidsIonic Solids

Typical salts (NaCl, KBr, CaClTypical salts (NaCl, KBr, CaCl22)) Covalent-Network SolidsCovalent-Network Solids

Diamond, graphiteDiamond, graphite

See the link: http://undergrad-ed.chemistry.ohio-state.edu/chemapplets/Crystals/ClosestPackedStructures.html

Metallic SolidsMetallic Solids

• Shiny• Conductors• Ductile – Ability to

Stretch• Malleable – Ability

to be shaped• Alloys – Mixing of

2 metals (stainless steel and brass)

Ionic SolidsIonic Solids

Covalent-Network Solids

Properties of Crystalline Solids (Fig 14-23)Properties of Crystalline Solids (Fig 14-23)

TypeType ParticlesParticles Forces Between Forces Between ParticlesParticles

PropertiesProperties

MetallicMetallic AtomsAtoms Metallic bondMetallic bond Soft to hard; variable Soft to hard; variable melting points; good melting points; good conductivity; malleable; conductivity; malleable; ductile. ductile.

MolecularMolecular Atoms or Atoms or moleculesmolecules

H-bond, dipole-H-bond, dipole-dipole, dispersiondipole, dispersion

Soft; variable melting Soft; variable melting points; poor conductors.points; poor conductors.

IonicIonic IonsIons ElectrostaticElectrostatic Hard; brittle; high melting Hard; brittle; high melting points; poor conductors.points; poor conductors.

Covalent-Covalent-networknetwork

AtomsAtoms Covalent bondsCovalent bonds Very hard; very high Very hard; very high melting points; poor melting points; poor conductivityconductivity

Learning Targets- Thursday Learning Targets- Thursday 5/8/20145/8/2014

Learning Targets:Learning Targets: 14-6 Understand phase changes 14-6 Understand phase changes

including heat of vaporization and heat of including heat of vaporization and heat of fusionfusion

Learning Outcome:Learning Outcome:

Be able to analyze a phase change graph to Be able to analyze a phase change graph to determine phases of matter including heat of determine phases of matter including heat of vaporization and heat of fusion.vaporization and heat of fusion.

VAPOR PRESSUREVAPOR PRESSURE Not all molecules in a sample of a substance have Not all molecules in a sample of a substance have

the same amount of kinetic energy.the same amount of kinetic energy. Molecules that move very fast may achieve Molecules that move very fast may achieve ‘escape ‘escape

velocityvelocity’ and leave the liquid entirely. (They ’ and leave the liquid entirely. (They evaporateevaporate.).) This tendency of a liquid to become a gas at a given This tendency of a liquid to become a gas at a given

temperature is its temperature is its ‘vapor pressure’‘vapor pressure’.. Vapor pressure Vapor pressure increases with temperatureincreases with temperature. (Why?). (Why?)

14-4 Changes of State (Phase Changes)14-4 Changes of State (Phase Changes)

Phase ChangePhase Change – conversion of a substance – conversion of a substance from one physical state of matter to another.from one physical state of matter to another.

Six types of phase changes to consider:Six types of phase changes to consider: Melting (solid to liquid)Melting (solid to liquid) Freezing (liquid to solid)Freezing (liquid to solid) Vaporization (evaporation, boiling) (liquid to gas)Vaporization (evaporation, boiling) (liquid to gas) Condensation (gas to liquid)Condensation (gas to liquid) Sublimation (solid to gas)Sublimation (solid to gas) Deposition (gas to solid)Deposition (gas to solid)

Energy Changes & Phase ChangesEnergy Changes & Phase Changes

To change a substance from one state of matter To change a substance from one state of matter to another to another alwaysalways involves a gain or loss of involves a gain or loss of energy.energy. Melting a solid requires energy input, but freezing a Melting a solid requires energy input, but freezing a

liquid removes energy from the liquid.liquid removes energy from the liquid. Boiling a liquid requires energy input, but condensing Boiling a liquid requires energy input, but condensing

a gas removes energy from the gas.a gas removes energy from the gas. Subliming a solid requires energy input, but Subliming a solid requires energy input, but

deposition of a gas removes energy from the gas.deposition of a gas removes energy from the gas.

HEAT OF VAPORIZATION is…HEAT OF VAPORIZATION is…

……the amount of heat needed to vaporize a given the amount of heat needed to vaporize a given amount of liquid at its boiling point.amount of liquid at its boiling point. Molar heat of vaporization of water = 40.7 kJ/mol or Molar heat of vaporization of water = 40.7 kJ/mol or

540. cal/mol.540. cal/mol. Energy is added to the liquid, but the Energy is added to the liquid, but the

temperature does not changetemperature does not change.. The added energy is expended to overcome the The added energy is expended to overcome the

intermolecular attractions of molecules of the liquid, intermolecular attractions of molecules of the liquid, converting the substance from liquid to gas.converting the substance from liquid to gas.

Liquids with strong intermolecular attractions (such as Liquids with strong intermolecular attractions (such as water) have high heats of vaporization.water) have high heats of vaporization.

Condensation is the opposite of evaporations.Condensation is the opposite of evaporations. Heat of Condensation = -(Heat of Vaporization)Heat of Condensation = -(Heat of Vaporization) Why is a burn from steam more damaging to tissue Why is a burn from steam more damaging to tissue

than that from boiling water?than that from boiling water?

Vaporization & CondensationVaporization & Condensation

According to K-M Theory, temperature is a measure of the According to K-M Theory, temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance.average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance.

Fast molecules near the surface of a liquid may escape Fast molecules near the surface of a liquid may escape the liquid (evaporation).the liquid (evaporation).

This results in some vapor in the space above a liquid.This results in some vapor in the space above a liquid. Volatile liquids have a tendency to easily evaporate due to the Volatile liquids have a tendency to easily evaporate due to the

poor attraction among their molecules, resulting in high poor attraction among their molecules, resulting in high concentrations of vapor around the liquid. concentrations of vapor around the liquid.

• Gasoline, for example, poses high hazards because of this property.Gasoline, for example, poses high hazards because of this property. What happens as fast molecules leave the liquid?What happens as fast molecules leave the liquid?

The remaining molecules have The remaining molecules have lowerlower average kinetic energy, average kinetic energy, which is observed by the lower temperature of the liquid.which is observed by the lower temperature of the liquid.

Evaporative cooling, sweating, wind chill are examples.Evaporative cooling, sweating, wind chill are examples. Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium occurs in Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium occurs in closedclosed vessels. vessels.

Rates of evaporation and condensation are the same.Rates of evaporation and condensation are the same. Dynamic equilibrium (rates of opposing processes are equal).Dynamic equilibrium (rates of opposing processes are equal).

Learning Targets- Thursday Learning Targets- Thursday 5/12/20145/12/2014

Learning Targets:Learning Targets: 14-7 Understand how to use phase 14-7 Understand how to use phase

diagrams to identify what phase(s) is/are diagrams to identify what phase(s) is/are present at given pressure and temperaturepresent at given pressure and temperature

Learning Outcome:Learning Outcome:

Be able to analyze a phase diagram to Be able to analyze a phase diagram to determine the phase of a substance based on determine the phase of a substance based on pressure and temperature.pressure and temperature.

PHASE DIAGRAM SUMMARYPHASE DIAGRAM SUMMARY

A plot of pressure and temperature is A plot of pressure and temperature is determined experimentally to show the changes determined experimentally to show the changes in phase that occur under various conditions.in phase that occur under various conditions.

Phases in equilibrium may be identified from the Phases in equilibrium may be identified from the Phase Diagram.Phase Diagram.

Triple Point and Critical Point may be identified.Triple Point and Critical Point may be identified. Triple PointTriple Point – The temperature and pressure at – The temperature and pressure at

which all three phases exist in equilibrium.which all three phases exist in equilibrium. Critical PointCritical Point – The temperature and pressure – The temperature and pressure

beyond which the substance can only exist as a gas.beyond which the substance can only exist as a gas.

Phase Diagram for COPhase Diagram for CO22

Phase Diagram for HPhase Diagram for H22OO

Ch. 14 OBJECTIVESCh. 14 OBJECTIVES

Show how the Kinetic-Molecular (K-M) Theory accounts Show how the Kinetic-Molecular (K-M) Theory accounts for the physical properties of liquids & solids.for the physical properties of liquids & solids.

Describe different types of intermolecular forces, and Describe different types of intermolecular forces, and how they affect properties of liquids & solids.how they affect properties of liquids & solids.

Learn about viscosity & surface tension, and explain Learn about viscosity & surface tension, and explain their relationship to intermolecular forces.their relationship to intermolecular forces.

Compare crystalline & amorphous substances.Compare crystalline & amorphous substances. Relate the structure & bonding in the four types of Relate the structure & bonding in the four types of

crystalline solids to the properties they exhibit.crystalline solids to the properties they exhibit. Describe the changes of state (vaporization, Describe the changes of state (vaporization,

condensation, boiling, sublimation, deposition, melting, condensation, boiling, sublimation, deposition, melting, freezing).freezing).

Learn how to interpret “Heating/Cooling Curves” and Learn how to interpret “Heating/Cooling Curves” and “Phase Diagrams.”“Phase Diagrams.”