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7/27/2019 Chapter 15 Company Analysis
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Chapter 15
COMPANY ANALYSIS
Establishing the Value Benchmark
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Fundamental analysis of equity shares This involves two approaches:
Estimating Intrinsic value
Estimating expected return
To find out IV analyst must forecast futureperformance and translate the same into
the value estimate
INTRODUCTION
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Outline
Strategy Analysis
Accounting Analysis
Financial Analysis
Estimation of Intrinsic Value
Tools for Judging Undervaluation or Overvaluation
Obstacles in the way of an Analyst
Equity Research in India
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Strategy Analysis
Strategy analysis seeks to explore the economics of a firm and
identify its profit drivers so that the subsequent financial
analysis reflects business realities.
The profit potential of a firm is influenced by the industry or
industriesin which it participates, by the strategy it follows to
compete in its chosen industry or industries (competitive
strategy), and by the way in which it exploits synergies across itsbusiness portfolio (corporate strategy).
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Competitive Strategy
Michael Porter argues that the firm can explore two generic ways of
gaining sustainable competitive advantage viz., cost leadership and
product differentiation.
Cost leadershipcan be attained by exploiting economies of scale,
exercising tight cost control, minimizing costs in area like R&D and
advertising, and deriving advantage from cumulative learning. Firms
which follow this strategy include Bajaj Auto in two wheelers, Mittal in
steel, WalMart in discount retailing, and Reliance Industries in
petrochemicals.
Product differentiationinvolves creating a product that is perceived
by customers as distinctive or even unique so that they can be expected
to pay a higher price. Firms which have excelled in this strategy
include Mercedes in automobiles, Rolex in wristwatches, Mont Blanc in
pens, and Raymond in textiles.
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The competitive position of the firm based on its relative cost and
differentiation positions. The most attractive position of course is
the cost-cum-differentiation advantage position.
Competi tive Position of the F irm
Cost-cum-
differentiation
advantage
Differentiation
advantage
Low cost
advantage
Stuck-in-the
middle
Superior
Relative
Differentiation
Position
Low price
Inferior
High priceRelative
Cost
Position
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Gaining Competitive Advantage
By choosing an appropriate strategy, a firm does not necessarily
gain competitive advantage. To do so the firm must develop the
required core competencies (the key economic assets of the firm)
and structure its value chain (the set of activities required to
convert inputs into outputs) appropriately.
The uniqueness of a firms core competencies and its value
chain and the extent to which it is difficult for competitors to
imitate them determines the sustainability of a firms
competitive advantage.Palepu et.al.
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Gaining Competitive Advantage
To assess whether a firm is likely to gain competitive advantage, the
analyst should examine the following:
The key success factors and risks associated with the firms
chosen competitive strategy.
The resources and capabilities, current and potential, of thefirm to deal with the key success factors and risks.
The compatibility between the competitive strategy chosen by
the firm and the manner in which it has structured its activities
(R&D, design, manufacturing, marketing and distribution, and
support).
The sustainability of the firms competitive advantage.
The potential changes in the industry structure and the
adaptability of the firm to address these changes
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Strategy of Cost Leadership: Dell Computer
Direct Sellingsaving the retailers margin
Build-to-order manufacturingsaving inventory cost
Low-cost servicetelephone based service & third party
service
Negative working capitalno inventory, no receivables as it
is paid through credit card etc
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Corporate Strategy Analysis
When you analyse a multi-business firm, you have to evaluate
not only the profit potential of individual businesses but also the
economic implications of managing different businesses under
one corporate canopy. For example, General Electric has
succeeded immensely in creating significant value by managing a
highly diversified set of businesses ranging from light bulbs to
aircraft engine, whereas Sears has not succeeded in managing
retailing with financial services.
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Corporate Sources of Value Creation
Thus, whether a multibusiness firm is more valuable compared to a
collection of focused firms finally depends on the context. The analyst
should examine the following factors to assess whether a firms corporate
strategy has the potential to create value.
Imperfections in the product, labour, or financial markets in the
business in which the firm operates. Existence of special resources such as brand name, proprietary
knowledge, scarce distribution channels, and organisational processes
that potentially create economies of scope.
The degree of fit between the companys specialised resources and its
portfolio of businesses. The allocation of decision rights between the corporate office and
business units and its effect on the potential economies of scope.
The system of performance measurement and incentive compensation
and its effect on agency costs.
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Accounting Analysis
Accounting analysis seeks to evaluate the extent to which the firms
accounting reports capture its business reality.
Analyst must be familiar with:
The institutional framework for financial reporting
Sources of noise and bias in accounting
Differences between good and bad accounting quality.
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Institutional Framework for Financial
Reporting
The salient features of the institutional framework for financial
reporting are:
Corporate financial reports are prepared on the basis of accrualaccounting and not cash accounting.
Preparation of financial statements involves complex judgments
by management.
GAAP regulates managerial judgement
External auditing is now a near universal requirement.
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Sources of Noise and Bias in Accounting
There are several sources of potential noise and bias in accounting
data.
Accounting rules themselves introduce noise and bias as it is
often not possible to restrict managerial discretion without
diminishing the informational content of accounting reports.
Forecasting errors are practically unavoidable.
Managers may introduce noise and bias in accounting
reports, while making their accounting decisions.
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Good and Bad Accounting Quality
Good Accounting
Quality
Bad Accounti ng
Quality
The accounting data focuses
on key success factors and
risks
The accounting data fails to
highlight key success factors
and risks
Managers use their accounting
discretion to make accounting
numbers more informative
Managers use their accounting
discretion to disguise reality
The firm provides adequate
disclosures to describe itsstrategy, its current
performance, and future
prospects
The firm just fulfills the
minimal disclosurerequirements prescribed by
accounting regulations
There are no red flags There are serious red flags2
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Financials Analysis
The key questions to be addressed in applying the earnings
multiplier approach, the most popular method in practice,
are:
What is the expected EPS for the forthcoming year?
What is a reasonable P/E ratio?
To answer these questions, investment analysts start with a
historical analysis of earnings (and dividends), growth, risk,
and valuation and use this as a foundation for developing theforecasts required for estimating the intrinsic value.
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Earnings And Dividend Level
To assess the earnings and dividend level, investment analysts look at
metrics like the return on equity, book value per share, EPS,
dividend payout ratio, and dividend per share.
Equity earnings
EquityROE =
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Financials Of Horizon Ltd2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Net Sales 475 542 605 623 701 771 840 Cost of goods sold 352 380 444 475 552 580 638 Gross profit 123 162 161 148 149 191 202 Operating expenses 35 41 44 49 60 60 74 Operating profit 88 121 117 99 89 131 128 Non-operating surplus/deficit 4 7 9 6 - -7 2 Profit before interest and tax
(PBIT)
92 128 126 105 89 124 130
Interest 20 21 25 22 21 24 25 Profit before tax 72 107 101 83 68 100 105 Tax 30 44 42 41 34 40 35 Profit after tax 42 63 59 42 34 60 70 Dividend 20 23 23 27 28 30 30 Retained earnings 22 40 36 15 6 30 40 Equity share capital (Rs. 10 par) 100 100 150 150 150 150 150 Reserves and surplus 65 105 91 106 112 142 182 Shareholders funds 165 205 241 256 262 292 332 Loan funds 150 161 157 156 212 228 221 Capital employed 315 366 398 412 474 520 553 Net fixed assets 252 283 304 322 330 390 408 Investments 18 17 16 15 15 20 25 Net current assets 45 66 78 75 129 110 120 Total assets 315 366 398 412 474 520 553 Earnings per share 2.27 4.00 4.67 Market price per share
(End of the year)
21.00 26.50 29.10 31.5
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ROE : 3 Factors
PAT Sales Assets
ROE = Sales Assets Equity
Net Profit Asset Leverage
Margin Turnover
THE BREAK-UP OF THE RETURN ON EQUITY IN TERMS OF ITS
DETERMINANTS FOR THE PERIOD 20X5
20X7 FOR HORIZON LIMITED IS
GIVEN BELOW:
Return on equity = Net profit margin x Asset turnover x Leverage multiplier
20X5 13.0 % = 4.85% x 1.48 x 1.81
20X6 20.5% = 7.78% x 1.48 x 1.78
20X7 21.1% = 8.33% x 1.52 x 1.67
INVESTMENT ANALYSTS USE ONE MORE FORMULATION OF THE ROE
WHEREIN IT IS ANALYSED IN TERMS OF FIVE FACTORS :
PBIT SALES PROFIT BEFORE TAX PROFIT AFTER TAX ASSETS
ROE = X X X X
SALES ASSETS PBIT PROFIT BEFORE TAX NETWORT
X X
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ROE : 5 Factors
PBIT Sales PBT PAT Assets
ROE = x x x x
Sales Assets PBIT PBT Net Worth
ROE = PBIT EFFICIENCY X ASSET TURNOVER X INTEREST BURDEN X
TAX BURDEN X LEVERAGETHE ROE BREAK-UP FOR OMEGA COMPANY IS GIVEN BELOW :
ROE = PBIT efficiency x Asset turnover x Interest burden x Tax burden x
Leverage
20X5 13.0% = 12.70% x 1.48 x 0.764 x 0.50 x 1.81
20X6 20.5% = 16.08% x 1.48 x 0.81 x 0.60 x 1.7820X7 21.1% = 15.48% x 1.52 x 0.81 x 0.67 x 1.67
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Book Value Per Share And Earnings Per Share
Book Value Per Share (BVPS)
Paid-up equity capital + Reserves and surplus
Number of equity shares
2005 2006 2007
BVPS 262/15 = 17.47 292/15 = 19.47 332/15 = 22.13
Earnings Per Share (EPS)
Equity earnings
Number of equity shares
2005 2006 2007
EPS 34/15 = 2.27 60/15 = 4.00 70/15 = 4.67
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Dividend Payout Ratio And Dividend Per Share
Dividend Payout Ratio
Equity dividends
Equity earnings
2005 2006 2007
DividendPayout ratio
Dividend Per Share (DPS)
2005 2006 2007
DPS Rs 1.86 2.00 2.00
DPS = EPS X DP Ratio
28/34 = 0.82 30/60 = 0.50 30/70 = 0.43
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Growth Performance
To measure the historical growth, the compound annual
growth rate (CAGR) in variables like sales, net profit,
earnings per share and dividend per share is calculated.
To get a handle over the kind of growth that can be
maintained, the sustainable growth rate is calculated.
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Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR)
The compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of sales, earnings per
share, and dividend per share for a period of five years 20022007for Horizon Limited is calculated below:
Sales of 2007 1/ 5 840 1/ 5CAGR of Sales : 1 = 1 = 9.2%
Sales for 2002 542
CAGR of earnings EPS for 2007 1/ 5 7.00 1/ 5per share (EPS) : EPS for 2002 6.30
CAGR of dividend: DPS for 2007 1/ 5 3.00 1/ 5per share (DPS) DPS for 2002 2.30
1 = 1 = 2.1%
1 = 1 = 5.5%
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Sustainable Growth Rate
The sustainable growth rate is defined as :
Sustainable growth rate = Retention ratio X Return on equity
Based on the average retention ratio and the average return on
equity of the three year period (2005 2007) the sustainable growthrate of Horizon Limited is:
Sustainable growth rate = 0.417 x 18.2% = 7.58%
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Risk Exposure
Beta represents volatility relative to the market, the risk of thestock is denoted by its betawhich measures how sensitive is the
return on the stock to variations in the market return.
Required return of stock = Risk-free return + Beta(Market risk Premium)
E(R)i = Rf + Bi(ErM
Rf)
Volatility of Return on equity =
Range of return on Equity over nyears
Average return on equity over nyears
If n = 5 (2003 to 2007)Volatility of ROE of Horizon Limited as
follows = 11.5%/19.2% = 0.60
F bl & U f bl F t
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Favourable & Unfavorable Factors
Favourable UnfavorableFactors Factors
Earnings Level High book value per share Low book value per share
Growth Level High return on equity Low return on equity
High CAGR in sales and EPS Low CAGR in sales and EPS
High sustainable growth Rate Low sustainable Growth Rate
RISK EXPOSURE Low volatility of return on High volatility of Return on
equity equity
Low beta High beta
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Valuation Multiples
The most commonly used valuation multiples are :
Price to earnings (PE) ratio
Price to book value (PBV) ratio
Price per share at the beginning of year n
Earnings per share for year n
2005 2006 2007
PE ratio 9.25 6.63 6.23
PBV Ratio (Retrospective)Price per share at the end of year n
Book value per share at the end of year n
2005 2006 2007
1.52 1.49 1.42
PE Ratio
Prospective) =
PBV ratio =
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Going Beyond the Numbers
Sizing up the present situation and prospects
Availability and Cost of Inputs Order Position
Regulatory Framework
Technological and Production Capabilities
Marketing and Distribution Finance and Accounting
Human Resources and Personnel
Evaluation of management
Strategy
Calibre, Integrity, Dynamism
Organisational Structure
Execution Capability
Investor - friendliness
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Estimation of Intrinsic Value
Estimate the expected EPS
Establish a p / e ratio
Develop a value anchor and a value range
EPS F t
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EPS Forecast
20 x 7 20 x 8 Assumption
(ACTUAL) (PROJECTED)
Net Sales 840 924 Increase by 10 Percent Cost of Goods sold 638 708 Increase by 11 Percent
Gross profit 202 216
Operating Expns 74 81 Increase by 9.5 Percent
Depreciation 30 34
Sellin & gen.
Admn. Expns 44 47
Operating Profit 128 135
Non-operating
Surplus/Deficit 2 2 No Change
Profit before
INT. & Tax (PBIT) 130 137
Interest 25 24 Decrease by 4 Percent
Profit before Tax 105 113 Tax 35 38 Increase by 8.57 Percent
Profit after Tax 70 75
Number of Equity
Shares 15 MLN 15
Earnings per Share RS 4.67 RS 5.00
Diff t PE R ti
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Different PE Ratios
Note that different PE ratios can be calculated for the same stock at
any given point in time.
PE ratio based on last years reported earnings
PE ratio based on trailing 12 months earnings
PE ratio based on current years expected earnings
PE ratio based on the following years expected earnings
P / E Ratio
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P / E Ratio
Constant Growth Dividend Model
Dividend payout ratioP / E RATIO =
Required Expected
return on - growth rate
equity in dividends
Cross Section Analysis
P / E = a1 + a2 Growth Rate in + a3 dividend
earnings payout ratio
+ a3 Variability in earnings
+ a4 company sizeHistorical analysis
Weighted P /E ratio
R ti
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Ratio
Historical Analysis
20 x 5 20 x 6 20 x 7PE ratio 9.25 6.63 6.23
The average PE ratio is :
9.25 + 6.63 + 6.23
3
Weighted PE Ratio
PE ratio based on the constantgrowth dividend discount model
PE ratio based on historical analysis : 7.37
6.36 + 7.37
2
= 7.37
= 6.87
: 6.36
Value Anchor and Value Range
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Value Anchor and Value Range
Value Anchor
Projected EPS x Appropriate PE ratio
5.00 x 6.87 = Rs. 34.35
Value Range
Rs.30 Rs.38
Market Price Decision
< Rs.30 Buy
Rs.30Rs.38 Hold
> Rs.38 Sell
Tools for Judging Undervaluation or
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Tools for Judging Undervaluation or
Overvaluation
PBV-ROE Matrix
Growth-Duration Matrix
Expectations Risk Index
Quality at a Reasonable Price (VRE)
PEG: Growth at a Reasonable Price
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Overvalued High ROE
HIGH Low ROE High PBV
High PBV
Low ROE Undervalued
LOW Low PBV High ROE
Low PBV
LOW HIGH
ROE
PBV Ratio
PBV-ROE Matrix
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Expectations Risk Index (ERI)
Developed by Al Rappaport, the ERI reflects the risk in
realising the expectations embedded in the current market
price
Proportion of stock Ratio of expected future
price depending on growth to recent growth
expected future growth (Acceleration ratio)
ERI = X
ERI Ill t ti
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ERI Illustration
Omegas price per share = Rs.150
Omegas operating cash flow
(before growth investment)
Omegas cost of equity = 15 percent
Growth rate in after-tax cash operating
earnings over the past three years
Market expectation of the growth in after-taxcash operating earnings over the next threeyears
= Rs.10 per shar
= 20 percent
= 50 percent
ERI Illustration
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ERI Illustration
Omegas base line value = = Rs.66.7
Proportion of the stock price coming
from investors expectations of future = = 0.56
growth opportunities
Acceleration ratio = = 1.25
ERI = 0.56 x 1.25 = 0.70
In general, the lower (higher) the ERI, the greater (smaller) the
chance of achieving expectations and the higher (lower) the expected
return for investors.
15066.7
150
Rs.10
0.15
1.50
1.20
Quality at a Reasonable Price
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Quality at a Reasonable Price
Determining whether a stock is overvalued or undervalued is often
difficult. To deal with this issue, some value investors use a metriccalled the value of ROE or VRE for short.
The VRE is defined as the return on equity (ROE) percentage
divided by the PE(price-earning) ratio. For example, if a company
has an expected ROE of 18 percent and a PE ratio of 15, its VRE is
1.2 (18/15).According to value investors who use VRE:
A stock is considered overvalued if the VRE is less than 1.
A stock is worthy of being considered for investment, if the VRE
is greater than 1. A stock represents a very attractive investment proposition if the
VRE > 2
A stock represents an extremely attractive investment
proposition if the VRE > 3
PEG: Growth at a Reasonable Price
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PEG: Growth at a Reasonable Price
What price should one pay for growth? To answer this difficult
question, Peter Lynch, the legendary mutual fund manager,
developed the so-called PE-to-growth ratio, or PEG ratio. The PEG
ratio is simply the PE ratio divided by the expected EPS growth rate
(in percent). For example, if a company has a PE ratio of 20 and its
EPS is expected to grow at 25 percent, its PEG ratio is 0.8 (20/25).
PEG: Growth at a Reasonable Price
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PEG: Growth at a Reasonable Price
Proponents of PEG ratio believe that:
A PEG of 1 or more suggests that the stock is fully valued.
A PEG of less than 1 implies that the stock is worthy of being
considered for investment.
A PEG of less than 0.5 means that the stock possibly is a very attractiveinvestment proposition.
A PEG of less than 0.33 suggests that the stock is an unusually
attractive investment proposition.
Thus, the lower the PEG ratio, the greater the investment
attractiveness of the stock. Growth-at-a-reasonable price (GARP) investors
generally shun stocks with PEG ratios significantly greater than 1.
Obstacles in the Wa of an Anal st
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Obstacles in the Way of an Analyst
Inadequacies or incorrectness of data
Future uncertainties
Irrational market behaviour
Excellent Versus Unexcellent Companies
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Excellent Versus Unexcellent Companies
In general, it appears that financial performance of
excellent companies deteriorates whereas financial
performance ofnon-excellent companies improves.
Empirical evidence of this kind reflects the phenomenon of
reversion to the mean which says that, over time, financial
performance of companies tends to converge to the averagevalue of the group as a whole. Thanks to this tendency,
good past performers are likely to produce inferior
investment results and poor past performers are likely to
produce superior investment results.
Equity Research in India
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Equity Research in India
Traditionally, lip sympathy was paid to equity research. Financial
institutions (mutual funds, in particular) had a research cell because
it was in good form to have one. Likewise, large brokers set up
equity research cells to satisfy their institutional clients. In the mid-
1980s more progressive firms like Enam Financial, DSP Financial
Consultants, and Motilal Oswal Securities Limited set up research
divisions to exploit the opportunities in the equity market. With the
entry of foreign institutional investors and the emergence of more
discerning investors, the need for equity research is felt more widely.
Indeed, currently equity research is a growing area.
Future
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Future
Equity researchers who are able to do their job well have bright
prospects. The future belongs to those who will:
Have a clear understanding of what their research is
supposed to do and how they should go about doing it.
Learn to interpret financial numbers and assess qualitative
factors which may not be immediately reflected in numbers.
Develop a medium-term or long-term perspective based on an
incisive understanding of the dynamics of the companies
analysed.
How to Make Most of Stock Research
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How to Make Most of Stock Research
Reports
To make the most of stock research reports, follow these guidelines:
Dont trust a research report naively. Use it as a starting point
and do your own due diligence before acting on it.
Check the credibility of the brokerage house by reading its
reports over a period of time.
Be wary of unscrupulous brokerage houses which prepare biased
research reports with ulterior motives.
Often a buy recommendation is given, when promoters or some
other investors want to exit a stock.
Summing Up
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Summing Up
In practice, the earnings multiplier method is the most
popular method. The key questions to be addressed in this
method are: what is the expected EPS for the forthcoming
year? What is a reasonable PE ratio given the growth
prospects, risk exposure, and other characteristics? Historical
financial analysis serves as a foundation for answering these
questions.
The ROE, perhaps the most important metric of financial
performance, is decomposed in two ways for analytical
purposes.
ROE = Net profit margin x Asset turnover x Leverage
ROE = PBIT efficiency x Asset turnover x Interest burden
x Tax burden x Leverage
T th hi t i l th th CAGR i i bl lik
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To measure the historical growth, the CAGR in variables like
sales, net profit, EPS and DPS is calculated.
To get a handle over the kind of growth that can bemaintained, the sustainable growth rate is calculated.
Beta and volatility of ROE may be used as risk measures.
An estimate of EPS is an educated guess about the future
profitability of the company.
The PE ratio may be derived from the constant growth
dividend model, or cross-section analysis, or historical
analysis.
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The value anchor is :
Projected EPS x Appropriate PE ratio
PBV-ROE matrix, growth-duration matrix, and expectation
risk index are some of the tools to judge undervaluation or
overvaluation.