Chapter 16 Global Conflicts during the Cold War: 1945-1989

Chapter 16Global Conflicts during the Cold War: 1945-1989

Nationalist Struggles for Independence Act of Westminister, 1931

De facto independence of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa

British Empire in Asia CollapsesIndependence of India, August 15, 1947

Jawaharlal Nehru sought industrial development Indira Nehru Gandhi, 1966-77, 1980-1984

Pakistan and East Pakistan, August 15, 1947 Pakistan dominated by the military Bangladesh, 1971 British colonies in Southeast Asia secure independence

Africa Becomes Independent


1. The first independent black African state to emerge out of European colonialism was the British colony of the Gold Coast which became free in 1957. It renamed itself Ghana.

2. Perhaps the most serious problem for the European governments granting independence to the African states was how to deal with the permanent white settlers. Wherever the whites were numerous, European states sought to preserve white privileged status. Thus, for Britain granting independence to black dominated states was fairly easy but more difficult when there was a substantial white population such as in Kenya and Rhodesia. Kenya received independence in 1963 only after a guerrilla war was subdued and the whites were safe. In Southern Rhodesia, whites split from Rhodesia and illegally declared independence from Britain in 1965. A long Civil war lasted until 1980 before the whites surrendered power. The country was renamed Zimbabwe.

3. France divided up its West Africa and Equatorial Africa possessions into thirteen separate governments, thereby creating a French commonwealth. Plebiscites were to be called in each to approve the new arrangement. If this was ratified, the association with France would continue. A negative vote would mean independence. In 1958 Guinea rejected the French offer for commonwealth status and chose independence. Shocked, France withdrew every official and piece of equipment as punishment. France expected Guinea to collapse but it did not. In 1960 Mali joined Guinea in seeking independence. Other French territories followed suit though many retained their close ties with France.

4. Tunisia and Morocco were granted independence by France in 1956. With a sparse European population, the separation was easy. However, this was not the case for Algeria. Not only did it have about one million French speaking Europeans in a total population of eight million but it was France's source for oil. When Muslim nationalism stirred, the Europeans responded and a bloody and violent civil war broke out. Finally, Algeria was granted independence in 1962.

5. Violence also characterized Belgium's withdrawal from the Congo. Having fostered neither development nor education, there was no loyalty to the colonial master. In 1959 riots broke out and with no warning Belgium proclaimed in 1960 the Congo's independence. What followed was a violent tribal conflict and civil war. The new state was christened Zaire (renamed in 1997 the Democratic Republic of Congo). Civil war and political instability has plagued the nation since independence.

6. Like Belgium, Portugal did nothing ta prepare its African states for independence. Facing a guerrilla war, Portugal granted Angola and Mozambique independence in 1975. Independence in Angola brought a civil war with the involvement of the United States, Cuba, and China. Political stability was finally established in 1997.

7. The nation later named Namibia was originally called South West Africa and colonized by Germany in 1884. During World War I it was seized by South Africa. After the war, the territory was mandated to South Africa by terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty. In 1946, South Africa sought to incorporate the territory into its own. The U.N. rejected this but did allow closer association. In 1969, South Africa to extended its own laws, including apartheid, to the land. When the Security Council demanded that the laws be rescinded, South Africa refused. In 1974, a Security Council resolution required a transfer of power. Slowness to act resulted in a war in which various guerrilla organization were supported by Cuba, Angola, and South Africa. Finally, an agreement was made for elections to take place in 1989. The new president, Sam Nujoma, took office in 1990 when Namibia became independent.

8. Throughout the period of African imperialism, only two states managed to remain independent, Liberia (colonized by the United State to send back to Africa freed slaves) and Ethiopia which routed an Italian invasion in 1896. Italy achieved revenge in 1935 with conquest and annexation to Eritrea from 1936 to 1941.

Question:1. How was the British and French approach to independence different?


1. The first independent black African state to emerge out of European colonialism was the British colony of the Gold Coast which became free in 1957. It renamed itself Ghana.

2. Perhaps the most serious problem for the European governments granting independence to the African states was how to deal with the permanent white settlers. Wherever the whites were numerous, European states sought to preserve white privileged status. Thus, for Britain granting independence to black dominated states was fairly easy but more difficult when there was a substantial white population such as in Kenya and Rhodesia. Kenya received independence in 1963 only after a guerrilla war was subdued and the whites were safe. In Southern Rhodesia, whites split from Rhodesia and illegally declared independence from Britain in 1965. A long Civil war lasted until 1980 before the whites surrendered power. The country was renamed Zimbabwe.

3. France divided up its West Africa and Equatorial Africa possessions into thirteen separate governments, thereby creating a French commonwealth. Plebiscites were to be called in each to approve the new arrangement. If this was ratified, the association with France would continue. A negative vote would mean independence. In 1958 Guinea rejected the French offer for commonwealth status and chose independence. Shocked, France withdrew every official and piece of equipment as punishment. France expected Guinea to collapse but it did not. In 1960 Mali joined Guinea in seeking independence. Other French territories followed suit though many retained their close ties with France.

4. Tunisia and Morocco were granted independence by France in 1956. With a sparse European population, the separation was easy. However, this was not the case for Algeria. Not only did it have about one million French speaking Europeans in a total population of eight million but it was France's source for oil. When Muslim nationalism stirred, the Europeans responded and a bloody and violent civil war broke out. Finally, Algeria was granted independence in 1962.

5. Violence also characterized Belgium's withdrawal from the Congo. Having fostered neither development nor education, there was no loyalty to the colonial master. In 1959 riots broke out and with no warning Belgium proclaimed in 1960 the Congo's independence. What followed was a violent tribal conflict and civil war. The new state was christened Zaire (renamed in 1997 the Democratic Republic of Congo). Civil war and political instability has plagued the nation since independence.

6. Like Belgium, Portugal did nothing ta prepare its African states for independence. Facing a guerrilla war, Portugal granted Angola and Mozambique independence in 1975. Independence in Angola brought a civil war with the involvement of the United States, Cuba, and China. Political stability was finally established in 1997.

7. The nation later named Namibia was originally called South West Africa and colonized by Germany in 1884. During World War I it was seized by South Africa. After the war, the territory was mandated to South Africa by terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty. In 1946, South Africa sought to incorporate the territory into its own. The U.N. rejected this but did allow closer association. In 1969, South Africa to extended its own laws, including apartheid, to the land. When the Security Council demanded that the laws be rescinded, South Africa refused. In 1974, a Security Council resolution required a transfer of power. Slowness to act resulted in a war in which various guerrilla organization were supported by Cuba, Angola, and South Africa. Finally, an agreement was made for elections to take place in 1989. The new president, Sam Nujoma, took office in 1990 when Namibia became independent.

8. Throughout the period of African imperialism, only two states managed to remain independent, Liberia (colonized by the United State to send back to Africa freed slaves) and Ethiopia which routed an Italian invasion in 1896. Italy achieved revenge in 1935 with conquest and annexation to Eritrea from 1936 to 1941.

Question:1. How was the British and French approach to independence different?

Dutch reluctant to give up IndonesiaAchmed Sukarno wins independence in 1949

Philippines gain independence, 1946Ferdinand Marcos

Independent Africa French determination to hold Algeria

Bloody warIndependence,1962

French West and Equitorial AfricaFélix Houphouet-BoignyFrench African colonies granted independence, 1960

Freedom (Uhuru) monument at Dar es-Salaam, the capital of Tanzania [Duiker slides, #9]

British African Colonies Ghana; independence, 1957 Nigeria; independence, 1960

Revolt of Biafra, 1967-1970 Kenya; independence, 1963

Mau Mau rebellion Belgian Congo Portugal refuses independence for Angola and Mozambique

Guerrilla revolts, independence, 1975 Namibia Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) Non-alignment and neutrality of new African and Asian states

The People's Republic of China


1. By 1948 the demoralized Nationalist forces of Chiang Kai-shek were disintegrating. In 1949 Chiang and one million mainland Chinese fled to Taiwan. In victory, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China. Within three years the Communists succeeded in consolidating their rule. It was not accomplished without cost. In 1957 Mao admitted 800,000 "enemies' had been liquidated.

2. With a large army at its disposal, China sought to re-establish its jurisdiction over the important areas lost with the decline of the Manchus. Mongolia became a separate republic with ties to the Soviet Union, but China retained Xinjiang. China also sent its forces into Tibet.

3. Mao and Joseph Stalin established a close relationship in the early 1950s and China followed Russia's lead in world affairs. In 1950 a thirty-year treaty of friendship was signed. China began to go its own way, however, as it initiated the Great Leap Forward in 1958 to achieve accelerated development. When Nikita Khrushchev of the Soviet Union criticized Chinese policy, Mao reacted angrily in 1960 and relations between the two states deteriorated. Russian economic aid was abruptly cut off and scientists helping to build a Chinese atomic bomb were withdrawn. In 1969 fighting between China and Russia occurred along the northern border of Xinjiang and over an island in the Ussuri River in the northeast. Both deployed about a million troops along their 5000 mile mutual border.

4. Sino-Indian relations took a tumble when Chinese troops suppressed a revolt in Tibet in 1959 and India gave asylum to the Dalai Lama. When it was learned the Chinese were building a road in a region of Tibet claimed by India, troops were sent to the area in the summer of 1962. A brief border war was fought in which Indian troops were routed when Chinese forces crossed the border.

5. In 1975 a unified Vietnam became an ally of the Soviet Union and thus an enemy of China. The Soviets gave economic and military aid in return for a naval base at Cam Ranh Bay. Relations with China deteriorated in the late 1970s in part due to ill treatment of ethnic Chinese in the country and belief that Vietnam was not sufficiently grateful for the aid it had given during the war. In 1979 China sought to teach Vietnam a lesson by invading its four northern provinces. Vietnam repulsed the invaders but with heavy losses for both sides.

6. In 1997 Hong Kong was returned to China.

Questions:1. What problems existed between China and Russia?2. What were the sources of conflict between China and India?


1. By 1948 the demoralized Nationalist forces of Chiang Kai-shek were disintegrating. In 1949 Chiang and one million mainland Chinese fled to Taiwan. In victory, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China. Within three years the Communists succeeded in consolidating their rule. It was not accomplished without cost. In 1957 Mao admitted 800,000 "enemies' had been liquidated.

2. With a large army at its disposal, China sought to re-establish its jurisdiction over the important areas lost with the decline of the Manchus. Mongolia became a separate republic with ties to the Soviet Union, but China retained Xinjiang. China also sent its forces into Tibet.

3. Mao and Joseph Stalin established a close relationship in the early 1950s and China followed Russia's lead in world affairs. In 1950 a thirty-year treaty of friendship was signed. China began to go its own way, however, as it initiated the Great Leap Forward in 1958 to achieve accelerated development. When Nikita Khrushchev of the Soviet Union criticized Chinese policy, Mao reacted angrily in 1960 and relations between the two states deteriorated. Russian economic aid was abruptly cut off and scientists helping to build a Chinese atomic bomb were withdrawn. In 1969 fighting between China and Russia occurred along the northern border of Xinjiang and over an island in the Ussuri River in the northeast. Both deployed about a million troops along their 5000 mile mutual border.

4. Sino-Indian relations took a tumble when Chinese troops suppressed a revolt in Tibet in 1959 and India gave asylum to the Dalai Lama. When it was learned the Chinese were building a road in a region of Tibet claimed by India, troops were sent to the area in the summer of 1962. A brief border war was fought in which Indian troops were routed when Chinese forces crossed the border.

5. In 1975 a unified Vietnam became an ally of the Soviet Union and thus an enemy of China. The Soviets gave economic and military aid in return for a naval base at Cam Ranh Bay. Relations with China deteriorated in the late 1970s in part due to ill treatment of ethnic Chinese in the country and belief that Vietnam was not sufficiently grateful for the aid it had given during the war. In 1979 China sought to teach Vietnam a lesson by invading its four northern provinces. Vietnam repulsed the invaders but with heavy losses for both sides.

6. In 1997 Hong Kong was returned to China.

Questions:1. What problems existed between China and Russia?2. What were the sources of conflict between China and India?

Gate of Heavenly Peace with portrait of Mao at Tiananmen Square

Cold War in Asia Communist China

Sino-Soviet splitGreat Proletarian Cultural Revolution, 1966-1969Gang of Four

Korean War, 1950-1953North Korean invasion, 1950South Korea, buffer to protect JapanU.S. policy of containment

The Korean Peninsula


1. Following the victory of the Japanese over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), Russia had to recognize Japan's “paramount interest” in Korea. In 1910 Japan annexed Korea.

2. At the Cairo Conference in late 1943, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Chiang Kai-shek declared that “in due course Korea shall become free and independent.” As part of the Yalta agreement in February 1945 Russia agreed to enter the war against Japan after the defeat of Germany. On August 9, 1945, six days before the Japanese surrender, Soviet troops entered North Korea. American troops arrived on September 8. By agreeing to accept the Japanese surrender north and south of the 38th parallel, the fate of a divided Korea had been set.

3. In 1946, after the Soviet Union and the United States failed to agree on a means for reunification, elections were held in the North resulting in a communist victory. Centered in Pyongyang, the head of the new government was the Soviet nominee, Kim Il-sung. In the South, the Americans created an independent, self-governing nation. In 1948 a president and assembly was elected for the new Republic of Korea thereby ending the American military government.

4. On June 25, 1950, North Korean troops staged a surprise attack on the South. The United States immediately called for a meeting of the United Nations Security Council that ordered in troops when North Korea refused to withdraw. Fifteen member nations sent troops though forty percent of the ground forces were South Korean and fifty percent were Americans. The North Koreans forced the Korean-American forces back to the southeast around Pussan. On September 15, 1950, an amphibious landing was made at Inchon (the port for the capital, Seoul). Seoul was recovered and the invasion broken. In October the UN force crossed the 38th parallel. As the forces pushed north toward China, Chinese Communist "volunteers" began crossing the Yalu River into North Korea to defend Chinese interests. By late November there were about 300,000 Chinese volunteers and they forced an American retreat to south of Seoul.

5. Truce talks began in July 1951 at Panmunjom. An armistice was finally signed July 27, 1953. All totaled, the United States suffered 142,000 casualties, 300,000 for South Korea, 520,000 for the North Koreans, and perhaps 900,000 Chinese.

Questions:1. How did Korea become a divided land?2. What were the objectives of the North Koreans in their invasion and why did the Chinese get involved?


1. Following the victory of the Japanese over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), Russia had to recognize Japan's “paramount interest” in Korea. In 1910 Japan annexed Korea.

2. At the Cairo Conference in late 1943, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Chiang Kai-shek declared that “in due course Korea shall become free and independent.” As part of the Yalta agreement in February 1945 Russia agreed to enter the war against Japan after the defeat of Germany. On August 9, 1945, six days before the Japanese surrender, Soviet troops entered North Korea. American troops arrived on September 8. By agreeing to accept the Japanese surrender north and south of the 38th parallel, the fate of a divided Korea had been set.

3. In 1946, after the Soviet Union and the United States failed to agree on a means for reunification, elections were held in the North resulting in a communist victory. Centered in Pyongyang, the head of the new government was the Soviet nominee, Kim Il-sung. In the South, the Americans created an independent, self-governing nation. In 1948 a president and assembly was elected for the new Republic of Korea thereby ending the American military government.

4. On June 25, 1950, North Korean troops staged a surprise attack on the South. The United States immediately called for a meeting of the United Nations Security Council that ordered in troops when North Korea refused to withdraw. Fifteen member nations sent troops though forty percent of the ground forces were South Korean and fifty percent were Americans. The North Koreans forced the Korean-American forces back to the southeast around Pussan. On September 15, 1950, an amphibious landing was made at Inchon (the port for the capital, Seoul). Seoul was recovered and the invasion broken. In October the UN force crossed the 38th parallel. As the forces pushed north toward China, Chinese Communist "volunteers" began crossing the Yalu River into North Korea to defend Chinese interests. By late November there were about 300,000 Chinese volunteers and they forced an American retreat to south of Seoul.

5. Truce talks began in July 1951 at Panmunjom. An armistice was finally signed July 27, 1953. All totaled, the United States suffered 142,000 casualties, 300,000 for South Korea, 520,000 for the North Koreans, and perhaps 900,000 Chinese.

Questions:1. How did Korea become a divided land?2. What were the objectives of the North Koreans in their invasion and why did the Chinese get involved?

Post-War Conflicts in East Asia


1. On July 4, 1946, the United States fulfilled its long ago promise to grant independence to the Philippines. In 1965 Ferdinand Marcos subverted the constitution and ruled as a dictator until 1986 when ousted in a spectacular electoral victory for the presidency by Corazon Aquino. The Anericans, however, maintained military bases in the Philippines until 1992 when the last was closed.

2. Burma (Myanmar) received its independence from the British in 1948. The army seized power in 1962 and has remained in control since then.

3. In Malaysia, the native people feared and disliked the Chinese who had immigrated in the nineteenth century. Local Chinese communists launched guerrilla activity after Britain indicated it would give the Malays a dominant voice in government. The communists were defeated and in 1957 Malaysia became self-governing. Independence was granted in 1961. Four years later, largely Chinese Singapore withdrew from the Federation of Malaysia.

4. Dutch efforts to reconquer the Netherlands East Indies after World War II failed and independence was granted for Indonesia in 1949 under Achmed Sukarno. Beginning in 1957, he initiated a "guided democracy." In reprisal for a communist uprising in 1965, the army killed a half million or more Indonesian communists, radicals, and non-communist Chinese. Sukarno, whose communist ties angered the army, was eased out by General Suharto in 1967. Suharto permitted a return to representative government and was elected president. Suharto's government collapsed in 1998. In 1999 the Indonesia came under world criticism for its actions in East Timor which sought independence (the Portuguese half of the island of Timor had been annexed by Indonesia in 1975).

5. After World War II, the French sought to reimpose their rule over Indochina. At the time of theJapanese surrender in August 1945, Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Indochinese Communist Party, launched a general uprising and seized power throughout most of Vietnam. By fall, the French had regained the southern area followed by all out war in December 1946. Despite American aid, the French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Subsequent peace brought Indochina independence. Laos and Cambodia became independent while Vietnam was divided into two sections at the 17th parallel. The United States opposed any settlement involving loss of the whole territory to communism. In 1959 Ho returned to war in the south. With the southern government on the verge of collapse in 1963, the South Vietnamese military seized power. United States troops were rushed in to preclude total defeat in 1965. Unwilling to engage in all-out war for fear of provoking a larger conflict, the war became a stalemate. In 1969 withdrawal of U.S. troops began. A peace treaty was signed in January 1973 that would remove of American forces and require the north to seek a political settlement with the south. Negotiations failed and in early 1975 communists resumed the offensive. At the end of April, South Vietnam surrendered and Vietnam was unified.

6. Britain acquired Hong Kong from the Chinese by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 that ended anopium war. It was returned to China, by treaty, in 1997.

7. Defeated by the forces of Mao Zedong, Chiang Kai-shek and about one million Chinese fled to Taiwan where they proclaimed the Republic of China. Worried about the communist threat in Asia at the beginning of the Korean War, the United States promised to defend the island from mainland China. In 1954 this was formalized into a mutual defense treaty. In 1972, the U.S. began removing troops from Taiwan. Diplomatic relations were ended in 1978 when relations were opened with China. The following year the mutual defense treaty was ended.

8. On the eve of the Japanese surrender, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. agreed to divide Korea into two zones at the 38th parallel. As U.S.-Soviet relations deteriorated, two separate governments emerged. On June 25, 1950, with Soviet approval, North Korea invaded the south. The United States and the U.N. responded immediately. The conflict lasted until an armistice was signed July 27, 1953.

Question:1. Why did the U.S. get involved in Southeast Asian affairs? Consequences?


1. On July 4, 1946, the United States fulfilled its long ago promise to grant independence to the Philippines. In 1965 Ferdinand Marcos subverted the constitution and ruled as a dictator until 1986 when ousted in a spectacular electoral victory for the presidency by Corazon Aquino. The Anericans, however, maintained military bases in the Philippines until 1992 when the last was closed.

2. Burma (Myanmar) received its independence from the British in 1948. The army seized power in 1962 and has remained in control since then.

3. In Malaysia, the native people feared and disliked the Chinese who had immigrated in the nineteenth century. Local Chinese communists launched guerrilla activity after Britain indicated it would give the Malays a dominant voice in government. The communists were defeated and in 1957 Malaysia became self-governing. Independence was granted in 1961. Four years later, largely Chinese Singapore withdrew from the Federation of Malaysia.

4. Dutch efforts to reconquer the Netherlands East Indies after World War II failed and independence was granted for Indonesia in 1949 under Achmed Sukarno. Beginning in 1957, he initiated a "guided democracy." In reprisal for a communist uprising in 1965, the army killed a half million or more Indonesian communists, radicals, and non-communist Chinese. Sukarno, whose communist ties angered the army, was eased out by General Suharto in 1967. Suharto permitted a return to representative government and was elected president. Suharto's government collapsed in 1998. In 1999 the Indonesia came under world criticism for its actions in East Timor which sought independence (the Portuguese half of the island of Timor had been annexed by Indonesia in 1975).

5. After World War II, the French sought to reimpose their rule over Indochina. At the time of theJapanese surrender in August 1945, Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Indochinese Communist Party, launched a general uprising and seized power throughout most of Vietnam. By fall, the French had regained the southern area followed by all out war in December 1946. Despite American aid, the French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Subsequent peace brought Indochina independence. Laos and Cambodia became independent while Vietnam was divided into two sections at the 17th parallel. The United States opposed any settlement involving loss of the whole territory to communism. In 1959 Ho returned to war in the south. With the southern government on the verge of collapse in 1963, the South Vietnamese military seized power. United States troops were rushed in to preclude total defeat in 1965. Unwilling to engage in all-out war for fear of provoking a larger conflict, the war became a stalemate. In 1969 withdrawal of U.S. troops began. A peace treaty was signed in January 1973 that would remove of American forces and require the north to seek a political settlement with the south. Negotiations failed and in early 1975 communists resumed the offensive. At the end of April, South Vietnam surrendered and Vietnam was unified.

6. Britain acquired Hong Kong from the Chinese by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 that ended anopium war. It was returned to China, by treaty, in 1997.

7. Defeated by the forces of Mao Zedong, Chiang Kai-shek and about one million Chinese fled to Taiwan where they proclaimed the Republic of China. Worried about the communist threat in Asia at the beginning of the Korean War, the United States promised to defend the island from mainland China. In 1954 this was formalized into a mutual defense treaty. In 1972, the U.S. began removing troops from Taiwan. Diplomatic relations were ended in 1978 when relations were opened with China. The following year the mutual defense treaty was ended.

8. On the eve of the Japanese surrender, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. agreed to divide Korea into two zones at the 38th parallel. As U.S.-Soviet relations deteriorated, two separate governments emerged. On June 25, 1950, with Soviet approval, North Korea invaded the south. The United States and the U.N. responded immediately. The conflict lasted until an armistice was signed July 27, 1953.

Question:1. Why did the U.S. get involved in Southeast Asian affairs? Consequences?

Vietnam Dien Bien Phu, 1954 Ho Chi Minh Ngo Dinh Diem Domino Theory Attack of American warships in Gulf of Tonkin Armistice, 1973 North defeat South Vietnam, 1975

Cold War in Africa Zaire (Congo) Horn of Africa

Latin America Population Density and Guerrilla Warfare


1. On April 1, 1964, Brazil’s civilian government was displaced by the military. A military junta was appointed and a “democratic revolution” proclaimed. The military maintained direct and indirect power until 1990 when it was discredited and isolated due to failed economic policies. Resistance to the military took the form of urban guerrilla warfare. The military responded with use of systematic torture by the military police and the rise of "death squads" against the leftists. The military permitted in 1982 a general election for Congress as well as state and municipal elections. The military, however, retained the presidency. In 1990 presidential elections were held and a civilian was elected.

2. In Uruguay a Marxist urban guerrilla movement called the Tupamaros was organized in Montevideo in 1963. In the late 1960s similar guerrilla movements appeared in Guatemala, Argentina, and Brazil. The Tupamaros sought a violent overthrow of Uruguay's mixed economy and the establishment of a completely socialist state. Their tactics included robbery, kidnapping, and murder. In 1971, after failing to stem the guerrillas, the government turned to the military. The following year a state of internal war was declared. A counterinsurgency campaign (with U.S. aid) broke the movement but at the cost of brutality and repression. In 1981, a general was appointed the head of state. Democratic elections were finally held in 1984.

3. In 1955, the Argentine military brougbt down the government of President Juan Per6n who had served since 1946. The military surrendered power in 1958 but again in 1962 removed the president. National elections were held in 1963 but the government was overthrown by the military in 1966. Free elections were permitted in 1973, opening the way for the return of Per6n. Elected, he died a year later and was succeeded by his wife Isabella who became the first female head of state in Latin America. As the left and right sought political advantage, the right resorted to death squads (created by the Ministry of Social Welfare) and the left to guerrilla activity. Civil war seemed immanent in 1976 when the military once again seized power. Civilian rule was restored in 1982 after war against Britain over the Malvinas (Falkland) Islands.

4. In 1970 Salvador Allende was elected president of Chile when moderates split their votes. His objective was to create a Marxist-socialist state. Allande also sought to continue a program of nationalizing the copper industry begun by his predecessor. His attempt to accomplish this without compensation angered the Nixon administration that aided opponents of the government. With the economy faltering, the army under General Augusto Pinochet reacted with a coup d'etat in 1973 resulting in Allende's murder. A brutal regime under Pinochet followed until 1989 when he was defeated by 55 percent of the vote in a presidential election. Nevertheless, Pinochet remained in command of the army and was appointed senator for life. In 1999, he was arrested in England at the behest of Spain that seeks extradition to try him for crimes during his regime.

5. In 1979 a guerrilla group called Sandistas launched an offensive against President Anastasio Somoza Debayle whose family had ruled Nicaragua since 1936. After only seven weeks of fighting, Somoza fled and the Sandanistas assumed power. Charging that the new government, Cuba, and the Soviet Union were supplying arms to rebels in El Salvador, the United States cut off aid to Nicaragua and began aiding guerrillas called "contras" who sought to overthrow the Sandinista government. In 1984, Daniel Ortega Saavedra, leader of the Sandinista junta, was elected president with 63% of the votes. The contra war lasted until 1989 when it was agreed to call a general election in 1990, a year early. In the election, Violetta Chamorro won the presidency. Her term was plagued by charges of corruption and dismantling the achievements of the Sandinistas. Fearing insurrection, in 1991 she brought the army under her direct command. In 1996 there was a peaceful transition of power to a new president.

6. Civil war formally ended in 1992 after twelve years in El Salvador. Guerrillas, drawing upon the peasantry andtheir grievances, had been fighting a rightist government backed by the United States. A few years later, 1996, the civil war in nearby Guatemala was brought to an end after thirty-six years.

Question:1. How did the military and the right affect the region's politics?


1. On April 1, 1964, Brazil’s civilian government was displaced by the military. A military junta was appointed and a “democratic revolution” proclaimed. The military maintained direct and indirect power until 1990 when it was discredited and isolated due to failed economic policies. Resistance to the military took the form of urban guerrilla warfare. The military responded with use of systematic torture by the military police and the rise of "death squads" against the leftists. The military permitted in 1982 a general election for Congress as well as state and municipal elections. The military, however, retained the presidency. In 1990 presidential elections were held and a civilian was elected.

2. In Uruguay a Marxist urban guerrilla movement called the Tupamaros was organized in Montevideo in 1963. In the late 1960s similar guerrilla movements appeared in Guatemala, Argentina, and Brazil. The Tupamaros sought a violent overthrow of Uruguay's mixed economy and the establishment of a completely socialist state. Their tactics included robbery, kidnapping, and murder. In 1971, after failing to stem the guerrillas, the government turned to the military. The following year a state of internal war was declared. A counterinsurgency campaign (with U.S. aid) broke the movement but at the cost of brutality and repression. In 1981, a general was appointed the head of state. Democratic elections were finally held in 1984.

3. In 1955, the Argentine military brougbt down the government of President Juan Per6n who had served since 1946. The military surrendered power in 1958 but again in 1962 removed the president. National elections were held in 1963 but the government was overthrown by the military in 1966. Free elections were permitted in 1973, opening the way for the return of Per6n. Elected, he died a year later and was succeeded by his wife Isabella who became the first female head of state in Latin America. As the left and right sought political advantage, the right resorted to death squads (created by the Ministry of Social Welfare) and the left to guerrilla activity. Civil war seemed immanent in 1976 when the military once again seized power. Civilian rule was restored in 1982 after war against Britain over the Malvinas (Falkland) Islands.

4. In 1970 Salvador Allende was elected president of Chile when moderates split their votes. His objective was to create a Marxist-socialist state. Allande also sought to continue a program of nationalizing the copper industry begun by his predecessor. His attempt to accomplish this without compensation angered the Nixon administration that aided opponents of the government. With the economy faltering, the army under General Augusto Pinochet reacted with a coup d'etat in 1973 resulting in Allende's murder. A brutal regime under Pinochet followed until 1989 when he was defeated by 55 percent of the vote in a presidential election. Nevertheless, Pinochet remained in command of the army and was appointed senator for life. In 1999, he was arrested in England at the behest of Spain that seeks extradition to try him for crimes during his regime.

5. In 1979 a guerrilla group called Sandistas launched an offensive against President Anastasio Somoza Debayle whose family had ruled Nicaragua since 1936. After only seven weeks of fighting, Somoza fled and the Sandanistas assumed power. Charging that the new government, Cuba, and the Soviet Union were supplying arms to rebels in El Salvador, the United States cut off aid to Nicaragua and began aiding guerrillas called "contras" who sought to overthrow the Sandinista government. In 1984, Daniel Ortega Saavedra, leader of the Sandinista junta, was elected president with 63% of the votes. The contra war lasted until 1989 when it was agreed to call a general election in 1990, a year early. In the election, Violetta Chamorro won the presidency. Her term was plagued by charges of corruption and dismantling the achievements of the Sandinistas. Fearing insurrection, in 1991 she brought the army under her direct command. In 1996 there was a peaceful transition of power to a new president.

6. Civil war formally ended in 1992 after twelve years in El Salvador. Guerrillas, drawing upon the peasantry andtheir grievances, had been fighting a rightist government backed by the United States. A few years later, 1996, the civil war in nearby Guatemala was brought to an end after thirty-six years.

Question:1. How did the military and the right affect the region's politics?

Barrio, Rio de Janeiro. Famous slum site south of Copacabana Beach in Rio

Latin America High birthrate Rapid urbanization Dictators Rise of Marxism Cuba

Fidel Castro drives out Fulgencio Batista, 1959Missile Crisis, October 1962

Bay of Pigs invasion, 1961 Soviet missiles in Cuba Soviet-U.S. agreements

ChileSalvador AllendeAugusto Pinochet

Central AmericaEl SalvadorNicaragua

United States since 1960 Martin Luther King, Jr. Richard M. Nixon and Watergate 1960s

Soviet Union from Khrushchev to Gorbachev Leonid Brezhnev, 1964-1982

Agricultural production low, standard of living slowly improving, arms race

Mikhail Gorbachev, 1985-1990GlasnostPerestroikaRestlessness of religious minorities

European Political Trends Konrad Adenauer in West Germany Charles de Gaulle in France Margaret Thatcher in Britain The Greens

Economic Recovery and Prosperity European Economic Community Council for Mutual Economic Assistance Impact of rising petroleum prices Rise of unemployment in 1970s and 1980s Competition for world markets Japanese economy

Superpower Confrontation and Détente Détente in 1960s Rapprochment with China

Tiananman Square, 1989 Soviet Union invades Afghanistan Soviet Union as “evil empire”

Arms Race and Disarmament Stockpiles of weapons Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 1963 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, 1972 Space activity Strategic Defense Initiative, Star Wars, 1980s Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty, 1988

Documents

Chapter 16 Global Conflicts during the Cold War: 1945-1989