Chapter 2

Part IIStarting at III. Different Branches Roles

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Review of the Appointments Process

The ultimate control over an agency is through hiring and firing agency personnel, or at least through having that option available

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Art II, sec. 2, cl 2 - the Appointments Clause

"[The President] shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint... all other [principal] Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law:

but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.“

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Congressional Limitations on Appointments

Under the Appointments Clause, Congress cannot make appointments to executive branch agencies

Congress can impose requirements on appointments Limitations on who can be appointed, such as

requiring political balance on the FEC Limitations on removal, as in independent

agencies

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Buckley v. Valeo

Original process for selecting members of the Federal Election Commission (FEC) Two members appointed by the President pro

tempore of the Senate, two by the Speaker of the House, and two by the President (all subject to

confirmation by both Houses of Congress), and the Secretary of the Senate and the Clerk of the

House as ex officio nonvoting members Challenged as an Appointments Clause violation

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The Role of the FEC

What does FEC do that is forbidden to Congress? How does allowing congress to appoint

commission members undermine separation of powers?

Was the selection process for the FEC commissioners constitutional?

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Civil Service

Congress developed the Civil Service to protect workers from losing their jobs every time the administration changed

Most personnel are civil service and can only be fired for cause with due process Limited due process for security agencies This was carried over and broadened in the

Homeland Security Agency

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Pros and Cons of the Civil Service

Why is important to you if you want to be a government lawyer? What are the problems with the system? How high should it go?

Career track problem for senior people without lucrative outside jobs Health Directors Lawyers in specialized areas without private

practice

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The Congressional Budget Office (CBO)

The “primary function” of the CBO is to give the House and Senate Committees on the Budget information that “will assist such committees in the discharge of all matters within their jurisdiction.” The CBO also has additional duties, all of which relate to giving Congress information on budget matters.

The Director is appointed for a four-year term by the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the President pro tempore of the Senate.

Does this appointment scheme violate the Appointments Clause?

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Washington Airports Authority v. Citizens for the Abatement of Aircraft Noise, Inc. (“MWAA”)

The federal statute authorized the airports to be run by an Airport Authority Major decisions of the Airport Authority were

subject to the veto of a “Board of Review.” The federal statute dictated that the Board be

composed exclusively of Members of Congress. Putting aside the Appointments Clause issue, how

does this violate Bicameralism and Presentment?

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The Library of Congress

The Librarian is appointed by the President. Its operation is overseen, however, by the Joint

Committee of Congress on the Library. The Joint Committee consists of the chairman and

four members of the Committee on Rules and Administration of the Senate and the chairman and four members of the Committee on House Oversight of the House of Representatives.

Does the congressional composition of the Joint Committee violate the Appointments Clause? MWAA?

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Congressional Removal of Executive Branch Officers

Impeachment Brought by the house Senate as jury Only for “Treason, Bribery, or other high

Crimes and Misdemeanors.” Why is this of limited effectiveness for agency

oversight? Could Congress remove the head of the CBO?

Legislative Veto - See Chapter 2, Part I/Chadha

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Formal Legislative Review and Oversight of Executive Branch Agencies

(1) an appropriations committee, which oversees how the agency spends its budget;

(2) a “substantive” committee, which oversees the substance of the agency’s work; and

(3) “government operations” committee, which is concerned with the agency’s efficiency and its coordination with other parts of the government.

One of each of these three types of committees will exist in both the Senate and the House.

What agency is getting hostile "oversight" right now?

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Informal Legislative Review and Oversight

Members of Congress ask agencies about some grievance of their own or their constituents. all types of contacts (telephone calls, e-mails, and so

on) between individual Members of Congress, or the Member’s staffs, or a committee’s staff, and agency officials.

Many of these informal contacts relate to discrete agency actions affecting specific constituents.

Do you think Congressmen get better service? Where does lobbying come in? Charlie Wilson's War?

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What is an Earmark?

Congress enacts a statute that appropriates a lump sum of $10 million for the Indian Health Service (“IHS”)

The appropriations statute is accompanied by a report from the appropriations committee saying that IHS should use part of the $10 million to continue operating an existing medical clinic.

The appropriations statute itself, however, does not refer to the clinic. Nor does IHS’s organic statute.

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Enforcing Earmarks

The organic statute broadly authorizes IHS to spend its appropriation “for the benefit, care, and assistance of the Indians.”

What if the agency ignores the report and closes the health center?

Can this be challenged in court?

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Vesting and Take Care Clauses

“The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.” U.S. Const. art. II, § 1.

Article II says that the President, specifically, “shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed.” Art. II, § 3.

Together, these define the source of the president's domestic powers

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The Unitary Executive

Do all of the executive branch powers belong to the president him/herself? In Chadha, Congress gave the Attorney General

the power to stay the deportation of an alien Can the president override the AG's decision?

Why does it matter whether the president has the power or the AG has the power?

How does the Appointments Clause fit into this analysis?

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President Nixon and the Independent Counsel

What was the Saturday night massacre? Why do the liberals really hate Bork?

He carried out Nixon's order to fire Cox Nixon's firing of the independent prosecutor was

the background for this law

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What was Clinton's biggest political mistake?

Not vetoing the renewal of the Independent counsel law

Hubris - it had been attacking Republicans and he was going to have the most ethical administration

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Morrison v. Olson, 487 US 654 (1988)

Why was Olson suing and what did he want? What triggers the appointment of an independent

counsel? Who appoints the independent counsel? Why will this always be political?

Reno and Gore Ashcroft and Halliburton

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The Core Function Standard for Inferior Officers

Is it an "inferior" official? yes, because of the limited mandate - no policy making

Is this a critical area for the president to control the exercise of discretion? no, that is why it is independent

Does the president retain enough control? yes, good cause firing is enough, and this is exercised

through someone (AG) the president controls

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What was the key issue in Olson?

The limitation of the removal power to good cause, rather than at-will

Does this impermissibly interfere with the president's power to carry out the laws? Majority says no, rejects the use of "quasi-

legislative/quasi-judicial" labels and focuses on separation of powers

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Intimidation by the IC

Scalia saw this as a stark limitation on the president's power to exclusively control the executive branch

He pointed out that while the IC may not intimidate the president, it will affect executive branch officers who are subject to what seems political prosecution

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Was Scalia Right?

What was he worried about as regards the power of the office? He stresses the broad powers of the IC

What would it cost you to be investigated? Was Scalia right about the impact of the IC?

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Edmond v. United States, 520 U.S. 651 (1997)

Coast Guard criminal appeals judges are subject to administrative supervision by the Judge Advocate General, who also has the power to remove them without cause.

The judges’ decisions are subject to review by the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces.

In Edmond, the Court held that judges of the Coast Guard Court of Criminal Appeals are “inferior” officers. The Edmond Court based that holding exclusively on

the fact these judges’ work is directed and supervised by principal officers.

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Congressional Determinations

If the Congress establishes that the position is an inferior officer, the courts have not second-guessed it. This might change if Congress created an inferior

office that was clearly the job of a principal officer. Be careful of circular arguments

Just because an officer is not required to be appointed under the appointment's clause, that does not prevent the court from finding that the position is covered by the Appointment's Clause

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Example: General Counsel to a Cabinet Agency

What is the classification of the Secretary of HHS? What are the duties of the General Counsel to the

Secretary? Is the general counsel an employee, inferior

officer, or principle officer of the US? Does the general counsel make decisions that

affect agency policy or enforcement? What is the level and right of supervision by the

Secretary?

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Tenure of Office Act – 1867

If Congress is silent on removal, the officer serves at the discretion of the President

This Act limited the right of presidents to remove cabinet members without the consent of the Senate President Andrew Johnson removed the

Secretary of War Was impeached, but not removed by one vote

There are now no limitations on removal of Cabinet Officers

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Myers v. US, 272 US 52 (1926)

Why all this concern about postmasters? President Wilson discharged an Oregon

postmaster without cause Postmaster sued for back pay under a law

passed after the Tenure in Office Act that required the senate to approve appointment and removal of postmasters

Chief Justice and Ex-President Taft wrote the opinion, which found the Tenure in Office Act and related acts an unconstitutional limit on presidential power.

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Humphrey’s Executor v. US, 295 US 602 (1935)

Less than 10 years later, Meyers is again at issue - what is the political change over that period?

Why was the FTC controversial at that time? What was the restriction on removing FTC

commissioners? How did the lawsuit arise?

President fired Humphrey from the FTC Humphrey died and his executor sued for the

pay for the rest of his term

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Myers Redux

Why did the court change its view on the removal power? How is a postmaster different from an FTC

commissioner? (This has not been important in later cases)

What type of agency does this create? Where does the independence come from? Are the agencies independent if the President

long enough to appoint all the members?

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How could the president fire an FTC commissioner?

In theory the president could state a cause and fire a commissioner, but it has not happened

Does this mean that they always stay when the president in unhappy with them?

It has not been an issue because they get hounded out of office if there is cause

This is an area where the presidents have not challenged the court

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How did the Sentencing Commission Affect Sentencing?

Sentences were made longer and the judges lost discretion to shorten them. White collar criminals did more jail time First time drug offenders did a lot more time. Limited and eliminated various ways to shorten

a sentence (no parole) End result was the opposite of the intention

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Mistretta v. US – 1989

This case attacked the US Sentencing Commission as an impermissible limitation on the Judicial Branch The Commission is an independent

commission in the Judicial Branch The members are appointed by the President There are no terms of office

The Court found that the president could remove them, even though this is not an executive branch agency

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The Mistretta Ruling

Read to as holding that the president can remove anyone he appoints, as long as there are no terms of office

The Court upheld this commission because of it peculiar nature, finding that it did not unduly affect the judicial branch Is there any right to judicial discretion? Probably limited by the power of congress to set

sentences - nothing says judges are allowed sentencing discretion

The powers of the sentencing commission have now been limited on due process grounds

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Removal Wrap Up

What if the statute says an officer serves until removed for good cause, but does not specify a term of office?

Can the head of a department remove inferior officers he has appointed?

Unless Congress creates a term of office, if you appoint someone, you can fire them.

Terms of office for agency heads create independent agencies These agencies are still executive branch agencies