Chapter 2 Patterns of Crime

Chapter 2Patterns of Crime

Frank Schmalleger

PowerPoint presentation created by

Ellen G. Cohn, Ph.D.

Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger

© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.

All Rights Reserved.2

History of Crime Statistics Gathering of crime statistics relatively new phenomenon

Inferences based on statistical demographics date back 200 years Thomas Robert Malthus

Economist who published an essay in 1798 claiming that as the earth’s population grew, it would lead to competition locally and internationally for limited resources.




History of Crime Statistics Andre Michel Guerry (1802-1866)

Calculated per capita crime rates in France in early 1800s

Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1864) Statistical analysis of crime in

Europe. Wanted to see if crime varied by climate, age, and gender.

Thermic law – crime varies with seasons and climate

Led to development of statistical school




Crime Statistics Today National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Conducted by Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS)

Criminal Victimization in the United States

Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program Conducted by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

Crime in the United States

National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) Collected by FBI




Programmatic Problems with Available DataBJS and FBI information differ significantly, not strictly comparable

Examine crime problem from different perspectives

Procedural and methodological differences

Definitions vary between agencies, none based on state or federal statutes




The UCR Program Crime Index

Provided crime rate to be compared over time and across locations

Expressed as:X number of offenses per 100,000 people




Part I/Index CrimesViolent Crimes

Murder Rape Robbery Aggravated assault

Property Crimes Burglary Larceny Motor vehicle theft

Arson




Cleared Crimes Cleared/solved crimes:

Arrest made Exceptionally Cleared: Perpetrator known but arrest not possible

Clearance rate: Proportion of reported/discovered crimes within given offense category that are cleared




UCR Problems UCR is a reporting program

Only includes crimes known to police

Seriously underestimates true nature of crime in the U.S.

Dark figure of crime




UCR ProblemsReasons for failure to report crime (e.g., rape)

Fear of perpetrator Shame Fear of not being believed Fear of further participation in the criminal justice system




NIBRS Funded in part by Federal Crime Identification Technology Act of 1998

Still being phased in Most important feature is incident-driven nature Collects detailed data on circumstances surrounding each criminal incident




NIBRS Crime definitions revised

46 Group A offenses in 22 crime categories

11 Group B offense categories (collect arrest data only)

Reports more detailed than UCR program

Include information about offense, parties involved, property (if any)




Hate Crimes Hate/bias crimes:

Crimes motivated by religious, ethnic, racial, or sexual orientation prejudice, or by bias against persons with disabilities

Collection mandated by Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990

In 2003, there were 7,489 reported incidents of hate crimes.

52.5% were motivated by racial bias, 16.4% by religious bias, 16.4% by sexual orientation, and 14.2% by ethnicity or national origin.

Crimes of violence represented 63.3% of hate crimes. Murder accounted for only .1% of reported hate crimes.




Hate Crimes Hate groups

KKK, Aryan Nations, National Alliance, etc.

Existed for many years Most hate crimes not committed by hate groups

Majority of hate crimes are committed by teens, primarily white males, acting alone or in groups




Data Gathering Under the NCVS NCVS began in 1972

Information obtained through interviews Includes information on unreported crimes

More accurate measure of incidence of crime in U.S.




Data Gathering Under the NCVS Data collected by U.S. Census Bureau 42,000 households, 76,000 people Interviews at six-month intervals for three years

Anyone 12 years or older included

Gathers information on victims and crimes




Crimes Included in NCVSViolent Crimes

Rape Personal robbery Aggravated and simple assault

Property Crimes Household burglar Personal and household theft

Motor vehicle theft

Does not include murder, arson, crimes against businesses, or crimes against children under 12




Critique of the NCVS Possible overreporting

Definitions of crime do not correspond to federal or state statutes

Recent changes in the NCVS make it hard to compare earlier findings with current data




Major Crime Shifts Early 1940s – sharp decrease in crime (WWII)

1960s – 1990s – dramatic increase in crime Post-WWII baby-boomers entered crime-prone years

Increased reporting and data collection Disruption of 1960s

1991 – 2003 – decrease in crime Baby-boomers aging out of crime Stricter laws, expanded justice system Economic expansion Changing demographics, family planning




Next Crime Cycle? May be on verge of new cycle of

increased crime Possible causes

Economic uncertainty, increased unemployment

Growing teen population More ex-cons back on the street More gang influence Copycat crimes Social disorganization after natural

disasters




The Crime Problem Do crime rates accurately measure

extent of crime problem in US? Official rates suggest crime decreasing Rates only based on small group of

crimes Do not include drug offenses

Correctional population might give better picture of the crime problem




Crime in World ContextViolent crime rate in US much

higher than in other industrial democracies

Elliott Currie argues that the drop in crime is a “falling-off from an extraordinary peak”

Levels of violence in US still unreasonably high




Criminality Index Criminality index – actual extent of the crime problem

Latent crime rate – rate of crime calculated on basis of crimes likely to be committed by those incapacitated by the system

Criminality index = actual crime rate + latent crime rate




Criminal HomicideHomicide versus murder: Homicide: willful killing of

one human being by another

Murder : criminal/unlawful homicide, killing without legal justification or excuse




Criminal HomicideTypes of murder: First-degree – planned, premeditated

Second-degree – crime of passion Third-degree - negligent homicide, involuntary manslaughter

Felony murder – killing during the commission of another felony




Forcible RapeUCR/NIBRS – three categories Forcible rape Statutory rape Attempted forcible rape




Forcible RapeOther types of rape: Spousal rape Gang rape Date rape Same-sex rape




Forcible RapeMotivation of rapists: Contemporary thought sees rape as a crime of power

Rapists demean victims to feel powerful, important

Some scholars returning to emphasis on sexual gratification as cause of rape




Robbery UCR/NIBRS definitionThe unlawful taking or attempted taking of property that is in the immediate possession of another force or threat of force and/or by putting the victim in fear

NCVS definition also includes attempts




Robbery Highway/street robbery

Strong-arm robbery

Armed robbery




Assault Aggravated assault:

The unlawful attack by one person upon another for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury

Simple assault:Attack without a weapon resulting either in minor injury or in undetermined injury requiring less than two days of hospitalization




Burglary UCR/NIBRS definition

The unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or a theft

Use of force not required Categories of burglary

Forcible entry Attempted forcible entry Unlawful entry without force




Larceny UCR/NIBRS:

The unlawful taking, carrying, leading, or riding away by stealth of property, other than a motor vehicle, from the possession or constructive possession of another

NCVS – two categories Household larceny Personal larceny




Motor Vehicle Theft UCR/NIBRS - theft or attempted

theft of a motor vehicle

Carjacking - stealing an occupied car

Usually involves a weapon Victim frequently injured or

killed




Arson Arson (UCR/NIBRS):

Any willful or malicious burning or attempt to burn, with or without intent to defraud, a dwelling house, public building, motor vehicle or aircraft, personal property of another

Not reported by NCVS




ArsonMotivations for arson: Thrill-seekers Vandals Pyromaniacs Arson for vengeance Vanity pyromaniacs Conceal other crimes Defrauding insurance companies –

most common motivation




Part II Offenses Less serious offenses

Many are misdemeanors

UCR only collects arrest data

Includes victimless or “social order” crimes




Other Sources of Data Crime Awareness and Campus Security

Act of 1990 Requires colleges/universities to report

campus crime statistics Campus Sexual Assault Victims’ Bill of

Rights Amends 1990 Act Requires schools to develop policies to

deal with sexual assault on campus Campus Security Statistics web site

Created by 1998 amendment




Unreported Crime Dark figure of crime:

Unreported crimes not found in official crime statistics

Self-report surveys provide information on this Anonymous respondents Report on crimes they have committed




Problems with Self-Report Surveys Subjects usually young people

Questions often focus on petty crimes

Typically focus on juvenile delinquency

No guarantee of respondent accuracy




Social Dimensions of Crime Aspects of crime and victimization as they relate to socially significant attributes by which groups are defined and according to which individuals are assigned group membership

Key social dimensions Gender Ethnicity/race Age Income/wealth Profession Social class/social standing




Correlations Connection or association observed

to exist between two measurable variables

Positive Negative

Correlation does not imply causation

Spurious correlations




Age and Crime Age is negatively related to

crime Desistance phenomenon –most forms

of criminality decrease with age Elderly may be involved in crime

Less likely to commit street crime Generally commit crimes requiring

special skills, knowledge




Gender and CrimeGender is called “the best single

predictor of criminality” Most crime committed by men Rate of female criminality has

changed little over time Women also victimized less

frequently than men (except for rape and spousal abuse)




Race and Crime Apparent link between crime and race Race-based disparities in arrests,

incarceration Differential treatment by justice

system? William Wilbanks – Myth of a Racist

Criminal Justice System Race/crime relationship is a source

of divisiveness in American society Has led to increased fear of crime

among African-Americans




Social Class and Crime Prior to 1960, correlation between

social class and crime assumed Self-report studies in 1960s found

rates of self-reported crime consistent across social classes

Class/crime relationship may be result of discretionary practices within justice system

Recent research supports class/crime relationship

Documents

Chapter 2 Patterns of Crime