Chapter 2 Phonetics and Chapter 2 Phonetics and PhonologyPhonology

Phonetics Phonetics

----A branch of linguistics which studies ----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their and provides methods for their description, classification and description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.

Three branches of Three branches of phonetics phonetics

• Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”

• Auditory phonetics----from the hearers’ point of viAuditory phonetics----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”ew, “how sounds are perceived”

• Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or meaAcoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to anons by which sounds are transmitted from one to another. ther.

Speech organs: three Speech organs: three important areas important areas

•Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;

•The oral cavity ---- the mouth;

•Nasal cavity ---- the nose.

The diagram of speech organsThe diagram of speech organs1.1. LipsLips2.2. TeethTeeth3.3. Teeth ridge(Teeth ridge( 齿龈） 齿龈） (al(al

veolar)veolar)4.4. Hard palateHard palate （硬腭）（硬腭）5.5. Soft palate (velum)Soft palate (velum)6.6. UvulaUvula （小舌）（小舌）7.7. Tip of tongueTip of tongue8.8. Blade of tongueBlade of tongue （舌（舌

叶）叶）9.9. Back of tongue(Back of tongue( 舌后舌后 ))10.10.Vocal cords(Vocal cords( 声带声带 ))11.11.Pharyngeal cavity(Pharyngeal cavity( 咽咽

腔）腔）12.12.Nasal cavityNasal cavity （鼻（鼻

腔）腔）

Orthographic representation of speech Orthographic representation of speech sounds sounds

---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of ---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.letter to represent one speech sound.

• Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ ], [ pit ] ], [ pit ]

• Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ] study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]

Some major articulatory variaSome major articulatory variables bles

---- dimensions on which speech sounds may ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:vary:

• Voicing---- voiced & voicelessVoicing---- voiced & voiceless

• Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal

• Aspiration ----- aspirated & unaspiratedAspiration ----- aspirated & unaspirated

Classification of English Classification of English speech sounds speech sounds

---- English speech sounds are generally classified in---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories:to two large categories:

• Vowels Vowels • Consonants Consonants

Note: The essential difference between these two Note: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind iairstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that n the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.of the latter it is somehow obstructed.

The Table of Phonetic The Table of Phonetic Transcription in EnglishTranscription in English

Classification of Classification of consonants consonants

---- English consonants may be ---- English consonants may be classified according to two classified according to two dimensions:dimensions:

• The manner of articulation The manner of articulation

• The place of articulationThe place of articulation

The manner of The manner of articulationarticulation

• stops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];stops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];

• fricatives: [fricatives: [], [v], [s], [z], [], [v], [s], [z], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [h];], [h];

• affricates: [affricates: [], [], [];];

• liquids: [l](lateral), [liquids: [l](lateral), []; ];

• nasals: [nasals: [], [], [], [], [];];

• glides/semivowels: [w], [glides/semivowels: [w], []. ].

The place of articulationThe place of articulation

• bilabial: [p], [b], [bilabial: [p], [b], [], [w];], [w];• labiodental: [ labiodental: [ ], [v];], [v];• dental: [dental: [], [], [];];• alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r];alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r];• palatal: [palatal: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [ ], [ ];];• velar: [k], [g], [velar: [k], [g], [];];• glottal: [h].glottal: [h].

The place of articulationThe place of articulation

1.1. Bilabial;Bilabial;2.2. Labiodental;Labiodental;3.3. Dental or interdDental or interd

ental;ental;4.4. Alveolar;Alveolar;5.5. Palatoalveolar;Palatoalveolar;6.6. Palatal;Palatal;7.7. Velar;Velar;8.8. Uvular;Uvular;9.9. Glottal.Glottal.

The description of English The description of English consonantsconsonants

English consonantsEnglish consonants

Cardinal vowelCardinal vowel

• a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fia set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a fxed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the rame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.actual vowels of existing languages.

Classification of vowels Classification of vowels

---- English vowels can be divided into t---- English vowels can be divided into two large categories:wo large categories:

• Monophthongs or pure/single vowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels

• Diphthongs or gliding vowelsDiphthongs or gliding vowels

English consonantsEnglish consonants

• The consonants of English can be descThe consonants of English can be described in the following manner:ribed in the following manner:

• [p] voiceless bilabial stop[p] voiceless bilabial stop• [b] voiced bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop• [s] voiceless alveolar fricative[s] voiceless alveolar fricative• [z] voiced alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative

Monophthongs or pure/single vowMonophthongs or pure/single vowelsels----According to which part of the tongue is ----According to which part of the tongue is

held highest in the process of production, held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:the vowels can be distinguished as:

• front vowels: [front vowels: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], []]

• central vowels: [central vowels: [], [], [], [], [];];

• back vowels: [back vowels: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], []. ].

According to the openness of According to the openness of the mouth the mouth

• Close: [Close: [], [], [], [], [], [], [].].

• Semi-close: [Semi-close: [], [], []; ];

• Semi-open: [Semi-open: [], [], [];];

• Open: [Open: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [];];

The diagram of single vowel The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned: criteria so far mentioned:

According to the shape of the According to the shape of the lips orlips orthe degree of lip rounding the degree of lip rounding

• rounded: [rounded: [], [], [], [], [], [], [];];

• unrounded: [unrounded: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], ], [[], [], [], [], []. ].

According to the length of the According to the length of the vowels vowels

• long:long: [[], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], []]

• short: [short: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], []. ].

MonophthongMonophthong 纯元音或单元音纯元音或单元音vs. vowel glidesvs. vowel glides.. 元音音渡元音音渡

• Languages also frequently make use of a distinction between vowels wLanguages also frequently make use of a distinction between vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation and thoshere the quality remains constant throughout the articulation and those where there is an audible change of quality. e where there is an audible change of quality.

• The former are known as The former are known as purepure or or monophthong vowelsmonophthong vowels and the latter, and the latter, vowel glidesvowel glides..

diphthongsdiphthongs 双元音双元音

• If a single movement of the tongue is involved, thIf a single movement of the tongue is involved, the glides are called e glides are called diphthongsdiphthongs. .

• Diphthongal glides in English can be heard in sucDiphthongal glides in English can be heard in such words as h words as wayway [weɪ], [weɪ], tide tide [taɪd], [taɪd], how how [haʊ], [haʊ], toy toy [t[tɔɪ], and ɔɪ], and toe toe [təʊ].[təʊ].

Triphthong Triphthong 三重元音三重元音 ::• A double movement produces a A double movement produces a triphthongtriphthong, whic, whic

h is ‘a glide from one vowel to another and then th is ‘a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interro a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption’. uption’.

• They are really diphthongs followed by the They are really diphthongs followed by the schwaschwa [ə], found in English words like [ə], found in English words like wirewire [waɪə] and [waɪə] and totower wer [taʊə].[taʊə].

vowelsvowels

• vowelsvowels

• Monophthongs Monophthongs semi-vowelsemi-vowel vowel gli vowel glides des

• • Diphthongs triphthongsDiphthongs triphthongs

Features of VowelsFeatures of Vowels

Functionally, vowels are the basis of syllables.Functionally, vowels are the basis of syllables.

• Physically, vowels are musical. Physically, vowels are musical. • Articulatorily, for vowels, airstream is not obsArticulatorily, for vowels, airstream is not obs

tructed, and speech organs are tense. tructed, and speech organs are tense.

PhonologyPhonologySpeech is a continuous process, so Speech is a continuous process, so

the vocal organs do not move the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the from one sound segment to the

next in a series of separate next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds steps. Rather, sounds

continually show the influence of continually show the influence of their neighbors.their neighbors.

Speech is one of human activities Speech is one of human activities used for convey meaningused for convey meaning

2.3 Phonology2.3 PhonologyPhonePhone phonetic unitphonetic unit

1.not distinctive of meaning1.not distinctive of meaning2.physical as heard or produced2.physical as heard or produced

3.marked with [ ]3.marked with [ ]

phonemephoneme

1.phonological unit 2.distinctive of 1.phonological unit 2.distinctive of meaningmeaning

3.abstract, not physical3.abstract, not physical

4.marked with / /4.marked with / /

2.3 Phonology2.3 PhonologyMinimal pairMinimal pair: : a pair of words a pair of words identical in every way except for one identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same position.sound segment in the same position.

Minimal setMinimal set: : a group of words a group of words differentiated by one sound segment differentiated by one sound segment in the same position.in the same position.

ChunChunkk

BanBan BetBet FanFan FineFine SinkSink SiteSite SeeSeedd

JunkJunk binbin batbat vanvan vinevine zinczinc SidSidee

sousoupp

vowelvowel Feat; fit; fate; fat; fought; Feat; fit; fate; fat; fought; footfoot

consonantconsonant Big; pig; rig; fig; dig; wigBig; pig; rig; fig; dig; wig

2.3 Phonology2.3 PhonologyFree variation:Free variation: When the substitution of two or morWhen the substitution of two or more sounds in the same position does not result in any chane sounds in the same position does not result in any change of meaning, they’re said to be in free variation. ge of meaning, they’re said to be in free variation. econoeconomicsmics You say [i]ther and I say [ai]ther,You say [i]ther and I say [ai]ther, You say [ni:]ther and I say [nai]ther,You say [ni:]ther and I say [nai]ther, [i:]ther [ai]ther [ni:]ther [nai]ther[i:]ther [ai]ther [ni:]ther [nai]ther Let’s call the whole thing off.Let’s call the whole thing off.

Distinctive features:Distinctive features: features that distinguish one phonfeatures that distinguish one phoneme with another. eme with another. Seal/zealSeal/zeal

bb dd gg

StopStop ++ ++ ++

VoicedVoiced ++ ++ ++

BilabialBilabial ++ -- --

AlveolarAlveolar -- ++ --

velarvelar -- -- ++

Complementary distributionComplementary distribution

• the relationship between two different the relationship between two different elements, where one element is found in elements, where one element is found in a particular environment and the other a particular environment and the other element is found in the opposite element is found in the opposite environment. It often indicates that two environment. It often indicates that two superficially different elements are in superficially different elements are in fact the same linguistic unit at a deeper fact the same linguistic unit at a deeper level. In some instances, more than two level. In some instances, more than two elements can be in complementary elements can be in complementary distribution with one another. distribution with one another.

Contrastive distributionContrastive distribution

• both elements are found in the same both elements are found in the same environment with a change in environment with a change in meaning. An example of this in meaning. An example of this in English would be /d/ and /p/, as can English would be /d/ and /p/, as can be seen in the words be seen in the words dotdot and and potpot. .

Complementary distributionComplementary distribution

• Complementary distribution is commonly Complementary distribution is commonly applied to phonology, where similar phones in applied to phonology, where similar phones in complementary distribution are usually complementary distribution are usually allophones of the same phoneme. For allophones of the same phoneme. For instance, in English, [p] and [pʰ] are allophones instance, in English, [p] and [pʰ] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ because they occur in of the phoneme /p/ because they occur in complementary distribution. [pʰ] always occurs complementary distribution. [pʰ] always occurs when it is the syllable onset and followed by a when it is the syllable onset and followed by a stressed vowel (as in the word stressed vowel (as in the word ppinin). [p] occurs ). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the word in all other situations (as in the word ssppinin). ).

complementary distributioncomplementary distribution

• There are cases where elements are in coThere are cases where elements are in complementary distribution, but are not conmplementary distribution, but are not considered allophones. For example in Englissidered allophones. For example in English [h] and [ ] (engma, in English) are in comŋh [h] and [ ] (engma, in English) are in comŋplementary distribution, since [h] only occplementary distribution, since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ ] oŋurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ ] oŋnly at the end. But because they have so litnly at the end. But because they have so little in common in phonetic terms they are stle in common in phonetic terms they are still considered separate phonemes. till considered separate phonemes.

2.3 Phonology2.3 PhonologySupresegmental features:Supresegmental features: distinctive features above the level of indistinctive features above the level of in

dividual segments over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments such as syllable,dividual segments over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments such as syllable, word, phrase and sentence which may also distinguish meaning. word, phrase and sentence which may also distinguish meaning.

SyllableSyllable:: longer than one sound and smaller than a word.longer than one sound and smaller than a word.

PhoneticallyPhonetically: : a unit consisting of a center which has little or no airflow and sounds compara unit consisting of a center which has little or no airflow and sounds comparatively loud.(sonority scale: klasp14521)atively loud.(sonority scale: klasp14521)

Structurally:Structurally: syllablesyllable onset rhymeonset rhyme nucleus codanucleus codaPhonologically:Phonologically: it concerns the way vowels and consonants combine to form various sequit concerns the way vowels and consonants combine to form various sequ

ences. (sequential rule:CCCVCCCC)sixthsences. (sequential rule:CCCVCCCC)sixthsTerms:Terms: Close/open syllable; Initial cluster: splash; medial cluster: pastry; final cluster: testClose/open syllable; Initial cluster: splash; medial cluster: pastry; final cluster: testThree-consonant clusterThree-consonant clusteri. [s] ii. [p] [t] [k] iii. [l] [r] [w] [j] i. [s] ii. [p] [t] [k] iii. [l] [r] [w] [j] e.g. spring, scream, string, squeal, square, splendid, stewe.g. spring, scream, string, squeal, square, splendid, stew

Complementary distributionComplementary distribution

• Complementary distribution is commonly Complementary distribution is commonly applied to applied to phonologyphonology,, where similar where similar phonesphones in in complementary distribution are usually complementary distribution are usually allophonesallophones of the same phoneme. For of the same phoneme. For instance, in English, [p] and [pʰ] are allophones instance, in English, [p] and [pʰ] are allophones of the of the phonemephoneme /p/ because they occur in /p/ because they occur in complementary distribution. [pʰ] always occurs complementary distribution. [pʰ] always occurs when it is the when it is the syllable onsetsyllable onset and followed by a and followed by a stressedstressed vowelvowel (as in the word (as in the word ppinin). [p] occurs ). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the word in all other situations (as in the word ssppinin).).

allophoneallophone

• In phonetics, an In phonetics, an allophoneallophone is one of a set is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phonesphones) used to pronounce a single ) used to pronounce a single phoneme For example, [pʰ] (as in phoneme For example, [pʰ] (as in pinpin) and ) and [p] (as in [p] (as in spinspin) are allophones for the ) are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language. phoneme /p/ in the English language. Although a phoneme's allophones are all Although a phoneme's allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific allophones selected in a given the specific allophones selected in a given situation is often predictable. situation is often predictable.

allophoneallophone

• Changing the allophone used by native Changing the allophone used by native speakers for a given phoneme in a specific speakers for a given phoneme in a specific context usually will not change the meaning context usually will not change the meaning of a word but the result may sound non-of a word but the result may sound non-native or unintelligible. Speakers of a given native or unintelligible. Speakers of a given language usually perceive one phoneme in language usually perceive one phoneme in their language as a single distinctive sound in their language as a single distinctive sound in that language and are "that language and are "both unaware of and both unaware of and even shocked byeven shocked by" the allophone variations " the allophone variations used to pronounce single phonemes.used to pronounce single phonemes.

2.3 Phonology2.3 PhonologyStress:Stress: intensity or prominence given to one sintensity or prominence given to one syllable rather than another.yllable rather than another.Word stressWord stress: : import/importimport/importPhrase stress: black bird; green housePhrase stress: black bird; green houseSentence stress: I love you.Sentence stress: I love you.Logical stress: I love YOU.Logical stress: I love YOU.ToneTone: : pitch variationpitch variation (( 妈麻马骂 妈麻马骂 car)car)IntonationIntonation: : variation in stress, pitch or loudnvariation in stress, pitch or loudness (falling; rising; fall-rise; rise-fall)ess (falling; rising; fall-rise; rise-fall)That’s not the book he wants.That’s not the book he wants.

complementary distributioncomplementary distribution

• There are cases where elements are in compThere are cases where elements are in complementary distribution, but are not considerlementary distribution, but are not considered allophones. For example in English [h] aned allophones. For example in English [h] and [ ] (engma, written with the digraph <-ng> ŋd [ ] (engma, written with the digraph <-ng> ŋin English) are in complementary distributioin English) are in complementary distribution, since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a n, since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ ] only at the end. But because ŋsyllable and [ ] only at the end. But because ŋthey have so little in common in phonetic terthey have so little in common in phonetic terms they are still considered separate phonems they are still considered separate phonemes mes

2.3 Phonology2.3 PhonologySummary:Summary:PhonologyPhonologyDifference between phonetics and Difference between phonetics and phonologyphonologyPhonemePhonemeMinimal pair/setMinimal pair/setFree variationFree variationDistinctive featuresDistinctive featuresSuprasegmental features: syllable, stress, Suprasegmental features: syllable, stress, tone, intonation, tone grouptone, intonation, tone groupHomeworkHomework: : exercise 5,6 and 7.exercise 5,6 and 7.

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