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CHAPTER - 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Hygiene has become essential to human beings way of life. Consumers‟ attitude

towards hygiene and active lifestyle has created a rapidly increasing market for a wide

range of functional textiles, which in turn has stimulated intensive research and

development. Value addition in clothing has changed the global textile scenario.

Research has quite convincingly shown that apparel consumers all over the world are

demanding functionality in the products that they use (Kavitha 2006). When textile

assumes an additional function over and above the conventional purpose, it may be

regarded as speciality or functional textile. To realize our dream of new fibres and

environment friendly wet processing, it is essential to invest in future research and

“researchers”

The textile industry of the future looks very promising – something to revive our

spirits considering the fact that it is considered an obsolete technology. However, the

textile industry is required to shift its emphasis from “quantity” to “quality” and adopt

itself to the dynamism of the market economy (Malik and Parmar , 2000). As a result, the

number of bio functional textiles with an antimicrobial activity has increased

considerably over the last few years, (Kavitha et al., 2006).

Some of the best examples of functionality are the products attributes such as

wrinkle resistance, soil release, flame retardant, oil repellency, fade resistance, UV

resistance, anti allergy, insect repellent, stain release, anti odour, microbial resistance,

fragrance release, protective finishes, skin care additives, insect repellent, deodorizing

fragrance, antimicrobials, cool finish and thermal insulator finish, water proofing finish

and UV stabilizers (Malik and Parmar, 2000). Functional finishes represent the next

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generation of finishing industry, which make textile materials act by themselves. This

means that they may keep us warm in cold environments or cool in hot environments or

provide us with considerable convenience, support, and even fun in our normal day-to-

day activities (Lewin and Sello, 1984).

Textile and clothing industry normally seen as “traditional industry” is an

important part of the European and Asian manufacturing industry. Because of the

increased competition, the industries have to move towards more innovative, high quality

products in order to differentiate themselves and compete with other competitors. In the

development of fabrics, functional aspects such as anti-bacterial and UV protection are

playing an increased important role (Ramachandran, 2004). To protect the mankind and

to avoid cross contamination, a special finish like antimicrobial finish has become

necessary. As consumers have become more aware of hygiene and potentially harmful

effects of microbes, the demand for antimicrobial finished clothing is increasing (Kwong,

2006).

2.2 ANTIMICROBIAL FINISH

2.2.1 Need for Antimicrobial Finish in Textiles

“The consumers are now increasingly aware of the hygienic life style and there is

a necessity and expectation for a wide range of textile products finished with

antimicrobial properties”, says Shanmugasundaram (2007).

The term 'antimicrobial' refers to a broad range of technologies that provide

varying degrees of protection for textile materials against microorganisms.

Antimicrobials are very different in their chemical nature, mode of action, impact on

people and the environment, handling characteristics, durability, costs, regulatory

compliance, and how they interact with microorganisms White W C, Bellfield R, Ellis J

and Vandendaele I P et al., (2010). The purpose of imparting antimicrobial activity to

textiles is to protect the material from microbial attack, prevent the transmission and

spreading of pathogenic microorganisms, inhibit odour development resulting from

microbial degradation, and creating a material that will act as preventive and/or curative

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treatment. Ideal antimicrobial finishing needs to fulfill a number of requirements in order

to achieve the maximum benefit from antimicrobially functionalized textile products. An

antimicrobially-treated material is defined as being hygienic and, therefore, should have

the following requirements (Hashem, Ibrahim, El-Sayed, El-Husseiny, El-Enany et al.,

2009). Effective inhibition against a broad spectrum of bacterial and fungal species, non-

toxicity to the consumer, manufacturer and the environment, durability, compatibility

with resident skin micro biota, and other finishing processes, avert from irritations and

allergies, applicability with no adverse effects on the quality or appearance of the textile.

In recent years, great interest in the antibacterial finishing of fibres and

fabrics for practical applications has been observed (Worley, Sun et al., 2001). Most

textile materials currently used in hospitals and hotels are conducive to cross-infection or

transmission of diseases caused by micro-organisms. Textiles for medical and hygienic

use have become important areas in the textile industry. In general, antimicrobial

properties can be imparted to textile materials by chemically or physically incorporating

functional agents onto fibres or fabrics. The antimicrobial properties of such textile

materials can be grouped into two categories, temporarily or durably functional fabrics.

Temporary biocidal properties of fabrics are easy to achieve in finishing, but easy

to lose in laundering. Durability has generally been accomplished by a common

technology, a slow-releasing method. According to this method, sufficient antibacterial

agents are incorporated into fibres or fabrics by means of a wet finishing process. The

treated fabrics deactivate bacteria by slowly releasing the biocide from the materials.

However, the antibacterial agents will vanish completely if they are impregnated in

materials without covalent bond linkages. Some successful examples of chemically

incorporated techniques have been noted. Sun, Xu et al., (1999) obtained antimicrobial

textile materials based on helamine chemistry. These materials have demonstrated

biocidal properties against a wide range of pathogens, and are also non-toxic and

environmentally friendly. In that approach, a dimethylol hydration derivative,

dimethylol-5,5-dimethylhy-danation, was used in chemical treatment of cellulose and

subsequent chlorine bleaching can convert unreacted amide or imides bonds in the

hydration. Anti-microbial cellulosic fabrics were developed by means of the use of

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1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic acid and citric acid, together with subsequent oxygen

bleaching. Carboxylic acids have been converted to peroxyacids by being reacted with

hydrogen peroxide under acidic conditions, while carboxylic acid groups can be

incorporated into cellulose fabrics. Polymeric materials containing such moieties were

found to exhibit oxidative potentials, in particular antibacterial activities against

Escherichia coli (Zhishen, Dongfen, Weiliang et al., 2001).

The inherent properties of the textile fibres provide room for the growth of

microorganisms. Besides, the structure of the substrates and the chemical processes may

induce the growth of microbes. Humid and warm environment still aggravate the

problem. Infestation by microbes causes cross infection by pathogens and develop odour

where the fabric is worn next to skin. In addition, the staining and loss of the performance

properties of textile substrates are the results of microbial attack. Basically, with a view

to protecting the wearer and the textile substrate itself antimicrobial finish is applied to

textile materials Ramachandran et al., (2004).

Antimicrobial are used on textiles to control bacteria, fungi, mold, mildew, and

algae and the problems of deterioration, staining, odour and health concerns that they

cause. In the broad array of microorganisms there are both good and bad types. Control

strategies of the bad organisms must include consideration of being sure that non-target

organisms are not affected or that adaptation of microorganisms is not encouraged.

Microorganisms cause problems with textile raw materials and processing

chemicals, wet processes in the mills, roll or bulk goods in storage, finished goods in

storage and transport, and goods as they are used by the consumer. This can be

extremely critical to a clean room operator, a medical facility, or a food processing

facility, or it can be an annoyance and aesthetic problem to the athlete or normal

consumers. The economic impact of microbial contamination is significant and the

consumer interests and demands for protection is at an all time high.

Antibacterial fabrics are important not only in medical applications but also in

terms of daily life usage. The application of antimicrobial finishes to textiles can prevent

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bacterial growth on textiles (Jakimiak et al., 2006). Antibacterial textile production has

become increasingly prominent for hygienic and medical applications. The antimicrobial

agents can be antibiotics, formaldehyde, heavy metal ions (silver, copper) (Gouda, 2006;

Seshadri and Bhat, 2005) quaternary ammonium salts with long hydrocarbon chains

(Goldsmith et al.,1954; Lashen, 1971; Seshadri and Bhat, 2005), phenol and oxidizing

agents such as chlorine (Goldsmith et al.,1954), chloramines, hydrogen peroxide, ozone

(Gouda, 2006). Antimicrobial Finish is important for general textiles and high

performance applications where the chance of microbial growth is high.

Antimicrobials fabrics gained significant importance due to their wide acceptance

as surgical apparels, baby clothing and undergarments.

In the last few decades, with the increase in new antimicrobial fibre technologies

and the growing awareness about cleaner surroundings and healthy lifestyle, a range of

textile products based on synthetic antimicrobial agents such as triclosan, metal and their

salts, organometallics, phenols and quaternary ammounium compounds, have been

developed and quite a few are also available commercially (Purwar and Joshi, 2004)

Although the synthetic antimicrobial agents are very effective against a range of microbes

and give a durable effect on textiles, they are a cause of concern due to the associated

side effects, action on non-target microorganisms and water pollution. Hence, there is a

great demand for antimicrobial textiles based on ecofriendly agents which not only help

to reduce effectively the ill effects associated due to microbial growth on textile material

but also comply with the statutory requirements imposed by regulating agencies.

Cellulose fibres have found a broad application in medical textile field owing to

the unique characteristic, such as high moisture and liquid adsorption, low impurity

content, antistatic behavior, and good mechanical properties. However, cellulose fibres

provide an excellent surface for microorganisms‟ growth. Due to their molecular

structure and a large active surface area, cellulose fibres, may be an ideal matrix for the

design of bioactive, biocompatible, and intelligent materials (Vigo 2001; Stashak,

Farstvedt et al., 2004).

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According to the literature cellulose fibres are one of the most interesting basic

materials for antimicrobial fictionalization. The surface modification of the cellulose

fibres is currently considered to be the best route for obtaining modern functionality on

textiles for the use in medical applications. However, in spite of various techniques used

for fibre fictionalization in order to impart antimicrobial properties and to develop

biomedical products, there is still a large gap within the research field of interactions

between bacterial and fungal systems and bioactive surfaces of medical textile materials.

Standard test methods are commonly applied to determine the efficiency of antimicrobial

agents. These methods do not usually reflect in-use circumstances, because the majority

of tests have only been performed in liquid media and not on dry, complex heterogeneous

systems such as functionalized fibrous materials. Testing and evaluating antimicrobial

efficiency in laboratory conditions with respect to the real-life environment is rather

challenging. Thus, the test selected and interpretations made may vary on the basis of the

different capability of antimicrobial action. The evaluation of any antimicrobial test

results requires a thoughtful and basic understanding of microbiology, understanding the

strengths and limitations of each test and understanding the mode of action of the

antimicrobial agent in question (White, Bellfield, Ellis, Vandendaele et al., 2010).

Following are the major requirement for an effective antimicrobial finish:

1. Durability to washing, dry cleaning and hot pressing

2. Selective activity to undesirable microbes

3. It should not produce harmful effects to the manufacture, user and the

environment

4. It should compile with the statutory requirements of regulating agencies

5. Compatibility with the chemical processes

6. Easy method of application

7. No deterioration of fabric quality

8. Resistant to the body fluids

9. Resistant to disinfectant/sterilization

10. Quick acting and effective in killing or inhibiting the growth of a broad spectrum

of microbes

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11. Non-selective and non-mutable to pathogens

12. Fast to repeated laundering, dry cleaning and exposure to light

13. Safe and comfortable to wear (No irritation to skin)

14. Minimal environmental impact

15. Compatible with other finishing agents

16. Low cost

Antimicrobial treatment for textile materials in necessary to fulfill the following

objectives:

1. To avoid cross infection by pathogenic microorganisms.

2. To control the infestation by microbes

3. To arrest metabolism in microbes in order to reduce the formation of odour.

4. To safeguard the textile products from staining, discoloration and quality

deterioration

2.2.2 Need for Herbal Antimicrobial Finish

There is significant development in investigation of eco-friendly, natural

antimicrobial finish for application on textile substrate.

The following requirements need to be satisfied to obtain maximum benefits out

of the finish:

1. Durability to washing, dry-cleaning and hot pressing.

2. Selective activity to undesirable microorganisms.

3. Should not produce harmful effects to the manufacturer, user and the environment.

4. Should comply with the statutory requirements of regulating agencies.

5. Compatibility with the chemical processes.

6. Easy method of application. No deterioration of fabric quality.

7. Resistant to body fluids; and resistant to disinfections / sterilization

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The natural variants possess more potential for investigation because of following

reasons:

1. Eco-friendly

2. Least toxicity

3. Suitability for next-to-skin innerwear

4. Vast scope of research to counteract microbe‟s resistant development towards

antimicrobial finishes

5. Safe handling.

Nature has been a source of medicinal agents and has been isolated from natural

sources. Many of these isolations were based on the uses of the agents in traditional

medicine. The plant-based, traditional medicine systems continue to play an essential role

in health care (Purwar et al., 2008). Among these, development of antimicrobial textile

finish is highly indispensable and relevant since garments are in direct contact with

human body (Sathianarayanan et al., 2010). Though a number of commercial

antimicrobial agents have been introduced in the market, their compliance to the

regulations imposed by international bodes like EPU is still unclear (Pratruangkrai et al.,

2006.) The herbal antimicrobial finishes overcome the disadvantages of chemical

finishes. They will not cause damage to the fabrics, are eco-friendly, non-toxic, non

allergic and since naturally occurring herbs are used, the cost factor is also feasible (Thiry

et al., 2005). Extracts of medicinal herbs-in particular essential oils-have shown many

potential applications in folk medicine, fragrance, cosmetic, phyto-preparations and food

technology as reported by several researchers (El Astal, Aera and Kerrit et al., 2005).

Several medicinal and herbal plants are indigenous to the Mediterranean region (Panizzi,

Flamini, Cioni and Morelli et al., 1993; Tyler, Speedie and Robbers et al., 1996. Viuda-

Martos, Ruíz-Navajas, Fernández-López and Pérez-Álvarez et al., 2007) the unique

geographical locations of Jordan led to the diversity in its ecological and climate regions.

Aromatic plants have been used in folk medicine as antimicrobial agents since ancient

times (Al-Qura‟n S et al., 2008).

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Bojana Boh and Emilknz(2006) discuss the micro encapsulation of essential oils

and phase change materials for application in textile products. Essential oila of

lavender(Lavandula hybrid), Rosemary(Rosmarinus officinalis) and sage (Salvia

officinalis) in mixtures with iso propylmyristate as a solvent were used as anti microbial

active agents. The treated products were considered as textile shoe insoles which would

resist bacteria.

2.2.3 Microorganisms involved in textiles

Mould, mildew, fungus, yeast, bacteria and virus (micro-organisms) are part of

our everyday lives. There are both good and bad types of microorganisms. The thousands

of species of micro-organisms that exist are found everywhere in the environment, on our

garments and on our bodies. Microbes, their body parts, metabolic products and

reproductive parts, cause multiple problems to textiles. These are human irritants,

sensitizers, toxic-response agents, causers of disease and simple discomforting agents.

2.2.3.1 The Microbial Growth Promoters

The human skin is usually crowded with innumerable microbes. In favourable

conditions certain bacteria can grow from a single germ to million in a very short period

of time. They can double every 20 to 30 minutes in a warm and most micro climate that

has plenty of food for them, e.g. perspiration and other body secretion, skin particles, fats

and leftovers from worn out threads. The common promoters are as following:

1. Temperature

2. Moisture

3. Dirt

4. Receptive Surface

5. Perspiration

6. Food Particles

7. Textile Finishes

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Although microbes can be useful in many ways e.g. in brewing, baking and

biotechnology, they can also be harmful to both textile and humans. The various effects

of microbes are stated as follows:

1. Bad Odour

2. Skin and Soft Tissue Infections

3. Staining of Fabric

4. Slick slimy handle

5. Loss of Functional Properties

6. Decrease in Life of textile

Cotton textiles in contact with the human body offer an ideal environment for

microbial growth. Microbes are the tiniest creature not seen by naked eyes. They include

a variety of microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, algae and virus. Bacteria are unicellular

organisms which grow rapidly under ideal condition like moisture and warmth.

Subdivision of the bacteria family includes two classes Gram positive and Gram

negative, of which Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae respectively are

the typical examples. Some specific types of bacteria are pathogenic and cause cross

infection. Fungi, moulds or mildew are complex organisms with slow growth rate. They

stain the fabric and deteriorate its performance properties. To protect the textiles and

mankind from pathogen and to avoid cross infection, a special finish like antimicrobial

finish has become necessary (Ramachandran et al., 2004).

The mechanism is either on the cell during the metabolism or within the core

substance (genome). Oxidizing agents such as aldehydes, halogens and proxy compounds

attack the cell membrane, get into cytoplasm and affect the enzymes of the micro-

organism. Coagulants, primary alcohols irreversibly denature the protein structure.

Radical formers like halogens, isothiazones and peroxy compounds are highly reactive

due to the presence of free electrons. These compounds virtually react with all organic

structure in particular risk to nucleic acids by triggering mutations and dimerization.

There are many natural/herbal products which show antimicrobial activities (Cowan

et al., 1999).

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Microbial shedding from our body contributes to microorganism spreading into a

textile material either directly in clothes or on surrounding textiles. Recent studies

strongly support that contamination of textiles in clinical settings may contribute to the

dispersal of pathogens to the air which then settle down and infect the immediate and

non-immediate environment. It is one of the most probable causes of hospital infections

(Borkow and Gabbay. et al., 2008).

Typically, pathogenic microorganisms like Klebsiella pnuemoniae, Pseudomonas

aeuroginosa, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans

have been found on textiles. In addition, microorganism proliferation can cause

malodours, stains and damage the mechanical properties of the component fibres that

could cause a product to be less effective in its intended use. Additionally, may promote

skin contamination, inflammation and in sensitive people, atopic dermatitis (Haug et al.,

2006).

2.2.4 Functional Finishes on Textiles

Fuctionalization of textile materials can be defined as a process which provides

functional properties to textile and clothing materials. Functional properties can be

obtained either by:

• The fibre itself (characteristics of the polymer or additives before fibre spinning)

• Yarn, fabric or material construction (for instance, with different fibres or

different layers)

• Textile finishing

This can be made by all the traditional technologies, such as: exhaustion, padding,

low add-on processes, foam application, printing, coating, etc. The innovative effects are

assured by the application of specialty chemicals which can be applied by means of new

alternative supports, such as microencapsulation, by using cyclodextrines. These

alternatives are now very important for the application of several functional finishes,

especially when a long term effect is intended, with controlled release of chemicals. The

emergence of the so-called “nanotechnologies” opens also a wide range of new

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possibilities. In many cases, the functional properties involve a surface modification,

which can be obtained by means of chemical modification, by the application of a surface

layer or by more environmental friendly treatments such as the use of enzymes or

physical modification (based namely on plasma technology).

The consumers are demanding textile products with higher performances, even in

the “traditional” clothing and home textiles areas. In fact, significant product

differentiation in the area of textiles can be achieved by high performance properties, in

parallel with visual appearance. Some of these properties were developed mainly for

“protective” clothing but nowadays they are often present in functional textiles used for

“normal” clothing. Many fabric producers are devoting more and more attention to try to

put into the market products with new effects that can represent an important added value

(Almeida et al., 2005).

Functional properties can be defined as all the effects that are beyond the pure

aesthetic and decorative functions. They include a large range of properties that in some

cases can be also classified as “smart properties”, which means that they grant to the

textiles the capacity of acting according to an external stimulation. Multiple functions are

often required, leading to what we can call multifunctional textiles. Functionalization of

textiles has been considered as one of the important topics to be included in the

“European Technology Platform for the Future of Textiles and Clothing” which is being

developed with the coordination of EURATEX with the scientific support of

TEXTRANET and AUTEX. A specific group called: Fictionalization of textiles and

related processes has been created, but the subject “functionality” or “fictionalization of

textiles” appears in the reports presented by all the nine Thematic Expert Groups which

prepared the research agenda for the future (EURATEX 2006).

The many antimicrobial agents used in textile applications include halogenated

salicylic acid, anilides, aromatic halogen compounds, chlorinated diphenylethers

(Triclosan), benzoic esters, metal compounds (e.g., Ag, Zn, Cu), quaternary ammonium

compounds, and chitosan. Antimicrobial agents can be integrated into the fibres directly

or can be applied to textile surfaces by conventional textile finishing processes. The

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main advantages of finishing are higher productivity and relatively low processing cost.

However, many textiles finished this way have lower durability against repeated home

launderings than the fabrics consisting of antibacterial fibres.

2.2.5 Antimicrobial Finishing Methodologies

The antimicrobial agents can be applied to the textile substrates by exhaust, pad-

dry-cure, coating, spray and foam techniques. The substances can also be applied by

directly adding into the fibre spinning dope. It is claimed that the commercial agents can

be applied online during the dyeing and finishing operations. Various methods for

improving the durability of the finish include:

1. Insoulbilisation of the active substances in / on the fibre.

2. Treating the fibre with resin, condensates or cross-linking agents.

3. Micro encapsulation of the antimicrobial agents with the fibre matrix.

4. Coating the fibre surface.

5. Chemical modification of the fibre by covalent bond formation.

6. Use of graft polymers, homo polymers and / or co-polymerization on to the fibre.

2.2.6 Types of Antimicrobial Agent

There are several different classifications for antimicrobial agents in the literature

according to the chemistry, the mechanism of antimicrobial activity, efficiency, and

washing-resistance (Gao, Cranston 2008, Coman, Oancea, Vrînceanu 2010, Schindler,

Hauser 2004, Simoncic, Tomsic 2010, Ramachandran, Rajendrakumar, Rajendran 2004).

Consistent with these studies, antimicrobial substances can be divided into biocides and

biostats, leaching and bound antimicrobials, controlled-release and barrier-forming

agents, synthetic and natural, and agents of poor and of good washing resistance

(Simoncic, Tomsic et al., 2010). In general, the antimicrobial agents can have a biocidal

or biostatic effect on microbial growth rates. Whilst the biocides (bactericides and

fungicides) cause the death of microorganisms, the biostats (bacteriostats and fungistats)

lead to the inhibition of the microorganisms‟ growth. The mode of action is strongly

dependent upon the concentration of the active substance in the textile. The minimum

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inhibitory concentration (MIC) is required for biostatic activity, while the minimum

biocidal concentration (MBC) should be exceeded for biocidal activity. Many

commercially-used antimicrobial products, e.g. silver, triclosan, polyhexamethylen

biguanid (PHMB) and quaternary ammonium compounds are biocides (Gao, Cranston et

al., 2008).

2.2.7 Mechanism of Antimicrobials

Development of antimicrobials for clinical use has been most successful in

targeting essential components of 5 general areas of bacterial metabolism: cell wall

synthesis, protein synthesis, RNA synthesis, DNA synthesis, and intermediary

metabolism. It is beyond the scope of this discussion to cover each of these areas in

detail. Instead, focus on some recent developments in novel inhibitors that target dual

steps in cell wall synthesis, in understanding the pathways by which antimicrobial agents

of diverse types may effect cell killing, and in understanding the interactions of

quinolones with their dual targets and the consequences of these interactions (David,

Hooper et al., 2012). Mechanisms of action of antibacterial agents are given below

● Interference with cell wall synthesis

β-Lactams: penicillin, cephalosporin, carbapenems, Monobactams

Glycopeptides: vancomycin, teicoplanin

● Protein synthesis inhibition

Bind to 50S ribosomal subunit: macrolides, chloramphenicol, clindamycin, quinupristin-

dalfopristin, linezolid.

Bind to 30S ribosomal subunit: aminoglycosides, tetracyclines

Bind to bacterial isoleucyl-tRNA synthetase: mupirocin erference with nucleic acid

synthesis

Inhibit DNA synthesis: fluoroquinolones

Inhibit RNA synthesis: rifampin

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● Inhibition of metabolic pathway: sulfonamides, folic acid analogues

● Disruption of bacterial membrane structure: polymyxins, daptomycin. (Fred, Tenover

et al., 2006)

On the basis of the number of antimicrobials in clinical use, bacterial cell wall

synthesis has been perhaps the target area most extensively exploited for antimicrobial

development, although bacterial protein synthesis may be a close second. The

components of the cell wall synthesis machinery are appealing antimicrobial targets

because of the absence of counterparts in human biology, thereby providing intrinsic

target selectivity (Somner, Reynolds et al., 1990). It is possible to determine the site in

the synthesis pathway at which an antimicrobial acts by measuring accumulation of

precursors and blocks in development of immature and mature peptidoglycan. β-Lactam

antimicrobials are known to interact with transpeptidase directly, forming covalent

linkages that have enabled the study of their actions by use of labeled β-lactam molecules

to tag these enzymes, which are also designated penicillin binding proteins because of

this property (Goffin, Ghuysen et al., 1998).

Bactericidal activity is a general property of β-lactams, glycopeptides, amino

glycosides, and quinolones. For all of these classes, however, interaction with their

various drug targets, cell wall synthesis for β-lactams and glycopeptides, the bacterial

ribosome for amino glycosides, and DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV for quinolones,

although a necessary initial event, is not by itself sufficient to affect bacterial lethality.

Subsequent events are required, but the molecular nature of these events has been elusive

(Fan, Moews, Walsh, Knox et al., 1994). β-Lactams as transpeptidase inhibitors thus

block the conversion of immature to mature peptidoglycan. Because many bacteria have

several distinct but essential transpeptidase, β-lactam resistance by target alteration

requires alteration of several targets, making development of high-level resistance by

mutation (Hakenbeck, Grebe, Zähner, Stock et al., 1999).

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2.2.8 Commercial Antimicrobial Agents and Fibres

Thomsan Research Associates markets a range of antimicrobials under the trade

name Ultra fresh for the textile and polymer industry. Ultra fresh products were

developed to be used in normal textile processes. To incorporate antibacterial into high

temperature fibres like polyester and nylon, it is necessary to use an inorganic

antimicrobial like Ultra fresh CA-16 or PA-42. These must be added as a special master

batch to the polymer mixture before the extrusion process. For fibres such as

polypropylene, which are extruded at lower temperatures, it is possible to use organic

antimicrobials such as Ultra fresh Nm-100, Dm-50 or XQ-32. In the case of Rossari.s

Fabshield with AEGIS microbe shield programme, the cell membrane of the bacteria get

ruptured when the microbes come in contact with the treated surface; thus, preventing

consumption of antimicrobial over a period of time and remain functional throughout the

life of the product. The active substance 3-Trimethoxy silyl propyl dimethyl octadecyl

ammonium chloride gets attached to the substrate either through bond formation on the

surface or by micro polymer-sing and forming a layer on the treated surface; the

antimicrobial agent disrupts the cell membrane of the microbes through physical and

ionic phenomena. Ciba Specialty Chemicals markets Tinosan AM 110 as a durable

antimicrobial agent for textiles made of polyester and polyamide fibres and their blends

with cotton, wool or other fibres.

Tinosan contains an active antimicrobial (2, 4, 4'-Trichloro-2' - hydroxyl-

dipenylether) which behaves like a colorless disperse dye and can be exhausted at a very

high exhaustion rate on to polyester and polyamide fibres when added to the dye bath.

Clariant markets the Sanitized range of Sanitized AG, Switzerland for the hygienic finish

of both natural and synthetic fibres. The branded Sanitized range functions as a highly

effective bacteriostatic and fungistatic finishes and can be applied to textile materials

such as ladies hosiery and tights (Yang et al., 2000).

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2.2.9 Benefits of Antimicrobial Textiles

A wide range textile product is now available for the benefit of the consumer.

Initially, the primary objective of the finish was to protect textiles from being affected by

microbes particularly fungi. Uniforms, tents, defense textiles and technical textiles, such

as, geo-textiles have therefore all been finished using antimicrobial agents. Later, the

home textiles, such as, curtains coverings, and bath mats came with antimicrobial finish

(Home et al., 2002). The application of the finish is now extended to textiles used for

outdoor, healthcare sector, sports and leisure. Novel technologies in antimicrobial

finishing are successfully employed in nonwoven sector especially in medical textiles.

Textile fibres with built-in antimicrobial properties will also serve the purpose alone or in

blends with other fibres. Bioactive fibre is a modified form of the finish, which includes

chemotherapeutics in their structure, i.e., synthetic drugs of bactericidal and fungicidal

qualities. These fibres are not only used in medicine and health prophylaxis applications

but also for manufacturing textile products of daily use and technical textiles. The field of

application of the bioactive fibres includes sanitary materials, dressing materials, surgical

threads, materials for filtration of gases and liquids, air conditioning and ventilation,

constructional materials, special materials for food industry, pharmaceutical industry,

footwear industry, clothing industry, automotive industry, etc (Rajendran and Anand

et al., 2007).

2.2.10 Evaluation of Antimicrobial Efficiency

Testing the antimicrobial activity of functionalized textiles is consisted of two

categories of standardized test methods, qualitative (AATCC TM147 and AATCC TM30

(antifungal) (American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists Test Method),

ISO/DIS 20645, EN ISO 20645 and ISO 11721 (International Standards Organization),

and SN 195 920 (921 - antifungal) (Swiss Norm) and quantitative (AATCC TM100, ISO

20743, SN 195924, JIS L 1902 (Japanese Industrial Standard) and ASTM E 2149

(American Society for Testing and Materials). Qualitative methods are mostly based on

the agar diffusion test. They are relatively quick, cheap, simple and well-defined but

subjective (use of ratings) and not appropriate for all kind of textiles and for analyses of

26

efficacy of different antimicrobial agents as they diffuse through agar at different rates or

not at all.

Quantitative Bacterial Reduction Test (AATCC test method 100-2004) (Kwong et al.,

2006)

Quantitative methods are on the other hand more broadly applicable but more

time-intense and expensive as they involve actual microbe enumeration, indicating level

of bactericidal/ fungicidal activity. They can be used for all types of textiles and

antimicrobials and comparisons can be made between different antimicrobial treatments

as well as various treatment levels on the same textile The more commonly used tests

for evaluation of the antimicrobial efficiency are Parallel Streak Method AATCC TM147

and ISO 20645, from among qualitative tests and AATCC TM100, JIS L 1902 and ISO

20743, from among quantitative tests (Coman, Oancea, Vrînceanu 2010; Schindler

Hauser 2004; Swofford 2010; Teufel, Redl 2006).

2.2.11 Advantages of antimicrobial finished cotton fabric

The specific antimicrobial activity or bacteriostatic effects is based on the

difference between the bacteria count of the reference value (Mb value) and the sample

after 18 h of incubation (Mc value). Due to the limitations of the existing system, a new

test system EN ISO20645, SN 195920-1992 /TC/38/WG23 (test methods for

antimicrobial finished textile products) has been evolved by considering the

technological, dermatological and ecological aspects of the finish (Wierzbowska T et al.,

2000).

An antimicrobial finish can be applied to most types of textiles. A wide variety of

antimicrobial finishes are currently being applied to nonwoven textiles to be used as

disposable protective garments in hospitals. Antimicrobials textiles, whether woven,

nonwoven, or knit, can also be made out of any type of fibre content that is suitable for

garment production. The fibre content of an antimicrobial textile must be chosen

carefully. Synthetic fabrics may not be appropriate for some end uses due to the fact that

most synthetic fibres are hydrophobic. This means that fabrics made of synthetic fibres

27

hold a large amount of perspiration wetness in their weave structure than do natural

fibres. This property can cause an increased chance of irritation and odor due to microbial

growth on the body (Purwar et al., 2004).

2.3 OILS

Oil is a naturally occurring substance. The organic residues from the decay of

plants and animals are converted by heat and pressure into petroleum, migrating upwards,

sometimes over extensive areas, either to reach the surface or be occasionally trapped in

to become oil reservoirs Paul, (2002). Oil is one of the most important sources of energy

and is also used as raw material for synthetic polymers and chemicals worldwide

Annunciado et al., (2005), Wei et al., (2003) and Denizceylan and Burakkaracik (2009).

Oil has been a part of the natural environment for millions of years.

Oil is a very complex mixture of many different chemicals Sayed (2003) and a

mixture of components consisting of different hydrocarbons that range from a light gas

(methane) to heavy solids with differing properties. When oil is spilled on water or on

land, the physical and chemical properties of oil change progressively. The process is

referred to as „weathering‟ Paul, (2002), Husseien and Amer (2009), Beom-Goo Lee

James Han and Roger Rowell, (1999), White, (2010).

Oils fall into two main groups, mineral oils and fatty oils. Mineral oils are

distilled from crude petroleum. Fatty oils are expressed or extracted from vegetable

sources such as seeds, fruits and nuts, and from animal tissues and fish. This group also

includes derived products such as oleines, stearines, sulphonated oils, etc.

Mineral oils consist of mixtures of complex hydrocarbons, the chemical

constitutions of which are incompletely understood. When properly refined, mineral oils

are very stable products, i.e. they are unaffected by atmospheric oxygen and do not turn

sticky and gummy, nor do they discolor under the influence of sunlight. They are

indifferent to the attack of most chemicals, and are not decomposed or saponified by

caustic alkalis as are the fatty oils. Thus they are termed unsaponifiable. Fatty oils form

soaps under these conditions and are therefore termed saponifiable.

28

The textile industry, generally requires those oils as lubricants which do not dry

and produce hardened films on the fibre, since such films cause great difficulty in the

subsequent operations of scouring, dyeing, and finishing. The whole problem concerning

these changes is one of practical importance, and a solution of commercial value is very

desirable since expensive oils, such as olive, should not degenerate in textile practice, but

retain the properties of original oiliness and viscosity for a period of several months.

The essential oils (EOs) from many plants are known to possess antibacterial and

antifungal activity (Burt, Vlielander, Haagsman and Veldhuizen (2005) Dorman and

Deans et al., 2000) EOs has been empirically used as antimicrobial agents, but the

spectrum of activity and mechanisms of action remain unknown for most of them. Since

the beginning of human civilization, medicinal plants have been used by mankind for its

therapeutic value.

On the subject of the application of vegetable oils to textile fabrics, two recently

published papers offer very interesting data. The paper by Stefanovic et al., (2014) deals

with the effect of aqueous emulsions of vegetable oils on the wrinkle recovery properties

of 100% cotton fabric.

Six vegetable oils (rapeseed oil, Olive oil, Coconut oil, Safflower oil, Linseed oil

and modified sunflower oil) with different fatty acid profiles were used. The results

prove that the fatty acid profile is an important factor affecting the wrinkle recovery

properties of treated cotton fabrics. The results show better wrinkle properties with the

increase in the concentration of the active agents. It has been found that better recovery

is due to the formation of a microfilm around the fibres and yarns that reduces the friction

coefficient.

The other paper by Jiratumnukul et al., (2006) is concerned with the application

of fatty esters obtained from vegetable oils which was found to improve the water

repellent properties of cotton fabrics. In this work, cotton fabrics were treated with

modified fatty esters obtained from rice bran oil compared to those obtained from

Sunflower oil and Palm oil. The results showed that Palm oil ester derivative imparted

29

higher water repellency than other oils. However one disadvantage in this process was

the yellowing of fabric with ester derivative of oils. It is pertinent to note that both these

authors have not dealt with the effect of oil application on air permeability, thermal

conductivity, handle & wickability.

Prabakaran et al., (2011) have published an extensive review on oil spill cleanup

by structured fibre assembly. They feel that sorbents made from structured fibre

assembly are found to be the best material to clean up oil spill. The oil sorption and

retention behavior of sorbents are influenced by the material and structure of the sorbets

and oil physical characteristics. This paper reviews about oil spill cleanup with particular

reference to the phenomenon of oil sorption, methods of oil sorption, methods of oil spill

cleanup, characterization of oil sorbent materials, fluid flow through fibrous materials,

types of fibre materials envisaged for making sorbents and test methods for oil sorbents.

The possibility of incorporating scents into polymer fibres has been considered as

an adjunct to the application of oil. There is a renewed interest on aromatherapy using

textile materials Wang et al., (2005). The whole idea is to impart odorless finish to

sportswear.

A detailed review on the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of essential

oils has been published by Maria Grace Migvel (2010). This paper also covers the

methods which are generally used for the evaluation of antioxidant activity and some of

the mechanisms which are involved in the anti inflammatory activities of essential oils.

2.3.1 Herbal Oil

2.3.1.1 Neem Oil

Neem (Azadirachta Indica), an evergreen tree of India, belongs to the plant family

Meliaceae (mahogany). It has been recognized as one of the most promising sources of

compounds with insect control, antimicrobial and medicinal properties (Sing et al.,

1996).

30

Botanical Classification

Kingdom : Plantae

Division : Magnoliophyta

Order : Sapindales

Family : Meliaceae

Genus : Azadirachta

Species : Indica

Neem has been used as a traditional medicine against various human ailments

from ancient times in India and about 700 herbal preparations based on neem are found in

Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Amchi and other local health prescriptions. However, neem

has also received a lot of attention worldwide from its potential use as a herbal; pesticide

and other healthcare formulations in countries such as China, USA, France, Germany,

Italy, etc. The active ingredients of neem are found in all parts of neem tree but, the most

important limonids are azadirachitin, salannin and nimbin. The neem extracts have been

widely used in herbal pesticide formulation because of its pest repellent properties. It has

a potential to inhibit growth of bacteria both Gram positive and Gram negative (Joshi et

al., 2008).

Currently, little work has been reported on its textile applications as an

antimicrobial agent. Few patents based on the use of neem oil using microencapsulation

technique have been recently reported (Nathalie et al., 2003). A systematic study on the

treatement of neem seed and bark extracts to cotton and cotton/polyester blend has been

made (Purwar et al., 2008).

Neem (Azadirachta indica) oils have essential fatty acid which helps wound to

keep it moist and gives soft texture and antibacterial effect. Nimbidin is component of

Neem oil which is antibacterial, anti ulcer, analgesic, and anti-fungal where as nimbin

results anti inflammatory effect.

31

2.3.1.2 Aloe Vera Oil

Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis, miller), belonging to family Liliaceae, is known as

„Lily of the desert‟. Aloe vera has been used as a skin care products for more than 2000

years. In modern times, scientific research has shown that the Aloe leaf contains over 75

nutrients and 200 active compounds, including 20 minerals, 18 amino acids and 12

vitamins. These constituents give the aloe vera gel special properties as a skin care

products which has been used in the USA since the 1970s and is found today in virtually

all cosmetic products. Aloe vera has been used in traditional medicinal practices of many

cultures for a host of curative purpose such as healing of wounds and burns and finds

uses for medical and cosmetic purpose as well as for general health (Rodriguez et al.,

2005). Aloe vera also possesses antifungal and antibacterial properties, which can be

exploited for medical textile applications, such as wound dressing, suture, bioactive

textiles, etc.

Botanical Classification

Kingdom : Plantae

Division : Magnoliophyta

Order : Asparagales

Family : Aloaceae

Genus : Aloe

Species : vera

There are different polysaccharides in Aloe vera, such as glucomannan,

galactogalacturan, glucogalactomannan with different composition ad well as acelyted

mannan or acemannan (Rodriguez et al., 2005). Acemannan a long chain polymer

consisting of randomly acetylated liner D-mannopyranosyl units has immunomodulation,

antimicrobial, antifungal and antitumor properties.

Recently, attempt has been made by Wasif et al., to impart antimicrobial finishing

on cotton woven fabric using Aloe vera extract at various concentrations (5,10,15,20 and

25gpl) in presence of ecofriendly cross-linking agent glyoxal (100gpl) by pad-dry-cure

32

technique. Aloe vera gel on cotton fabric as an antibacterial finishing agent has been

reported in another study (Wasif et al., 2007).

2.3.1.3 Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus radiate) has terrific cleansing properties. Eucalyptus oil

has been shown to fight against infection causing bacteria, fungi and virus very

effectively. It is powerful in helping our psoriasis and also it is natural and complements

the skin. The sol-gel immobilization and controlled release of eucalyptol from modified

silica coatings were investigated in order to evaluate the suitability of functionalized

textiles for the following application in skin-friendly textiles with antimicrobial and

antiallergic effects (Haufe et al., 2008). Although it is added into much commercial soap

today, its application on textile substrates is also yet to be explored.

Botanical Classification

Kingdom : Plantae

Order : Myrtales

Family : Myrtaceae

Subfamily : Myrtoideae

Genus : Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus species produces numerous volatile compounds in a large amount as

isoprenoids. The major bio active components for microbial inhibition are 1-8-cineole

and α-terpineol Abubakar E1-Mahamood M (2010)

2.3.1.4 Mustard Oil

The term mustard oil is used for two different oils that are made from mustard seeds:

A fatty vegetable oil resulting from pressing the seeds,

An essential oil resulting from grinding the seeds, mixing them with water, and

extracting the resulting volatile oil by distillation.

33

The pungency of mustard oil is due to the presence of allyl isothiocyanate, an activator of

the TRPA1 channel.

Kingdom : Plantae

Division : Magnoliophyta

Order : Brassicales

Family : Brassicaceae

Genus : Brassica

Species : juncea

2.3.1.5 Sandalwood Oil

Sandalwood oil is an essential oil obtained from the steam distillation of chips and

billets cut from the heartwood of the sandalwood (Santalum album) tree. The best sandal

wood oil of history is distilled from the sandalwood tree of India and Indonesia but again

the best coming from Mysore, India. Sandalwood is an evergreen, parasitic tree that

burrows its roots into other trees. It can grow up to 9 meters (30 feet) high and has a

brown-gray trunk, many smooth slender branches, leathery leaves and small pink-purple

flowers. Sandalwood oil is used in perfumes, cosmetics, and sacred unguents.

Sandalwood oil contains more than 90% sesquiterpenic alcohols of which 50-60% is the

tricyclic α-santalol, β-Santalol comprises 20-25%. Sandalwood essential oil is used in

ayurvedic medicine for the treatment of both somatic and mental disorders. Sandalwood

is much in demand as incense and has a calming effect during meditation. The price of

this very fine oil too sore and become one of the most expensive essential oils in the

market. It appears as a principal ingredient in over 50% of all women‟s quality perfumes

and some 30% of men‟s fragrances. The early Arab perfume makers used sandal wood

mainly in pulverized or sawdust from as a base for solid perfumes and incenses.

Kingdom : Plantae

Order : Santalales

Family : Santalaceae

Genus : Santalum

Species : album

34

2.1.3.6 Olive oil:

Olive oil is a fat obtained from the olive (the fruit of Olea europaea; family

Oleaceae), a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. The oil is produced by

pressing whole olives.

It is commonly used in cooking, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps and as a

fuel for traditional oil lamps. Olive oil is used throughout the world, but especially in the

Mediterranean countries and, in particular, in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Greece, which

has the highest consumption per person.

Kingdom : Plantae

Order : Lamiales

Family : Oleaceae

Genus : Olea

Species : europaea

Olive oil is a fat obtained from the fruit of the Olea europaea (olive tree), a

traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean region, where whole olives are pressed to

produce olive oil.

2.3.1.7 Sesame oil

It is an edible vegetable oil derived from sesame seeds. Besides being used as a

cooking oil in South India, it is often used as a flavor enhancer in Chinese, Japanese,

Middle Eastern, Korean, and Southeast Asian cuisine.

The oil from the nutrient rich seed is popular in alternative medicine – from

traditional massages and treatments to the modern day. The traditional Indian medical

practice of Ayurveda uses sesame oil.

Kingdom : Plantae

Order : Lamiales

Family : Pedaliaceae

Genus : Sesamum

Species : indicum

35

The oil is popular in Asia and is also one of the earliest known crop-based oils,

but world-wide mass modern production continues to be limited even today due to the

inefficient manual harvesting process required to extract the oil.

2.3.1.8 Dry ginger oil

The Latin name, Zingiber is believed to derive from the ancient Tamil word,

ingiver which basically means ginger rhizome. The plant currently has a large and diverse

collection of common names reflecting its global popularity and in some languages, fresh

and dried ginger have different names (Ravindran and Babu, 2005).

Z. officinale has a long history as a medicinal herb going back to ancient Greek

and Roman times and is used, in both fresh and dried states, as a home remedy in almost

all countries where it is cultivated (Williamson, 2002; Mabberley, 1997).

Kingdom : Plantae

Family : Zingiberaceae

Genus : Zingiber

Species : officinale

2.3.1.9 Karpooradi Oil:

Karpooradi oil contains tree camphor, which is considered to be an excellent

healer gifted by nature. Since ages, camphor is known for its medicinal properties and is

also used during religious rituals in India.

Karpooradi is effective in treating Vata dosha, healing injuries and to improve

circulation by clearing blockages, if any. It also acts as a good relaxant and regularizes

breathing by breaking down excessive kapha (mucus build up) in the chest, thereby

relieving respiratory congestion. It is also useful when dealing with cramps, pain,

numbness and swelling in the body.

This massage oil regulates body temperature, driving away any sort of

sluggishness. It soothes muscles and nerves and relaxes the body.

36

Karpooradi thailam regulates body temperature, driving away any sort of

sluggishness. It soothes muscles and nerves and relaxes the body, in general. Karpooradi

thailam also helps relieve neck pain, arthritis, frozen shoulder, knee pain and swelling.

2.3.1.10 Clove oil

Clove oil (eugenol) is a main product of Syzygium aromaticum. Bioactivity of

clove oil was explored in size paste as size preservative as well as finishing agent from

cotton textiles to make it antibacterial. The wash fastness of the finished fabric was

improved by using catalyst - KVSI (Sarkar et al., 2003).

Botanical Classification

Kingdom : Plantae

Order : Myrtales

Family : Myrtaceae

Genus : Syzygium

Species : aromaticum

Clove oil is an essential oil from the dried flower buds, leaves and stems of the

tree Syzygium aromaticum (Eastern Hemisphere) or Eugenia caryophyllata and Eugenia

aromaticum (Western Hemisphere) (Schmid R et al., 1972). There are only small

differences between these species and many consider them to be essentially the same.

When applied to growing plants in sufficient quantities, clove oil rapidly

dessicates green tissue by removing the waxy cuticle of the plant and disrupting the cell

membrane. This results in electrolyte leakage from plant cells, causing tissue death.

Clove oil is not translocated in treated plants and provides no residual weed control

(EcoSmart. Matran label). It is only effective as a post-emergent herbicide and provides

burn down of both annual and perennial broadleaf and grass weeds. It is also used as an

insecticide and as a scent attractant is a trap for Japanese beetles, wasps, and other insects

(US Environmental Protection Agency, 2004).

37

Clove oil is a naturally occurring food flavor and is extensively used in fragrance

and flavor formulations for its spicy aroma. Clove oil and its primary ingredient eugenol

have been in widespread use as flavoring and fragrance agents in the United States since

before 1900. The soap and detergent industry is a major user of both materials, and

eugenol is typically used in such products at concentrations in the range of 0.05-0.1%

(v/v). The Environmental Working Group‟s cosmetics database lists 278 cosmetic and

personal care products available over-the-counter that contains eugenol in low

concentrations.

Clove oil is comprised of many different compounds, with the primary ingredients

being eugenol (49-87%), β-caryophyllene (4-21%), and eugenyl acetate (0.5-21%).

Smaller amounts of α-humulene are also present, as well as trace amounts (<1%) of 25-

35 other constituents. Several factors govern the relative quantities of the different

constituents in clove oil, including plant genetics, climate, soil and cultivation techniques,

the part of the plant extracted and the extraction method (Alma M H et al., 2007).

Figure 2.1: Primary chemical components of clove oil (Alma M H et al., 2007)

38

2.3.1.10.1 Active Constituents of Clove Oil

Approximately, 72-90% of the essential oil extracted from cloves has Eugenol.

Other essential oil ingredients of clove oil are,

1. Acetyl eugenol

2. Beta-caryophyllene and vanillin

3. Crategolic acid, tannins, gallotannic acid, methyl salicylate (painkiller)

4. Flavonoids eugenin, Kaempferol, rhamnetin and eugenitin

5. Tri terpenoids like oleanolic acid

The dried buds of cloves contain about 15-20 percent of essential oils and the bulk

of this is eugenol. A kilogram of dried buds provides about 150ml (1/4 of pint) of

eugenol.

2.3.1.10.2 Health Benefits of organically certified clove

Clove is a natural antiviral, antimicrobial, antiseptic and anti-fungal agent. It also

holds aphrodisiac and circulation stimulating capacities. The oil of cloves has been used

in a variety of health conditions including indigestion, generalized stress, parasitic

infestations, cough, toothaches, and headache and blood impurities. In fact, the expert

panel German Commission recently approved the use of its essential oil as a topical

antiseptic and anesthetic (Hansel et al., 2007).

Clove oil is considered safe in small quantities (<1,500 ppm) as a food additive.

However, clove oil is toxic to human cells. If ingested in sufficient quantity or injected, it

has been shown to cause life-threatening complications, including Acute Respiratory

Distress Syndrome, Fulminant Hepatic (Liver) failure and Central Nervous System

Depression; the lethal oral dose is 3.75g per kg body weight.

Traditional uses of clove leaf oil include treating burns and cuts, and it has also

found use in dental care as a pain reliever, and undiluted clove oil may be rubbed on the

gums for treating tooth infections and toothache. There are studies from several decades

ago that show eugenol to be a contact allergen when used in dentistry (Koch et al., 1973).

39

Clove oil is toxic to the liver and nervous system. In all case reports of acute illness or

death, it was ingested (Dobroriz et al., 2004).

Powerful germicidal properties:

Clove is used extensively in dental care for relieving toothache, sore gums and

oral ulcers. Gargling with clove oil can also aid in sore throat conditions and bad breath.

Anti-bacterial

An effective aid for food poisoning, clove oil effectively kills many forms of

bacterial infections from contaminated foods.

Antiseptic

Clove oil can be used to reduce infections, wounds, insect bites and stings.

Anti-fungal

Clove is also effective in reducing fungal infections such as athletes foot.

Skin

Excellent aid for skin disorders, such as acne.

General stress reliever

Clove oil stimulates the circulatory system, clearing the mind and reducing mental

exhaustion and fatigue. It has also been used to aid insomnia, memory loss, anxiety and

depression.

Anti-inflammatory

Clove oil clears the respiratory passages, acting as an expectorant for treating

many upper respiratory conditions including colds, eye styes, bronchitis, sinus conditions,

cough and asthma.

40

Blood Purifier

Not only purifies the blood, but also aids in stabilizing blood sugar levels, and

may have benefits for diabetic individuals.

General Immune System Booster

Clove's antiviral and cleansing properties purify the body, augmenting our

resistance to disease.

Premature Ejaculation

Some research has shown that clove may be useful as an aid for premature

ejaculation.

Indigestion

Clove oil offers a powerful action against gas and bloating. It reduces gas pressure

in the stomach, aiding in the proper elimination of food and toxins. It also relieves the

discomfort of peptic ulcers. Effective for stomach related conditions including nausea,

hiccups, motion sickness and vomiting.

Cancer Prevention

Preliminary studies suggest that clove oil may play a chemo preventative role,

particularly in cases of lung, skin and digestive cancers (Schonfelder I (2004), Wichtl M

(1989) et al.,).

Cardiovascular Health

The active essential oil in clove, eugenol, has been shown to act as an effective

platelet inhibitor, preventing blood clots (Korfers et al., 2009).

41

2.3.1.10.3 Traditional Uses of Clove

Clove is very well known as spice as well as herb all over the world. An English

name clove, has been derived from the Latin word „nail‟ as the shape resembles to small

sized nails. It is widely used for medicinal as well as culinary purposes. Cloves are

actually the dried flower buds of tree that is member of Myrtaceae family. Clove is an

evergreen tree that bears sanguine flowers in clusters. The medicinal uses of this dried

bud are as follows:

2.3.1.10.6 Production of clove oil

The Clove tree provides three types of essential oils including:

The oil from clove leaf

It is known as Clove leaf Oil. It results from the distillation of the withered leaves

of Clove tree. It is mainly produced by farmers in stills craft (mostly built of sheet metal,

rarely in aluminum) scattered throughout the regions and Analanjirofo and Antsinanana.

The yield is 1 to 2 %. Its specification gives a rate of greater than 80% Eugenol.

Primary Use: Chemical, tobacco and cosmetics.

Physical And Chemical Properties

Appearance

Form: liquid mobile, slightly viscous.

Color: Colorless, purple to dark brown

Odour: Spicy, characteristic of Eugenol

Safety Data:

pH: : N/A

Melting point: : N/A

Boiling point: : 251.00°C. @ 760.00 mmHg-lit.

42

Flash point: : >93.3°C

Ignition temperature : N/A

Lower explosion limit : N/A

Upper explosion limit : N/A

Density : 1.036 to 1042 25°C

Solubility : insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol 70°

It does not contain any oxidizing substance known to ignite spontaneously. There

is no risk of explosion at room temperature.

Clove oil from Stem

It is derived from the steam distillation of stems (peduncle) of cloves, by hand

sorting of clove bud for exportation. The yield varies from 4.5 to 6%. The specification

is determined by a rate greater than 85% of Eugenol and rate of eugenyl acetate to 5%.

Main destination: Pharmaceuticals, tobacco and cosmetics.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Clove Stem Oil

Appearance

Form : Liquid mobile, slightly viscous.

Color : Colorless to dark brown

Odor : spicy, characteristic of Eugenol

Safety Data :

pH : N/A

Melting point : N/A

Boiling point : 251.00°C. @ 760.00 mmHg – lit.

Flash point : >100°C

Ignition temperature : N/A

Lower explosion limit : N/A

Upper explosion limit : N/A

Density : 1.42 to 1.63 at 20°C

43

Solubility: insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol 70°

Does not contain any oxidizing substance known to ignite spontaneously

There is no risk of explosion at room temperature.

Clove oil from Bud

This results from the steam distillation of Clove Bud. Best quality, it is mainly

for fine fragrances. It contains more than 80% eugenol and more than 10% eugenyl

acetate. Although, clove bud contains up to 20% of essential oil, but performance rarely

reaches 15% in distillation. Main destination: Perfumery, cosmetics, tobacco and

pharmaceutical industries.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Clove Bud Oil

Appearance

Form : liquid mobile, slightly viscous.

Color : Colorless to dark brown

Odor : spicy, characteristic of Eugenol

Safety Data :

pH: : N/A

Melting point : N/A

Boiling point : 251.00°C. @ 760.00 mmHg – lit.

Flash point : >93.3°C

Ignition temperature : N/A

Lower explosion limit : N/A

Upper explosion limit : N/A

Density : 1.42 to 1.65 at 20°C

Solubility : insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol 70°

Does not contain any oxidizing substance known to ignite spontaneously.

No risk of explosion at room temperature.

44

Phytochemicals are derived from plant and some of them are very useful

antibacterial drug. The medication process includes both the topical and oral application

of these herbs. The growth of micro-organism is inhibited by the oxidation of toxic

phenolic component. Approximately 70-90% essential oil extracted from clove has

eugenol Cown M M (1999). Neem oil has many antiseptic, antibacterial, antiviral and

antifungal qualities.

Dry clove (Syzygium aromaticum) bud contains about 15 to 20% essential oil.

Eugenol is a medicinal component of clove oil and its presence is about 70 to 90%. Other

bioactive medicinal comments of clove oil are acetyl eugenol, crategolic acid, tannins,

gallotannic acid, flavonoids eugenins and eugenitin. Eugenol has been used for

analgesic, local antiseptic, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effect. Antiseptic

properties of clove oil are useful for wounds as cuts; scabies fungal infection as well as it

can be useful for treating sting and insect bites Ayoola et al., (2008).

The pharmaceutical effects of essential oils Jellinnek, J. S. (1994) and WuChao-

Hsiang (1999).

Table 2.1 : Pharmaceutical essence of Clove Oil

Effects Essential oil

Sedation Mint, Onion, Lemon, Metasequoia

Coalescence Pine, Clove, Lavender, Onion, Thyme

Diuresis Pine, lavender Onion, Thyme, Fennel, Lemon, Metasequoia

Facilitating Menses Pine, lavender, Mint, Rosemary, Thyme, Basil, Chamomile,

Cinnamon, Lemon

Dismissing sputum Onion, Citrus, Thyme, Chamomile

Allaying a fever Ginger, Fennel, Chamomile, Lemon

Hypnogenesis Lavender, Oregano, Basil, Chamomile

Curing Hypertension Lavender, Fennel, Lemon, Ylangylang

Be good for stomach Pine, Ginger, Clove, Mint, Onion, Citrus, Rosemary, Thyme,

Fennel, Basil, Cinnamon

Diaphoresis Pine, lavender, Rosemary, Thyme, Chamomile, Metasequoia

45

Effects Essential oil

Expelling wind Ginger, Clove, Onion, Citrus, Rosemary, Fennel, Lemon

Losing weigh Onion, Cinnamon, Lemon

Relieving pain Vanilla, Lavender, Mint, Onion, Citrus, Rosemary, Chamomile,

Cinnamon, Lemon

Detoxification Lavender

Curing diabetes Vanilla, Onion, Chamomile, Lemon

Stopping diarrhea Vanilla, Ginger, Clove, Lavender, mint, Onion, Oregano, Rosemary,

thyme, Chamomile, Cinnamon, Lemon

Curing flu Pine, lavender, Mint, Onion, Citrus, Rosemary, Thyme, Chamomile,

Cinnamon, Metasequoia

Curing rheumatism Lavender Onion Citrus, Rosemary, Thyme, Metasequoia

Urging sexual passion Pine, Ginger, Clove, Mint, Onion, Rosemary, Thyme, Fennel,

Relieving spasm. Cinnamon

Promoting appetite Clove, lavender, Mint, Onion Citrus, Rosemary, Fennel Basil,

Chamomile, Cinnamon, Lemon, Metasequoia

Relieving cough Rosemary

Table 2.2 : The sedative effect-or emotion of essential oils Mazzaro, D. 2000

Emotion Essential Oils with the Sedative Effective

Anxiety Benzoin, Lemon, Chamomile, Rose, Cardamom, Clove, Jasmine

Lament Rose

Stimulation Camphor, Balm oil

Anger Chamomile, Balm oil, Rose, Ylangylang

Wretchedness Basil, Cypress, Mint, Patchouli

Allergy Chamomile, Jasmine, Balm oil

Distrustfulness Lavender

Tension Camphor, Cypress, vanilla, Jasmine, Balm oil, Lavender, Sandalwood

Melancholy Basil, Lemon, Chamomile, Vanilla, Jasmine, Lavender, Mint, Rose

Hysteria Chamomile, Balm oil, Lavender, Jasmine

Mania Basil, Jasmine, Pine

Irritability Chamomile, Camphor, Cypress, Lavender

Desolation Jasmine, Pine, Patchouli, Rosemary

46

Clove has sedative effect, which fits for bed gown, underwear, sheets, curtains,

carpets etc.

Restraining bacterium product is usually be used on underwear.

2.4 TEXTILE MATERIALS

There are numerous references in the literature regarding the significance of fibre

properties and their influence at material level. Structure is show to play an important

part in their behavior. The importance of cotton fibres is well studied (Abidi et al., 2007).

An antimicrobial finish can be applied to most types of textiles. A wide variety of

antimicrobial finishes are currently being applied to nonwoven textiles to be used as

disposable protective garments in hospitals. Antimicrobial textiles, whether woven,

nonwoven, or knit, can also be made out of any type of fibre content that is suitable for

garment production. The fibre content of an antimicrobial textile must be chosen

carefully (Macsim et al., 2011). Synthetic fabrics may not be appropriate for some end

uses due to the fact that most synthetic fibres are hydrophobic (Bonin et al., 2008). This

means that fabrics made of synthetic fibres hold a larger amount of perspiration wetness

in their weave structures than do natural fibres. This property can cause an increased

chance of irritation and odour due to microbial growth on the body (Purwar et al., 2004).

The use of natural fibres is encouraged because end-use products from natural

fibres are biobased, not petrobased. Natural fibres are also good sources for textiles

because they are renewable resources and their export can be good for many economies

(Purwar et al., 2004). Cotton is abundant and its mechanical properties are well suited for

garment production. It is easy to care for and takes well to bleaching. How a fibre reacts

to bleaching is important when dealing with antimicrobial finishes because many of these

finishes require that the textile be bleached to regenerate its antimicrobial properties.

Both chlorine and oxygen bleach are adequate in renewing a textiles antimicrobial finish

as long as the appropriate type of bleach is used for the regeneration (Bonin et al., 2008)

47

2.4.1 COTTON

Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fibre that grows in a boll, or protective capsule,

around the seeds of cotton plants of the genus Gossypium. The fibre is almost pure

cellulose. Under natural condition, the cotton balls will tend to increase the dispersion of

the seeds. The plant is a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world,

including the Americas, Africa, and India. The greatest diversity of wild cotton species is

found in Mexico, followed by Australia and Africa. Cotton was independently

domesticated in the Old and New Worlds. The English name derives from the Arabic (al)

qutn, which began to be used circa 1400 AD (Metcalf et al., 1999). The fibre is most

often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. The use of

cotton for fabric is known to date to prehistoric times; fragments of cotton fabric dated

from 5000 BC have been excavated in Mexico and the Indus Valley Civilization.

Although cultivated since antiquity, it was the invention of the cotton gin that so

lowered the cost of production that led to its widespread use, and it is the most widely

used natural fibre cloth in clothing today. Current estimates for world production are

about 25 million tonnes annually, accounting for 2.5% of the world's arable land. China is

the world's largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United

States has been the largest exporter for many years. (Moulherat, 2002).

Cotton fabrics provide ideal environment for microbial growth. Several

challenges have been created for apparel researchers due to increasing global demand in

textile. Therefore, textile finishes with added value particularly fro medical cloths are

greatly appreciated and there is an increasing demand on global scale. The consumers are

aware of hygienic life style and there is a necessity of textile product with antimicrobial

properties. Several challenges have created for apparel researchers due to increasing

global demand in textile (Mahesh et al., 2011).

However, the majority have a reduce spectrum of microbial inhibition and may

cause skin irritation, ecotoxicity and bacteria resistance. Moreover, the biocide can

gradually lose activity during the use and launderings of the textile. Thus, great amounts

48

of these biocides are applied to the textiles to control the bacterial growth efficiently and

to keep its durability. In addition, despite the fact that synthetic antimicrobial agents used

in textiles can be effective against a wide range of microorganisms, wearing these textiles

in a continuous manner can lead to sensitization and bacteria resistance. Cotton is still the

most important of the raw materials for the textile industry. Worldwide about 50% of the

fibres consumed is cotton (Lewin et al., 1988).

2.4.2 VISCOSE RAYON

Viscose was first created by French scientist and industrialist Hilaire de

Chardonnet (1838-1924), inventor of first-artificial textile fibre the artificial silk, which is

also known as regenerated cellulosic fibre. The process of manufacturing viscose rayon

was then patented by Cross and his partners in 1891. Viscose was first used for coating

fabrics which was quite successful. Further development lead to production of viscose

rayon being spun into thread for embroidery and trimming which is attributed to its sheen

and softness. Viscose is used for lining and furnishing fabrics, providing the staple for

towels and tablecloth. It is also used for production of high tenacity yarn for tyres. Yet

other uses included the manufacturing of sponges and absorbent cloths.

2.4.3 POLYESTER:

Polyester is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in

their main chain. Although there are many types of polyester, the term "polyester" as a

specific material most commonly refers to polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyesters

include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as

synthetics through step-growth polymerization such as polybutyrate. Depending on the

chemical structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermo set, there are also

polyester resins cured by hardeners; however, the most common polyesters are

thermoplastics.

Fabrics woven or knitted from polyester thread or yarn are used extensively in

apparel and home furnishings, from shirts and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets,

blankets, upholstered furniture and computer mouse mats. Industrial polyester fibers,

49

yarns and ropes are used in tyre reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts,

coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is

used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters and upholstery padding.

Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays,

holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire and insulating

tapes. Polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as

guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable

polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood

grain, with a high-build film thickness per coat. Cured polyesters can be sanded and

polished to a high-gloss, durable finish.

2.5 WICKING

The behavior of a given textile during its contact with water (or with a liquid

generally) is one of the important properties of textiles. This work focuses on

spontaneous liquid wicking, which especially influences the consumer properties of

textiles. If the liquid rises (by absorption) in fabric, it can be used as a liquid perspiration

outlet from the skin, for the production of hand towels and dish cloths, textiles for

cleaning works, and any other such applications. Wicking makes it possible to use some

textiles for a series of other special applications: wicks for candles and lamps with oil, or

some modern flame proof finishing‟s for housing textiles opines Jakub Wiener (2003).

Liquid transporting and drying rate of fabrics are two vital factors affecting the

physiological comfort of garments Laughlin, R. and Davies, J (1961), Hollies, N., et al.,

(1957) and Yan, Z(2007). The moisture transfer and quick dry behaviors of textiles

depend mainly on the capillary capability and moisture absorbency of their fibres. These

characteristics are especially important in sport garments next to the skin or in hot

climates. In these situations, textiles are able to absorb large amounts of perspiration,

draw moisture to the outer surface and keep the body dry. Therefore, in order to optimize

these functionalities in sport clothing, it is necessary to investigate the wicking behavior

and quick drying capability of knitted fabrics.

50

Liquid transfer mechanisms include water diffusion and capillary wicking, which

are determined mainly by effective capillary pore distribution, pathways and surface

tension, whereas the drying rate of a material is related to the macromolecular structure

of the fibre.

Wicking is the spontaneous flow of a liquid in a porous substance, driven by

capillary forces. Washburn (1921) proposed the well-known Lucas-Washburn kinetics

equation to describe the relationship between wicking length and wicking time. Rita and

Randall (1998), Erik (1996) Weiyuan, et al., (1997) and Ramachandran et al., (2004)

investigated the wetting and wicking behavior of textiles. As capillary forces are caused

by wetting, wicking is a result of spontaneous wetting in a capillary system. Wicking

takes place only in wet fabrics or when fabrics come into contact with water, and the

contact angle determines their wicking behavior. A lower contact angle results in higher

wicking rates. Hartzell and Hsieh (1988), Hsieh et al., (1996), Navaneetha and Selvarajan

(2008), and Van Der Meeren et al., (2002) investigated methods to improve cotton fabric

wettability. However, in materials based on natural fibres, wetting causes the fabric to

swell, changing the capillary space position and affecting the wicking ability. For most

synthetic fabrics, wicking, however, will not take place due to their high contact angles.

A number of hydrophilic finishing treatments can improve the capillary wicking of

synthetic fibres, such as polyester and acrylic You Lo and cram (1998), Ferrero (2003),

Adler and Walsh (1984). Different researchers have focused their attention on the

geometric distribution of capillary inter-space in synthetic fibre assemblies, which affects

the results of liquid quantity and the wicking time of capillary action Zhang et al., (2006)

simulated liquid flow in a fibre assembly by the combination of a kinetic analysis model

of vertical capillary and a mathematical simulation model for a fibre bundle. In doing so,

they analyzed and calculated various parameters of fibre bundles like fibre number,

wicking height, instant wicking velocity as well as wicking time. The fibre bundles

cross-section is considered as an advantage for liquid transporting. These investigations

contribute towards developing the most optimized profile fibre.

Structure modification was researched in terms of its effect on liquid transporting

in functionally knitted fabrics. Research was carried out using different fibre

51

combinations of polypropylene or polyester fibres and other hydrophilic fibres with

various knitted structures Hsieh (1995).

The study of capillary flow in textile media is of great interest for two main

reasons. First, it allows a better understanding of the liquid/fibre contact in order to

characterize any liquid flow of spin finishes, dyeing, or coating of either fabrics or yarns.

The general purpose of this study is to optimize the various processes involving

liquid/fibre contact. Second, it enables the characterization of textile structures, their

heterogeneity, and more precisely their porosity resulting from the capillaries formed by

the inter filament spaces in which the liquid flows.

The simplest technique consists of observing and measuring the capillary flow,

either when a solid is placed perpendicularly to a liquid bath or when a drop of liquid

spreads on a solid surface. The liquid is usually colored. The second technique consists of

setting liquid-sensitive sensors regularly along the porous medium. Kamath et al., used

this technique on yarns in a fruitful study of spin finishes. In the last technique, the

weight variation of the impregnating liquid on the fabric or solid is measured with a

Wilhemy balance. This technique is too delicate to use with yarns, because the measured

wetting force exceeds the effects of capillary forces. Nevertheless, Bayramli et al., used

it for glass fibres coated in various ways and thus could measure both radial and axial

capillary flows. Unfortunately, it cannot be used to study flexible yarns such as polyester.

The method we present here uses an image analysis system developed so as to be

adaptable to any kind of textile structure: woven, nonwoven, yarns, roving, etc. Yarns,

especially continuous multi filaments, are the most delicate to study because they are

flexible and tension sensitive and the liquid quantities to be measured are small.

Furthermore, as will reveal later, the yarns are heterogeneous.

There are numerous fields of application for these techniques, mostly related to

the study of fibre/liquid interactions: for example surfactant adsorption of finish

distribution. It is fundamental to determine the kinetics of the spontaneous diffusion of

water in fabrics to investigate comfort in textile assemblies. This phenomenon is also

52

encountered in dyeing kinetics. The study of the dynamics of polymer impregnation of

textiles is important in the fields of technical textiles, coating of composites, and

optimization of the impregnation process.

Generally speaking, the capillary flow in fibrous structures follows the Washburn

law, which gives the variation of the liquid height h as a function of time t in a capillary

of radius R:

ghRCoshRdtdh /28// 2

… (2.1)

The results obtained depend on the physicochemical parameters of the fibre /

liquid interface and of the liquid itself: viscosity ƞ, surface energy γ, contact angle θ, and

liquid density ρ. They also depend on the porous structure of the fabric. Pore size is a

parameter that is often required. The basic procedure for its measurement is mercury

porosimetry, but that method cannot be used for flexible textile structures. Recently

some derived analysis procedures have been set up, where a controlled pressure is applied

to the liquid and the flow of the liquid into the yarn is visualized with a CCD video

camera.

It is not necessary to control external pressure to study capillary phenomena. The

complex form and heterogeneity of pore size are taken into account in the Washburn

equation through another parameter. Tortuosity is often used: it represents the ratio

between the real and measured distance traveled by the liquid. Several more elaborate

models have been developed based on the Washburn equation.

The behavior of a textile during its contact with liquid is one of the important

properties of textiles. Inter-fibre space in fibrous materials, such as yarn is in the form of

capillaries that can be occupied by liquid. Because of this, wetting and wicking are

important phenomena in their processing and applications. A spontaneous transport of a

liquid driven into a porous system by capillary forces is termed wicking. Wicking is a

result of spontaneous wetting in a capillary system. Capillary phenomena occur when the

free energy of the solid-gas interface exceeds the free energy of the solid liquid interface.

53

There are several techniques for capillary flow analysis, including spontaneous liquid

wicking analysis for yarn structure. These methods measure the time required for a liquid

to wick into a certain length of yarn. Various parameters, such as yarn structure, yarn

tension, twist, fibre shape, number of fibres, fibre configuration, finishing, and

surfactants control capillary size and its continuity influence wicking of yarns.

Sengupta and Murthy (1985) reported that the wicking time of open-end spun

yarn, for any given vertical wicking height, is less than that of ring-spun yarn due to

inter-fibre pore structure. Chattopadhyay and Chauhan (2004) studied the wicking

behavior of ring and compact spun yarns. The rate of water rise was very fast at the

beginning and slowed down gradually. The equilibrium wicking heights for ring yarns

were more than compact yarns and ring yarns were wicked faster than compact yarns.

Sengupta et al., (1985) investigated the wicking behavior of air-jet textured yarns. For

the same percentage of floats and arcs, trilobal filament yarns show better wicking

properties, and a higher percentage of floats and arcs tend to increase equilibrium

wicking height. As a result, may parameters such as yarn geometry, spinning systems,

fibre types can affect the wicking phenomenon.

Some researchers investigated the wicking behavior of yarns produced with

varying twist levels. Twisted filament yarn shows a lower wicking rate than a yarn

without twist. The change in the wicking time with twist is due to a reduction of capillary

size. In capillary penetration of liquids, tortuosity affects wicking. Twists in the yarns

influence the size of inter-fibre capillaries as a result of the helical path of the fibres in

the yarn.

According to Hollies et al., (1957) increasing yarn roughness due to random

arrangement of its fibres gives rise to a decrease in the rate of water transport. This work

focuses on capillary rise in a new product in fibre assemblies, using electrospinning

process to produce coated yarns with nanofibers.

Hsieh et al., (1992) focused on understanding how liquids wet, permeate/flow and

reside in the porous structure of nanometer size fibrous webs. The aims were to address

54

liquid wetting and flow issues in new nano porous fibrous materials to meet emerging

technical and performance needs in applications, e.g., functional fibres, chemical and

biological protective coatings, organic/inorganic catalytic systems, super-absorbent

materials, and targeted separation membrane.

Nyoni (2011) has dealt with liquid transport in Nylon 66 woven fabrics which are

used for outdoor performance clothing. In his work vertical and horizontal wicking tests

were conducted and he also dealt with the significance of K vales. But it is very

unfortunate that he has not realized the importance of the intercept which can be taken as

a quantitative measure of wickability. He has reported that wicking is affected by fabric

construction in that it is more rapid in the warp than that of the weft due to the high

density of ends in the fabric.

Kransy and Harken Rider (1966) were the pioneers in carrying out the studies on

the wicking of oil in various textile structures. Their method of studying wicking was

quite different in that the spun yarns were dipped into industrial oil. After 24 hours of

wicking, the oil content of the yarn was measured by cutting the yarns 4,5,6,7 and 8 inch

above the oil surface, weighing the cutting, extracting the oil and reweighing the samples.

The weight of oil determined in this manner was expressed as a percentage of the

weight of the extracted yarn. It was interesting to observe that increasing the fibre denier

reduced the oil content of the spun yarns. This effect was not noticed in filament yarns. It

was also found that the difference in oil content at the various levels above the oil varied

less in oil content in the filament than the spun yarns most likely due to the greatest

continuity of the capillaries in the filament yarns. There were no major differences in the

oil content in yarns composed of viscose and Dacron. That the 85/15 manmade

fibre/wool blended yarns containing 15 and 30 den of Dacron showed more oil at the

above level than that of the corresponding viscose yarn is evident.

The same phenomenon was noted in 100% viscose and 100% Dacron yarns.

Viscose filament yarns did not exhibit any change on account of denier change. Higher

oil contents were generally obtained when the various manmade fibres were blended with

55

64s wool in a 85/15 rather than a 70/30 ratio presumably because the crimp of the wool

interferes with wicking. The superiority of the 85/15 blend was noticeable at the highest

levels above the oil, but the difference was often small at the 4 to 5 level. No consistent

difference in oil content due to yarn size in spun yarns was noticed except for relatively

low oil content in the finest yarn in both viscose and Dacron.

In respect of wick ability of cable yarns, it was noticed that oil content increased

with decreasing fibre denier in Z ply yarns and the 20 strand cables made from the cables

contained more oil than the single yarn at the highest levels. On the other hand, the crimp

set nylon, 2 ply yarns contained considerably less oil than yarns that were not crimp set,

but this difference was not found in the 20 strand cables. Probably, the lateral pressure on

the individual yarns due to the cable twist counteracted the tendency of the crimp set

fibres to produce interrupted capillaries. Again, the cables contained substantially more

oil than the ply yarns.

Finally, 8- ply 100% Dacron yarns decreased in oil content with increasing ply

twist and the same was found in a 4- strand cable made from them. The cable contained

about the same amount of oil as the yarn in the case of the low ply twist and somewhat

more in the case of the high ply twist.

Although Krasny and Harken Rider (1966) have not carried out wick ability tests

such as vertical and horizontal types nevertheless they provided some very interesting

data on the wick ability of oil in various textile structures which no doubt, provided the

stimuli for further studies. They have stated this as follows:

“These studies are presented in the hope that they will stimulate further thinking

and experimentation in the area of capillary action in textiles. It is felt that this may prove

a useful supplement to microscopy and other tools in studies on yarn structure and fibre

distribution and periodic change in yarns”. It is pertinent to note that no work seems to

have been carried out on fabrics made out of cotton, wool and viscose fibres.

Cowlishaw (1946) has explained the subject of lubrication of oil and stressed its

importance. That the wool textile industry is the largest consumer of textile oils and the

56

technology of wool oiling has received more attention than other branches of oil

technology has been pointed out by him. Aspects such as viscosity, adhesion, and

spreading power have been mentioned. The most extensive use for knitting oils is for

rayon hosiery knitting where the use of oil is practically universal.

Rhys-Davies (1926) has dealt with the rancidity and oxidation of fatty oils in

regard to wool lubrication. He has referred to Mackay oil tester which is used for testing

lower grade oils used in woollen manufacture for suitability for oiling of wool in which

oils have to meet certain requirements in regard to fire insurance.

This apparatus, it is stated, for all practical purposes, affords reliable indications

in physical and chemical directions to the behavior of oils in practice when used as wool

lubricants and there from enabling judgments to be passed as to the nature of the mixed

liquid fatty acids its merits over the iodine value. Rancidity has its numerical value and

may be regarded as a state or condition of the oil which develops concurrently with

oxidation. Due to storage of oil, it becomes as rancid and thickened as to give acidity

figures of 15% or more.

Taylor et al (1992) have looked at the characterization of textile lubricants by

high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). This provides” fingerprint”

chromatogram obtained which can be used to identify individual components of textile

lubricants. Reds ton Bernholz and Schlatter (1973) have discussed the chemicals used as

spun finishes for manmade fibres. Hammersley (1971) has stated an unusual technique

for reducing yarn breakage during the knitting of fine worsted yarns. This involved the

use of kerosene and Shellsol T. With these two materials, there was a marked

improvement in the knitting performance of weak yarns.

A yarn was knitted with approximate 20 holes/feet of fabric, whereas the same

yarn after treatment gave only approximate 2 holes/piece (40yard). This improvement in

inter fibre friction keeping the yarn to metal friction same. Malfans (2013) has looked at

the anti bacterial treatment on cotton fabric by using neem oil, aloe vera and tulsi. It is

57

interesting to note that aloe Vera has shown very good anti bacterial effect than those of

neem oil, tulsi and mixtures of neem oil and aloe vera.

Chinta and Wane (2013) have discussed the anti microbial finish applied to cotton

fabric and non woven poly propylene. The chemical used consisted of benzalkonium

chloride, aloe vera, clove oil and neem oil. These were applied on the materials, by micro

encapsulation technique.

The treated fabrics were evaluated for air permeability, bending length, and

wrinkle recovery and perspiration fastness. Of all the chemicals used, benzalkonium

chloride exhibited highest inhibition against both Bacillus aureus (gram positive) and

Shigella (gram negative) in comparison with other chemicals such as aloe Vera,

neem,clove oil. It is stated that durability of antimicrobial finish is increased by micro

encapsulation technique. Polypropylene non woven fabric showed better antimicrobial

activity than those of cotton and cotton polyester blends.

Wang and Chen (2005) have discussed the aromachology and its application in

the textile field. It is pointed out that an aroma therapy textile could be achieved by

means of the fragrance with β cyclodextrin inclusion compounds. The choice of β -

cyclodextrin depended on its qualities which are beneficial for human body. The β

cyclodextrin molecules are capable of forming.

Oil wicked yarns are produced for export as they have high strength and Priya

Udyog in Rajasthan, India manufacture them. Cheng et al (2008) have discussed the

development of cosmetic textiles using microencapsulation technology. In cosmetic

textiles, the major interest in micro encapsulation is currently in the application of

vitamins, essential oils, skin moisturizing agents, skin cooling agents, anti – aging agents

etc.

The addition of oil to textile goods will result in the development of innovative

textile products and marketable advancement to the textile industry. Additionally the

increasing significance of branding this product makes this research important.

58

The behavior of a given textile during its contact with water (or with a liquid

generally) is one of the important properties of textiles. This work focuses on

spontaneous liquid wicking, which especially influences the consumer properties of

textiles. If the liquid rises (by absorption) in fabric, it can be used as a liquid perspiration

outlet from the skin, for the production of hand towels and dish cloths, textiles for

cleaning works, and any other such applications. Wicking makes it possible to use some

textiles for a series of other special applications: wicks for candles and lamps with oil, or

some modern flame proof finishing‟s for housing textiles opines Jakub Wiener (2003).

2.6 FRICTION

Frictional Behavior of Plain Woven Fabrics Constructed from Polyester and

cotton Yarns in Different Environmental Conditions studied by Ajayi (1992).

Frictional properties of sliding surfaces are often characterized by the coefficient

of friction defined when one fabric is rubbed mechanically against itself or tactually

between finger and thumb (Ajayi 1992).

These properties of fabrics are important in the determination of degree of

roughness, smoothness and other surface characteristics. Gupta, B.S.; Several theories of

friction have been proposed or developed but generally fall into two main divisions: the

coulomb or surface roughness theory and the surface interaction theory. Coulomb, C.A,

(1788). Howell (1951) and Makinson (1952) proposed a simple relationship for fibres

which later was accepted in textile materials as follows:

0aaNF n … (2.2)

Where, a = constant of friction, N = friction index, N= normal load, and a0 =

adhesion between the surfaces. The value of n has been found to lie between 0.67 and

1.0, being the limits of elastic and plastic deformations respectively. Next, it is suggested

that adhesion term (a0) giving a finite friction even at zero loads and from this (adhesion)

term are extremely small Morton, W. E.; Hearle, J. W. S (1945)

59

Friction, in general, is defined as the resistance encountered when two bodies are

brought into contact and allowed to slide against each other. A great deal of work on

friction has been carried out in view of its importance. It was in 1699 that Amontons

discovered the classical laws of friction Morton, W.E. and Hearle, J.W.S. (1975). These

laws state that, (a) the frictional force F is proportional to the normal load N applied on

the area of contact, the proportionality constant denoted by µ, and called the friction

coefficient (µ = F/N), and (b) the frictional force is found to be independent of the area.

Later, Bowden (1950) and Tabor (1974) proposed the adhesion-shearing theory,

according to which the junctions are formed at the points of real contact, which must be

sheared in order for sliding to occur. Thus, the frictional force „F‟ is obtained by the

product of the true area of contact „A‟ and the bulk specific shear strength of the

junctions „S‟, i.e.

ASF … (2.3)

SPNF Y )/( … (2.4)

NPSF Y/ … (2.5)

NF … (2.6)

Where „Py‟ is the yield pressure of the material.

Frictional properties determine the physical and mechanical behaviour of a fabric

as well as the subjective assessment of quality when it is handled. Fabric frictional

properties and roughness are mostly felt subjectively. The nearest measure to this which

can be assessed objectively is frictional force, experienced by a fabric against the same

fabric.

Chemical treatments modify the surface characteristics, thereby affecting the

frictional parameters. Antimicrobial finishing is an interesting area of the processing

field, and has caught the attention of various researchers and industries. Chitosan has

emerged as a good potential candidate for the anti-microbial finishing of textiles.

60

Friction is considered to be one of the properties of the cloth, having considerable

importance in the fields both of technology and subjective assessment. When the field of

technology is concerned, the friction is associated with the cutting of multilayer of fabric

and separation of the fabrics in garment industries and the frictions of garments on other

garments, upholstery and press covers. Subjective assessment, which specifies the fabric

handle, is undoubtedly influenced by the static and dynamic frictions between the cloth

surface and thumb or finger, involving the other properties like flexibility, thickness and

shear in the assessment. Friction of a fabric on itself or on another fabric has a significant

effect on fabric performance features, such as abrasion, wear and shrinkage, as well as on

tactile comfort of user. Tactile comfort is primarily related to mechanical interaction

between the clothing material and the human body. Human finger is a sensitive

instrument capable of detecting small differences in frictional behaviour of fabrics. The

results of hand tests are expressed in subjective terms, such as clingy, greasy, mushy,

oily, rough, scratchy, sheer, sticky and waxy, depending upon the sense of touch. The

earlier studies deal with the various aspects of fabric friction. It is important to assess the

fabric friction quantitatively as well as the factors that may affect it. Objective

measurement of the frictional properties of fabrics helps in clear communication and

optimization of a particular process. It has been suggested that the relationship between

human subjective assessment and objective measurement of the properties might be a

linear function on a logarithmic scale. A composite factor, which is the ratio of the

surface characteristics (K) and materials property (n) was originally reported by

Ramkumar (2004) to quantify the frictional properties of a set of enzyme-treated fabrics.

The results showed that the enzyme-treated fabric has lower R values than the untreated

fabric, showing that the enzyme-treated fabric is smoother.

Though the fabric friction has gained much significance, there is no suitable

instrument to measure the fabric friction in the textile industry. Most of the researchers

have used an Instron tensile tester with some attachments to measure the fabric-to-fabric

or fabric-to-metal friction. In the present study, wide varieties of woven shirting and

suiting fabrics have been characterized for their frictional characteristics on an

indigenously designed and developed instrument.

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2.7 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Thermal conductivity refers to the passage of heat through the material and if it is

low it indicates that more heat is retained. It is affected by a multitude of factors such as

fibre, yarn and geometrical properties of the fabric, relative humidity and temperature.

Raziskava (2013) has carried out an interesting study and found that cotton yarn

had shown a higher thermal resistance in comparison with 95% / 5% Silver, 95% cotton /

5% Seacell, 50% cotton / 50% Bamboo, 50% cotton / 50% soybean

Rengasamy et al., (2009) have found that thermal conductivity and resistance of

polyester air-jet textured and cotton-yarn fabrics are not influenced by the texturing

parameters/textured yarn structure.

The influence of the structure of woven fabrics on their thermal insulation

properties has been studied by Malgorzata Matusiak, Krzysztof Sikorski (2011). They

have found that weave and linear density of weft yarn significantly affect the thermal

conductivity, thermal absorptivity and thermal resistance. Plain fabrics show higher

thermal conductivity and thermal absorptivity than twill fabrics with identical linear

densities of warp and weft yarns as well as identical warp and weft nominal densities.

Also, it was found that plain fabrics were characterized by a lower thermal resistance

than twill, hopsack weaves. They also found that the correlation between thermal

insulation properties of fabric and the cover factor was poor.

Hes and Loghin (2009) have given very interesting data on thermal conductivity

and thermal resistance of a series of fabrics numbering 12 in both dry and wet states. It

was found that with an increase in fabric moisture content and increase in thermal

conductivity was noticed which is attributed to increase in fabric weight. Thermal

resistance for all the fabric samples was found to decrease with an increase in the

moisture content.

Mukesh Kumar Singh and Akansha Ni (2013) have reported a very interesting

study on the thermal conductivity of fabrics made out of carded, combed and compact

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spun yarns. They have studied 12 samples which were produced with a common warp

and warp ends per inch and with different pick density and count. The results show that

thermal conductivity and thermal resistance were affected by the types of yarns used and

also the structure of the yarns.

Table 2.3: Thermal conductivity of Vegetable Origin Margarines

Margarine

Type

Temp.

°C

Thermal Conductivity

k(W/mK)

Water

Content (%)

Density

(Kg/m3)

Margarine 0 0.20

0.160 960 20 0.19

Whipped

margarine

0 0.15 0.162 650

20 0.17

Diet margarine 0 0.34

0.567 1070 20 0.36

Thermal conductivity of five types of margarine and three types of shortening

samples were measured by (Tavman, et al., 1997) at 20°C by modified hot wire method.

Thermal conductivity is affected by Moisture. Yutaka Chuma et al., (1981) have

found that there is a relationship between thermal conductivity and density of the

material. The correlation between apparent density and thermal conductivity is found to

be positive. This was also noticed in the work done by Hes., et al., (2009).

2.8 BENDING RIGIDITY

Fabric bending rigidity is one of the most important factors influencing handling

and comfort of apparel; hence, the bending behaviour of fabrics has received

considerable attention in the literature. The bending behaviour has been studied quite

extensively, beginning with Peirce (1930). Abbott, Coplan, and Platt (1960) proposed

that because of the pressures at the cross-over points, the yarn in the woven fabric is

composed essentially of alternate rigid and flexible sections and it is assumed that the

yarn lies in a straight line. Livesey and Owen (1964) proposed a mathematical formula to

show the relationship between cloth flexural rigidity and single fibre flexural rigidity.

They considered the yarn twist and crimp in the fabric to be a collection of independent

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non-interacting helices. Later, Grosberg (1966) suggested that the behind behaviour of

cloth in non-linear and is separated into two components: flexural rigidity and frictional

resistance.

A fabric model was proposed by Abbott, Gorsberg, and Leaf (1973). They

assumed that fabrics made from a large number of long and thin plates are such that the

shear effect during bending can be neglected and therefore investigated the bending of a

series of parallel plates. In 1973, they developed two models of a plain set and unset

woven fabric. A theoretical analysis was used to obtain the predicted relationship

between the applied couple and the curvature of the fabric, which contradicted the earlier

work of Abbott in 1960. Later, Hamilton and Postle (1974) extended Livesey‟s idea by

applying it to plain-knitted fabrics where they assumed that each wale in the fabric

behaved as a pair of double helices. However, they found a large difference between the

experimental and the estimated values in their studies due to the assumption of a rigid

joint at the interlocking point. Moreover, it is germane to note that the energy analysis

proposed by de Jang and Postle (1977) simulated a direct comparison of different woven

and knitted fabric constructions in terms of normalized dimensionless parameters.

Leaf Chen and Chen (1993) considered a model by using strain energy and

Castigliano‟s theorem and developed a relationship between the flexural rigidity off a

plain-woven fabric and the fabric and yarn parameters (such as thread spacing, crimp and

yarn-bending rigidity). In this model, they assumed that yarns are incompressible,

inextensible and perfectly elastic and the fabric is set. Consequently, before deformation

there is no force between warp and weft in the intersection regions. In recent studies,

Alimaa, Matsuo, Nakajima, and Takahashi (2000) presented a straight parallel yarns

model to analyze the effect of yarn-bending properties and fabric structure on the bending

rigidity and frictional bending moment of the plain and rib weft-knitted fabrics. In 2004,

Kang et al. suggested a mathematical model that proposed the bending behaviour of

fabric is non-linear.

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2.9 SUMMARY

From the foregoing it is clear that, although a great deal of work has been done on

the application of the oil to the textile materials, yet there are many gaps which exist.

This thesis addresses these issues and provides an in depth study of the application of oil

to textile fabrics and the use of oil as a tool for studying yarn structure. Various other

aspects such as antimicrobial effects, crease recovery, thermal conductivity, air

permeability and handle are also included in the thesis.

From the above, it is evident that there is a lack of work on the wick ability of

textile structures in various natural oils and the optimization of the oil for imparting good

anti microbial effect in the literature.