21

THE GENUS CURCUMA

The genus Curcuma of family-zingiberaceae comprises of nearly

80 known species. Due to adaptation for the topographic conditions

Curcuma species are found from plains to Himalayas. These are

considered to be originated in Indo-Malayan region and distributed

through Asia, Africa and Australia. Curcuma longa Linn. exhibits inter-

specific and intra-specific variations, in biologically active constituents

and morphological and vegetative characters also like number of leaves,

flower colours, rhizome morphology etc. Genus Curcuma has a common

chemical constituent, Curcumin, as it is present in almost all species.

Turmeric and its allied species have many medicinal properties and used

as a complementary and alternative medicine even in developed nations.

The common turmeric (Curcuma longa Lin.) has anti-fungal, anti-

bacterial, anti-viral, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant etc

properties. While C.aromatica is used as cancer preventive and as

toiletry; C. alismatifolia and C. roscoeana are not only of floricultural

importance but antifungal also. C. amada and Curcuma zeodaria are

used in culinary preparations, as appetizer & laxative. These are also

used in unani and ayurvedic medicines extensively. C.pseudomonata and

C.anguistifolia in arrow root industry. (The wealth of India-Dictionary

1950; Willis 1973)

CHAPTER 2 : REVIEW OF LITERATURE

22

HISTORY OF TURMERIC (CURCUMA LONGA L.)

Turmeric has a great scientific and cultural history. It is

acknowledged that turmeric is in use since 5,000 years ago. Its uses are

admitted centuries before the modern medicine appeared. This herb of

zingiberaceae family is cultivated mostly in south-east Asia, extensively

in India.

The exact origin of turmeric in India is not known but is

considered to be originated in parts of Western and Southern India. It

has its mention in Ayurveda, which is considered to be written in Vedic

period (Maharishi Charak: Sharma PV 1981). From India it reached

China in 700 A.D. then to East Africa 800 A.D., West Africa by 1200 A.D.

and then spread through the world for its uses. The Arab traders are

considered to have taken it to Europe and it is also assumed that it

reached Europe via silk route through India. Since its historical

conception to nature it had a great importance in Indian and Buddhist

rituals and ceremonies. It was reportedly introduced into Jamiaca by Mr.

Edward in 1783, where it became naturalized (Winternitz M et al. 1981).

23

TAXONOMY OF CURCUMA LONGA L.

Genus Curcuma was established by Linnaeus (1737). Hooker (1878)

described Curcuma species in British India. Curcuma longa was

described by Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753. Recently the

typification was recorded at nomenclature no. 12676 updated on 12

May 2008. (Germplasm resource information network 2012)

Scientific Classification Description

Kingdom Plantae Plants

Sub-kingdom Trachiobionta Vascular plants.

Super Division Spermatophyte Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta Flowering plants

Class Liliopsida Monocotyledon

Sub-class Zingiberidae

Order Zingiberales

Family Zingiberaceae Ginger Family

Genus Curcuma Curcuma

Species Curcuma longa Common Turmeric

(Wikipedia- the free encyclopedia 2010)

East Jawa, Indonesia, India is arguably the centre of origin of

turmeric but these are certainly the most important centres of diversity

(Triem H 1888; Valeton T 1918; Parasher KK et al. 1995).

Renaming of Curcuma longa Linn. to Curcuma domestica val.

which has occurred since a long time in systematic botany has not been

established in pharmaceutical references till now or in any official

pharmaceutical book on nomenclature of turmeric (Jentzsch K 1954).

24

BOTANY OF PLANT-TURMERIC (CURCUMA LONGA L.)

Curcuma longa Linn. (Turmeric) is probably the triploid (sterile)

species developed from the selection and vegetative propagation

between the wild diploid species Curcuma aromatica Salisb. (Native of

India and Srilanka) and other closely related tetraploid species of

Curcuma.

Turmeric is short, stout, erect perennial herb usually cultivated as

an annual cultivar. The fleshy rhizome at the base of each aerial stem is

ellipsoidal, 5-8 cm x 1.5-2.5 cm, rings with the bases of old scale leaves

present at each node. At maturity the mother rhizome bears many

straight or slightly curved lateral rhizomes called as fingers, 5-10 cm x

1-2 cm size, which again branches at right angles finally forming a dense

clump with the roots. The roots are filiform, fleshy, tough, penetrating to

depth and often ending in a small oblong tuber 2-4 cm x 1-2 cm.

The erect leafy short plant goes to a height nearly 1 m with 8-10

alternate distichous leaves, surrounded by bladeless sheaths forming a

pseudostem. Flowers are autumnal spikes, 10-15 cm long and peduncle

15 cm or more, concealed by the sheathing petiole. The thin petiole

0.5-1.00 cm with narrow erect wings is rather abruptly broadened to the

sheaths. The ligule is about 1 mm. The leaf blade is oblong-lanceolate 7-

70 cm x 3-20 cm, with base connate and apex acute. Leaf colour is dark

green & below very light green, covered with pellucid dots (Holttum RE

1974; Weiss EA 2002).

25

Table No 2

TURMERIC RHIZOME- Nutritional Value per 100 gram

Energy - 335.0K Cal or 1340 KJ.

Water 14.2 gm.

Protein 2.3 gm.

Fat 5.0 gm

Carbohydrate 70.1 gm

Fibre 03.02 gm

Ash 5.2 gm

Ca(Calcium) 146.0 mg.

Fe (Iron) 18.6 mg.

Na (Sodium) 32.0 mg.

Carotenes 67.0 g

Retinal equivalents

11.0 g

Vitamin B1 0.03 mg.

B2 (Vitamin) 0.12 mg.

Niacin 2.3 mg.

(Indianet zone- encyclopedia on India 2008)

26

BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS OF CURCUMA LONGA L.

The Curcuma longa constituents can be roughly classified into

polar/polymeric components, i.e. 30-40% starch, sugars &

polysaccharides & some traces of interesting sulfur containing proteins,

the semi-polar components are curcuminoids and the lipophilic volatile

oils.

The active constituents are basically divided to phenyl propanoids,

Glycans, monoterpene including oxygenated monoterpenes &

Sesquiterpenes.

PHNEYL PROPANOIDS

These are C6H3 compounds made up of benzene ring with a three

carbon-side chain. The most important are ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid

etc.

They are derived from different stages of the Shikmic acid

pathway. These acids are of much therapeutic use and are non-toxic.

They may also occur as glycosides.

Modification of the side chain of these acids leads to formation of

alcohols like coniferyl alcohol which acts as precursors of lignins.

Curcumin, the main active principle phenylpropanoid, is present as

2-5% dry weight in the rhizome. Curcumenone, curlone, bisdesmethoxy

curcumin, bis-(parahydroxy- cinnamoyl) methane, L-a - curcumene,

cyclocurcumin, curcumenol, curdione, curzereone, dehydroturmerone,

dihydro curcumin, eugenol, turmerone, turmenonol and other are also

present.

TERPENOIDS:

The terpenoids or isoterpenoids are characterised by their

biosynthetic origin from isopentenyl or isoprene units joined head to tail

fashion. They are broadly lipophilic properties. Typical structure contain

carbon skeletons represented by (C5)n and are classified as

hemiterpenes (C5), monoterpenes (C10), sesquiterpenes (C15),

27

Diterpenes (C20), Triterpenes (C30) and tetra terpenes (C40).

Modification in monoterpene's six-membered ring can take place to give

essentially monoterpene variants e.g. zingiberene and

-Sesquiphellandrene. Sesiquiterpene in general will be less volatile than

monoterpene.

Monoterpenes:

Major monoterpenes are a - phellandrene, 1,8-cineole, P-cymene,

-pinene, Y-terpinene, terpinolene, -pinene, camphene, myrcene,

camphor and limonene.

Sesquiterpenes:

-Zingiberene, bisabolol, germacrone, sabinene, caryophyllene,

-turmerene, - Bisabolene, V-curcumene, V-sesquiphellandrene,

ar-curcumene and ar-tuemerone.

GLYCANS:

Ukonan, A, B, C and D. (Dewick Paul 2001)

Survey of literature reveals that phytochemical composition of

C.longa has been studied in details. Various authors throughout the

world has analysed C.longa and other species of Curcuma in detail.

32

Table indicating chemicals present in different plant parts of

Curcuma longa L.

TABLE-4

PHYTOCHEMICAL PRESENT PART OF PLANT

1,8-Cineole : Rhizome

4-Hydroxy-Cinnamoyl-(Feruloyl)-Methane

: Rhizome

Alpha-Pinene(Essential oil) Leaves & Rhizome

Ar-Turmerone : Rhizome

Arabinose : Rhizome

Ascorbic Acid : Rhizome

Ash : Rhizome

Beta-Pinene(Essential oil) : Leaves & Rhizome

Bis-(Para-Hydroxy-Cinnamoyl)- Methane

: Rhizome

Bis-Desmethoxy Curcumin : Rhizome

Boron : Root

Iron : Rhizome

Chromium : Rhizome

Cobalt : Rhizome

Copper : Rhizome

Manganese : Rhizome

Nickel : Rhizome

Phosphorus : Rhizome

Potassium : Rhizome

Calcium : Rhizome

Sodium : Rhizome

33

Carbohydrates : Rhizome

Carbohydrates : Rhizome

Cineole(Essential oil) : Leaves & Rhizome

Curcumene(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome

Linalool(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome

Niacin : Rhizome

P-coumaric-Acid : Rhizome

P-Methoxycinnamic Acid : Rhizome

P-Tolymethyl carbinol : Rhizome

Protein : Rhizome

Riboflavin : Rhizome

Terpinene(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome

Thiamin : Rhizome

Terpineol(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome

Turmerone : Rhizome

Ukonan-A : Rhizome

Ukonan-B : Rhizome

Ukonan-C : Rhizome

Water : Rhizome

Zinc : Rhizome

Zingiberene : Rhizome

Curcumenol(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome

Curcumin : Rhizome

Curdione(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome

Curlone : Rhizome

Cyclo-Isoprenemyrcene : Rhizome

D-alpha Phellandrene : Rhizome

D-Camphene : Rhizome

34

D-Camphor : Rhizome

D-Sabinene : Rhizome

Des-methoxy curcumin : Rhizome

Di hydro Curcumin : Rhizome

Eugenol(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome

Fat : Rhizome

Fibre : Rhizome

Fructose : Rhizome

Glucose : Rhizome

Isoborneol : Rhizome

L-alpha-curcumene : Rhizome

L-Beta-curcumene : Rhizome

Limonene(Essential oil) : Leaves and Rhizome

35

PHYTOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF CURCUMA LONGA LIN.

Coniferyl alcohol p-coumaric acid

Curcumin

Curlone

36

Bisdesmethoxycurcumin

Curcumenone

Bis-parahydroxy-cinnemoyl

37

Cyclo curcumin

Curcumenol Curdione

Dihydrocurcumin

38

Eugenol

Turmerone

Turmenonol

39

Phellandrene

Zingiberene

Sesquiphellandrene

40

1,8 Cineole P - cymene

Beta-pinene Gamma terpinene

TerpinoleneCamphene

41

Myrcene Camphor

Limonene Zingiberene

Bisabolol Germacrone

42

Sabinene Caryophyllene

ar-turmerone

(Srimal RC 1987; J Bauer et al. 1994; Mohameed SM et al. 2002;

Quirin KW 2002; QB Liu et al. 2004; VK Raina et al. 2005; Nakamura

S et al. 2008; Raj G et al. 2008; Mishra P 2009)

43

Manufacturing and physico-chemical properties of Curcumin

Curcumin is the yellow product obtained by solvent extraction,

purification of the extract and crystallization of ground rhizomes of

Curcuma longa L.

Different solvents used for extraction and purification of Curcumin

from Curcuma longa rhizomes are

1. Acetone- Used in manufacturing process for bulk production.

2. Methanol- This solvent is used occasionally as a processing aid for

purification.

3. Ethyl acetate- Owing to its polarity it is a reasonable solvent

providing acceptable quality of product and commercially viable

yields.

4. Carbon di oxide- This is not currently used in commercial

production. However, it is listed as EC Directive 95/45/EC and has

potential as a substitute for chlorinated solvents.

5. Isopropanol- In the curcumin manufacturing process isopropyl

alcohol is used as a processing for purifying Curcumin.

6. Ethanol- This solvent is used sparingly because Curcumin is

completely soluble in ethanol.

Molecular Formula - C21 H20O6

Molar Mass - 368.3 g/mol

Appearance - Bright yellow orange powder

Melting Point - 1830C (3610F)

44

pH -

Curcumin relatively stable at acidic pH but it rapidly decomposes at

pH above neutral. It is not suitable as a coloring agent in aqueous

solutions of pH greater than 7.

Solubility-

Curcumin is an oil soluble pigment, practically insoluble in water at

acidic and neutral pH, soluble in alkali. It is stable at high

temperatures and in acids, but unstable in alkaline conditions and in

presence of light. Preparation of water-soluble Curcumin by

incorporation into various surfactant micellar systems (e.g. - Sodium

dodecyl sulfate, cetylpyridinium bromide, gelatine, polysaccharides,

polyethylenglycol, cyclodextrins) have been reported (Humphrey

1980; Tonnesen 2002).

Isomerism-

In solutions curcumin exhibits Keto-enol tautomerism and, depending

on the solvent up to 95% enol form (Kolev et al. 2005; Wikipedida-

the free encyclopedia 2010).

45

TURMERIC PRODUCTION

Turmeric is grown in many parts of world like Indonesia, Ceylon,

the East Indies, parts of China and India etc. But, India is the largest

producer of turmeric in the world, with an average of 1.73 lakh hectares

of land cultivated each year. As estimated, India produces 8.55 lakh tons

of turmeric per year, almost 80% of the total annual world production.

On an average 20% of the turmeric produced in India is exported,

primarily to Middle Eastern countries but also to West Europe and

America. However, major production of turmeric is consumed internally.

Andhra Pradesh tops the state list in both cultivated land area and

average of turmeric production.

India accounts for about 80% of world turmeric production and

60% of world exports (Yanai T 1998).

Data for production and export are summarized in following

table no. 5 to 7.

46

Table No 5

INDIAN PRODUCTION OF TURMERIC

Year Area (Hectare) Production (MT)

1997-1998 139,700 549,220

1998-1999 160,700 597,900

1999-2000 161,300 653,600

2000-2001 187,431 719,609

2001-2002 162,950 552,300

2002-2003 149,710 525,740

2003-2004 150,730 565,470

2004-2005 158,060 715,360

2005-06 173,005 855,763

(Spices Board of India, Indiaagristat.com 2001)

47

Table No 6

STATEWISE PRODUCTION OF TURMERIC IN INDIA

(Year 2005-2006)

State AREA

PRODUCTION

Area (Ha) % Share Production

(MT)

% Share

Andhra Pradesh 69,990 40.46 518,550 60.60

Tamil Nadu 25,970 15.01 143,358 16.75

Orissa 24,020 13.88 57,090 6.67

West Bengal 11,844 6.85 25,049 2.93

Gujarat 1,400 0.81 16,510 1.93

Karnataka 5,410 3.13 26,380 3.08

Maharashtra 6,760 3.91 8,427 0.98

Assam 11,700 6.76 8,400 0.98

Others 15,911 9.20 51,999 6.08

Total 173,005 100.00 855,763 100.00

Source: Spices Board of India, Indiaagristat.com 2001

48

Table No 7

INDIAN EXPORTS OF TURMERIC TO DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

(Year 2005-2006)

Country Quantity (MT) Value (Rs. lakh) % Share

U.A.E. 5,020.75 1,511.62 18.35

U.S.A. 3,128.99 1,039.31 11.44

Bangladesh 2,807.01 614.41 10.26

Japan 2,373.99 1,104.27 6.68

Srilanka 1,611.02 351.01 5.89

Malaysia 1,555.86 680.12 5.68

U.K. 1,491.42 634.68 5.45

South Africa 984.03 413.94 3.59

Netherlands 900.05 360.62 3.29

Saudi Arabia 735.02 235.06 2.68

Morocco 597.24 179.55 2.18

Egypt (A.R.E.) 543.64 233.06 1.98

Others 5,610.00 2,230.43 20.51

Total 27,359.13 9,588.08 100.00

Source: Spices board of India, Indiaagristat.com 2001.

49

CONVENTIONAL CULTIVATION OF TURMERIC (C. LONGA L.)

Curcuma longa has its place as a drug, spice, condiment, colorant,

and cosmetics in various parts of world. Its bio-active components lead

to its importance in above mentioned fields. Though being native of

South Asia (probably India) it is cultivated in various other parts of world

from high altitudes to plains. These days its improved varieties are

cultivated. Various phytoclones of turmeric are also gaining position in

experimental and household used turmeric.

Turmeric requires warm and wet conditions. It grows well in sub-

tropical and tropical regions ranging from plains (area at sea level) to

Himalayas (1200 meters above sea level). Turmeric requires a good

rainfall or proper irrigation facilities for 100-120 days of plantation.

Cultivation has been extended in areas with over 2000 mm rainfall.

Optimum temperature ranges from 30-350C during sprouting, 25-300C

during tillering, 20-250C during rhizome initiation and 18-200C during the

pulking stage. Turmeric is grown in various soil types but the best suited

is the well-drained loamy or clay-loam soil with good organic matter and

pH 5-7.5. As a shade loving plant, it does well in partial shade and can

be grown under fruit trees (Annamala SJK 1994; Ce de Guzman &

Siemonsa JS 1999; Burkill HM 2000).

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING :

Turmeric is propagated vegetatively by rhizome. Mother rhizome

(bulbs), whole or cut into pieces, and daughter rhizomes (fingers) are

generally used. Mother rhizome is better than fingers to be used as

seeds. But it is also stated that the finger rhizomes are more tolerant of

wet soil conditions and can be planted at a lower seed rate. Curcuma

longa seed (rhizome) preferred for plantation should be 8, 12 or 16 cm

long.

The field should be well prepared by ploughing or digging and

turning over to a depth of about 30 cm, to provide a good tilth. Large

quantities of organic manure (farm yard manure, oilseed, cake, green

50

leaves) are usually applied. Turmeric is generally planted by one of two

methods-the flat-bed method or the ridge and furrow method.

The flat-bed method is generally better, but in sites with

excessive or deficient moisture the ridge and furrow method is superior,

facilitating drainage and irrigation. Ridges should be 20-25 cm high and

45-50 cm wide and the rhizomes planted at a distance of 30-40 cm, at

the depth of 7.5 cm. If turmeric is intercropped, spacing is adjusted

accordingly. A spacing of 45cmx15cm reported a high yield of turmeric

(Upadhayaya SK et al. 2000; Wakhare et al. 2007). Planting time depend

on plant material, cultivar and agro-climatic conditions. Plantlet

formation occurred throughout year else then the usual dormancy period

of field-grown plants.

Mixed Cropping:

Turmeric can be grown as an inter crop with chillies, colocasia,

onion, brinjal and cereals like maize, ragi, etc.

Manuring and Fertilizer Application:

Farm yard manure (FYM) or compost @ 30-40 t/ha is applied by

broadcasting and ploughed at the time of preparation of land or as basal

dressing by spreading over the beds or into the pits at the time of

planting. For better growth Zinc @ 5 kg/ha may also be applied at the

time of planting and organic manures like oil cakes can also be used @ 2

t/ha. In such case the dosage of FYM can be reduced and integrated

application of compost @ 2.5 t/ha combined with FYM, biofertilizer

(AzoSpirillum) and half recommended dose of NPK may also be given.

Total nitrogen 40 kg, phosphorus and potash 80 kg each, per hectare is

also required.

Mulching: The crop is mulched immediately after plant with green leave

appear, at the rate 12-15 t/ha. Mulching may be repeated @ 7.5 t/ha at

45 and 90 days after weeding, application of fertilizer and earthing up.

51

HARVESTING AND CURING:

The crop is ready to harvest in 7-10 months depending upon the

cultivar and time of sowing. The aromatic type matures at 7 months time

while longa type matures at 9 months time. The intermediates mature

between 7-9 months. The harvest is carried out in January to March. The

marketing is done in months February to May.

The leaves become dry and brown after maturity of crop and the

cracks in the field signifies a good yield of the crops. Height of the crop is

1.5 - 2 meters after complete growth.

The land is ploughed and rhizomes are carefully lifted with spade.

The harvested rhizome is cleaned of the mud and any other extraneous

matter fixed to them. This is then boiled for in water and allowed to dry

under sun for 10-15 days. During boiling farmers add Sajji or sodium

bicarbonate which helps in deepening of colour. The mother rhizomes

and fingers are allowed to dry separately. The rounds take much time for

drying than fingers. The dried rhizomes are hard and stiff. The dried

rhizomes are spread over the floor and rubbed against floor or the

rhizomes are trampled under feet covered with pieces of gunny bags.

Then, the scales and roots removed are separated by winnowing.

Rhizome for seed are leaped under trees or placed in a well

ventilated store room and covered with turmeric leaves. They are then

used for further plantation in sowing period (Annamal SJK 1994;

Upadhayaya SK et al. 2000).

52

Modern scenario of Curcuma cultivation

In India Curcuma is cultivated mostly in southern and eastern

states. Recently due to high demand by the pharmaceutical companies

for the manufacture of curcuminoids and resinoids market value has

gone up and moreover due to this high demand of unfinished turmeric

farmers of UP, Punjab and Haryana has also begin to take interest in its

cultivation.

In western UP an important variety Vallabh Priya has been

developed and described by scientists of Sardar vallabh Bhai Patel

University with a gross yield of 279.50 Q/ha with oil content of 0.38%.

This is disease free and mature in 250-260 days. Detailed phytochemical

studies have not been done on this variety (Singh B et al. 2007).

Some significant work has been done in Karnataka at University of

Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. They have performed nutritional trials on

yield and quality parameters. They have also studied physiological basis

of yield variation. Study of macro as well as micro nutrients have been

made after soil application and foliar application of macro and micro

nutrients (Jirali DI et al. 2007; Jirali DI et al. 2008; Jirali DI et al.(a)

2008; Nawalagathi CM et al. 2008).

In Tamil Nadu studies on processing was made at Annamalai

University.

In Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology at Gunupur

studies were made on soil application of NPK ratio and mulching near

maturity, mulching resulted in high yield (Swain SC et al. 2007).

In Maharashtra work has been done at National bureau of soil

survey and land use planning at Nagpur (Prasad J et al. 2007).

At Dr Punjab Rao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola,

Maharashtra, cultivation of six varieties were studied for performance

(Pirijade FN et al. 2007).

53

At agricultural research station, Digraj district Sangli, experiments

were performed on method of planting and spacing (Wakhare AV et al.

2007).

It is evident that there is need of research work on the method of

cultivation even in the states where turmeric is an important crop. The

effect of micronutrients and phytochemical associates on gross &

phytochemical yield was not studied.

In northern states turmeric is cultivated mostly as intercrop in the

orchard, also with the social forestry trees. There is no qualitative and

quantitative study on the gross yield and phytochemicals variations.

54

DISEASES AND PESTS

Leaf Spot:

Caused by - Taphrina malucans.

Characterized by appearance of spots on both surfaces of leaves,

1-2 mm in diameter. The leaves turn red-browinsh with infestation of

disease and dries out. It can be controlled with Bordeaux mixture, ethion

and zineb. Disease resistant cultivars are also available.

Leaf Blotch:

Caused by - Collectotrichum Capsici.

Spots of size range 4-5 cm x 3 cm occur and frequently coalescing

over most of the leaf, which then dries up. In severe condition most

leaves dry out leading a scratch appearance to plant. Some times yield is

reduced to 50%. It can be prevented by spraying a mixture of Bordeaux

prior to disease infestation. Captan and Zineb spraying on monthly

intervals would also control the disease. Planting should be done from a

disease free seed and must be treated with fungicide before planting.

Excess shade and intercropping favours disease.

Rhizome rot-

Caused by - Phythium aphanidermatum.

Leaves of the plant dries up and the diseases passes to stem

which shows water soaked soft lesions. In severe condition it passes to

rhizome which colour changes from orange yellow to Brown and yield is

highly reduced. One of the effective methods is eradication and burning

of infected plants. Treating the planting material with a fungicide helps

preventing the disease. In severe condition it is advisable to disinfect the

field with an authorized fungicide e.g. metalaxyl and manoze. Some

cultivar, like Suvarna in India, shows field tolerance.

55

PESTS:

Shoot borer - Conogethes punctiferalis (synonym- Dischocrocis

punctiferalis).

It attack the central shoot and lead to its death (dead heart).

Monthly spraying with Malathion controls the insect.

Hersperiid catepillar/grass demon - Udaspes folus.

It is a serious foliage feeding insect in some varieties. Spray of

Carbaryl, dimethoate or phosphamidon is recommended for its control.

Sucking insect - Aspidiella hartii.

In Africa and the South pacific the scale insect is a sucking insect

infesting rhizomes while still in the field. It multiplies on fresh rhizomes

being kept for seed. The infested rhizome ultimately desiccates. Dipping

the seed rhizome in phosalone, monocrotophos or quinalphos helps

control disease effectively.

Tinged bug - Stephanotis typical.

Causes leaf discoloration by sucking the sap. Thrips also suck the

leaves, which then roll up, turn pale and gradually dry up.

Nematodes recorded in trumeric include root-knot nematode,

Meloidogyne incognita and burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis

(Purseglove JW 1972; Abdul Kader 1994).

56

ADULTERATIONS AND SUBSTITUTES

In India adulteration of turmeric is an issue especially in powdered

turmeric in local market. It is usually adulterated with lead chromate,

clay, sand and cheap talc. However, in International market the

adulteration problem is for the Curcumin content in various varieties.

Usually Curcuma longa is substituted with C.aromatica or C.zedoaria

since they also contain Curcumin, but in low quantity. Nevertheless they

can be identified with the presence of camphor and camphene as a part

of essential oil, Curcuma longa essential oil actually lacking them.

Moreover turmeric varieties which are not rich in gross yield and are

poor in phytochemicals are also mixed (Purseglove JW et al. 1981).

57

USES OF TURMERIC

Turmeric, as a medicinal plant and spice is used since primitive

times. Turmeric has part in Ayurveda, Siddha, Chinese, Unani and other

traditional medicinal therapies of different countries and civilizations. It is

extensively used as a medicine, spice and colouring agent in many

South-East Asian countries like India and China. Chinese traditional

drugs of Chinese materica medica (Zhongyao) are used by doctors of

Chinese traditional medicines. About 500 items or plants are generally

used in Chinese traditional medicine of which Panax schizseng,

Glycyerhiza uralensis and Curcuma species have a special place.

Aryurveda (the science of life), a traditional medicinal system

native to India is used in other countries as a complementary and

alternative medicine system. Turmeric has a special place in this system

of remedy for 5000 years. Now special emphasis has been laid on

pharmacological effect of turmeric, using modern techniques throughout

the world. A bioactive component Curcumin has been found to be very

effective against various diseases.

SPIRITUAL USE OF TURMERIC

Yellow and Yellow-Orange are colours with sacred and auspicious

connotations in the Indian Sub-continent. Turmeric is important in Hindu

and Buddhist ceremonies.

Symbolism:

Turmeric is associated with prosperity and fertility. It brings good

before wedding.

Turmeric roots are presented as an auspicious and loving in

several occasions like visiting a pregnant woman. Turmeric powder is

also sprinkled on sacred images.

58

In Himalayan region dried roots are used in many religious

practices and its powder is used as pithiya (for tilaka).

Yellow and orange are both special colours in Hinduism, yellow

being associated with Vishnu, and as the colour of the space between

Chastity and sensuality. Orange signifies sacrifice and renunciation and

courage. Originally associated with the sun and as a part of solar

symbolism, the colours were absorbed into the mythology of India

(Hinduism).

It is best described even in the texts of Vajrayana Buddhism. In

Buddhism yellow is the colour of the Bodhisattva Ratna Sambhava.

Turmeric paste is also anointed over the idols as a mark of

veneration, especially in South-Indian temples. This is respectfully

abbreviated as "Manjal Kappu".

CULINARY USE

Turmeric is well known among Malaysian community and has been

used since hundreds of years for many purposes in India as well. The

Malaya and Indians use the rhizome as a condiment in cooking to add

fragrance and a yellow colour in their dishes. The spice ingredient for

curry contains approximately 20-30% of turmeric.

The young rhizome of turmeric are sliced and eaten fresh as ulam

dipped in sambal belacon. Some times the young shoots and flowers are

also used as ulam. The young leaves of turmeric are used for much

purpose such as making rendang and also in wrapping fish before

steaming or baking. In India, turmeric is used mostly all the dishes

whether a gravy containing or a dry dish.

The rhizome is used as a colouring agent in the food industry for

processed food, sauces and confectionery. Turmeric is also used to

protect food products from sun light.

59

EXTERNAL USES OF TURMERIC (HOME REMEDY HALDI)

1. Juice of the fresh rhizome is applied to fresh wounds, bruises and

leech bites.

2. Mixed with gingerly oil, it is applied to the body to prevent skin

eruptions.

3. Turmeric paste mixed with a title lime and saltpetre and applied

hot as a popular application to sprains, bruises, wounds and

inflammatory trouble of the joints.

4. In small pox and chicken pox a thin paste of turmeric or turmeric

powder is applied to facilitate the process of curing scabbing.

5. An ointment of turmeric leaves, hemp leaves, onions, and warm

mustard or linseed oil provides a cure for piles, especially when

they are painful and protruding.

6. A turmeric-soaked rag piece when placed over effective eye

relieves pain and further complication.

7. In Coryza, the inhalation of fumes of burning turmeric through

nasals provides instant relief and leads to copious mucous

discharge through nose.

8. Decoction of turmeric (1 part of bruised root and 20 parts of water

is applied as a lotion to sooth burning Catarrhal (countrysoreEye)

and Purulent ophthalmic (Nandkarni AK 1976; Khanna NK 1999).

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TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL USES IN THE WORLD

Arabic Countries - Hot water extracts of dried rhizome is taken

orally and in the form of pessary in unique medicine, as an abortifacien

(Ross A Ivan 2003).

Brazil - Dried rhizome is used to protect against snake bite

(Qureshi et al. 1992).

China - Hot water extract of dried tuber is taken orally in

traditional medicine to improve circulation and to dissolve blood clots

(Reddy et al. 2000).

Oils of dried fruit, Saussurea lappa, Sansevieria roxburghiana &

Rubia cordifolia are mixed with salt, butter milk and rice and massaged

on to patients during fever. The mixture is also taken orally for cough.

Essential oil of dried fruits is taken orally to bring unconscious patients to

consciousness, mixed with honey and leaf of patola (Ross A Ivan 2003).

Cooks Island - For urinary tract problem decoction of fresh

rhizome is taken. Grated rhizome of Curcuma longa with leaves of

Occimum bacilium or dry skin of Pandanus tectorius fruit are also used

externally. Grated rhizome of turmeric is applied for punctured wounds.

A mixture is drunk for treatment of urinary infection and consists of 2

roots of turmeric with 12 leaves and a piece of Syzygium malaccensis

squeezed into juice of coconut oil or castor oil (Holds worth 1990).

England - For amenorrhea, dried rhizome together with C.

aromatica, licorice, sulfur and ferrous sulfate is taken as remedy.

Fiji - Poultice of dried rhizome and boiled rice is applied for

sprains, bruises and aching wounds. Used for ophthalmic diseases as

well.

Haiti - Dried rhizome extract is taken to treat liver ailments

(Joynex M et al. 1986).

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Hawaii - Hot water extract of turmeric is used for asthma and

urinary Calculi (Hope BE 1993).

India - Turmeric has following Ayurvedic properties.

Rasa - Tikka (bitter), Katu (Pungent)

Guna - Laghu (right), ruksha (dry)

Veerya - Ushma (hot)

Vipaka - Katu (Pungent)

Dosha - Balances Tridosh (Mahrishi Charak)

Fresh rhizome, ground with cow milk and castor oil is applied

externally to treat paronychia (Reddy et al. 2000).Two to five ml of fresh

juice is taken orally for treating and preventing stomach disorders.

Hot extract is taken for slow lactation (to regulate metabolism).

Used as a tonic, carminative diseases like dropsy, diabetes and

diarrohea etc. It is also used to facilitate the scabbing process in Chicken

pox and Small pox (Hope BE et al. 1993).

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Table No 8

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF TURMERIC AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Compound/ Extract Biological activities Reference

Turmeric Powder Wound healing Gujral ML et al. 1953 ;Khanna NK,1999

Ethanol extract Anti-inflammatory

Anti- tumor

Anti Protozoan

Kuttan R et al. 1985;

Dhar ML et al. 1968

Petroleum ether extract Anti-inflammatory

Anti- fertility

Arora RB et al. 1971;

Garg SK 1974

Alcoholic extract Anti-bacterial Bhavanishankar et al. 1979

Chloroform extract Anti-fungal Lutomski J et al. 1974

Aqueous extract Anti- fertility Liao S et al. 2001

Volatile Oil Anti- inflammatory

Anti-fungal

Anti- bacterial

Yegnanarayana R et al. 1976;

Lutomski J et al. 1974

Bhavanishankar TN 1979

Curcumin Anti - bacterial

Anti - viral

Lutomski J et al. 1974; Kumar S et al. 2001

63

Hypolipemic

Anti-Oxidant

Anti Coagulant

Anti- rehumatic

Anti- carcinogenic

Anti- fibrotic

Anti- fertility

Gastro-protectant

Majumdar A et al.1995; Mazumdar A et al. 1997

Rao DS et al. 1970;

Ruby AJ et al. 1971; Unnikrishanan MK et al. 1995;

Srivastava R et al. 1985; Srivastava R et al. 1986

Deodhar SD 1982

Chen HW et al. 1998;Arbriser JL et al.1989;

Egan ME et al. 2004

Laio S et al. 2001;

Lee CJ et al. 2003

Ar-turmerone Anti-venom Ferreria L et al. 1992

Methyl Curcumin Anti-protozoan Gomes Dde C et al. 2002

Demethoxy curcumin Antioxidant Frankel EN 1998

Bisdemethoxycurcumin Antioxidant Frankel EN et al.1998

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Bio-piracy :

In December 1993, the University of Missicipi Medical Centre had

a patent issued to them by United States Patent and Trademark Office

on the use of turmeric for healing. The patent was contested by India's

individual industrial research organization Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (C.S.I.R.) on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic

practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the

substance and had used for centuries, making this patent a case of

bio-piracy (TWN- the third world network 2010).

65

PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTION OF CURCUMIN AND OTHER

EXTRACTS OF CURCUMA LONGA

EFFECT ON GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

STOMACH:

Turmeric Powder has positive effect on stomach. It increases

mucin secretion in rabbit irritants. However, controversy exists regarding

antiulcer activity of curcumin. Both antiulcer and ulcerogenic effects of

curcumin have been reported but detailed studies are lacking (Prasad DN

et al. 1996; Gupta B et al. 1998). Curcumin has been shown to protect

the stomach from ulcerogenic effects of phenylbutazone in giunea pigs at

50 mg/kg dose (Das gupta SR et al. 1969; Sinha M et al. 1974;

Chattopadhayay 2004). Recent studies in laboratories indicate that

Curcumin can block indomethacin, ethanol and stress-induced gastric

ulcer and can also prevent pylorus ligation induced acid secretion in rats.

The anti ulcer effect is mediated by scavenging of reactive oxygen

species by Curcumin.

INTESTINE:

Curcumin has some good effects on the intestine also

antispasmodic activity of sodium curcuminate was observed in isolated

guinea pig ileum. Hikino H observed that - Antiflatulent activity was also

observed in both in vivo and in vitro experiments in rats. It is also

observed that Curcumin also enhances intestinal lipase, sucrase and

maltase activity (Songs EK et al. 2001).

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LIVER:

Curcumin and its analogues have protective activity in cultured rat

hepatocytes against carbon tetrachloride, D-galactosamine, peroxide and

ionophore-induced toxicity (Kang Hee-Chul et al. 2002; Shukla Y and

Arora A 2003). Curcumin also protects against diethylnitrosamine and 2-

acetylamino flourine induced altered hepatic foci development (Jentzsch

K et al. 1959). Increased bile production was reported in dogs by both

curcumin and essential oils of Curcuma longa (Platel K Srinivasan K

1995; Ozaki Y & Liang OB 1998; PLatel K & Srivastavan K 2000).

PANCREAS:

1-phenyl-1-hydroxy-n-pentane, a synthetic derivative of P-

tolylmethyl carbinol (an ingredient of Curcuma longa) increases the

activity of pancreatic lipase, amylase, trypsin and chymotrypsin (Platel K

et al. 2000).

EFFECT ON CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM:

Curcumin improves Ca2+ transport & it's slipage from the cardiac

muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum thereof raising the pharmacological

intervention that correct the defective Ca2+ homeostasis in the cardiac

muscle (Vijragupta O et al. 2003).

EFFECT ON NERVOUS SYSTEM:

Curcumin and manganese complex acts protective against

vascular dementia by being anti-oxidation (Krishanan A 2001;

Thiyagarajan M & Sharma SS 2004).

EFFECT ON LIPID METABOLISM:

Curcumin reduces low density lipoproteins (LDL) and very low

density lipoproteins in plasma and cholesterol level in liver, alongwith

increasing - tocopherol level in rat plasma, suggesting in vivo interaction

between Curcumin and tocopherol that increases bio-availability of

vitamin E and decreases cholesterol levels (Kamal-Eldin A et al. 2000).

67

The increase in fatty acid content after ethanol-induced liver damage is

significantly decreased by Curcumin treatment and arachidonic level is

increased (Krishna A & Menon VR 2001).

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY:

Curcumin is effective against carragenin-induced oedema in rats.

The natural analogues of Curcumin viz. Feruloyl-(4-hydroxy-cinnamoyl)-

methane (FHM) and (bis-(4-hydroxy-cinnamoyl)-methane) (BHM) are

also potent anti-inflammatory. The volatile oil & also the petroleum

ether, alcohol and water extract Curcuma longa show anti inflammatory

effects (Ghatak N & Basu N 1972). The anti-rheumatic activity of

Curcumin is established as the oral administration of Curcumin helped

proved symptomatic rheumatism in patients (Sharma OP 1976).

ANTI-OXIDANT EFFECT:

The anti-oxidant activity of Curcumin was reported as early as

1975. It acts as a scavenger of oxygen free radicals (Subramanian M et

al. 1994; Sharma OP 1976). It can protect haemoglobin from oxidation

(Frankel EN 1998). In Vitro, Curcumin can significantly inhabit the

generation of reaction oxygen species (ROS) like super oxide anions,

H2O3 and nitrite radical generation by activated macrophages, which

play an important role in inflammation. Curcumin also lowers the

production of ROS in Vivo. The anti-oxidant mechanism of Curcumin is

attributed to its unique conjugated structure, which includes two

methoxylated phenols and end form of -diketone; the structure shows

typical radical trapping ability as a chain-breaking antioxidant. Generally,

the non-enzymatic antioxidant process of phenolic material is thought to

be medicated through several stages (Barclay LR 2000; Sun YM et al.

2002).

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ANTI-CARCINOGENIC EFFECT:

Induction of Apoptosis and Anti-tumor effect Curcumin acts as an

important and active anticarcinogenic. Among various mechanisms

apoptosis is one major way of being anti-carcinogenic. It induces

apoptosis and cell cyle inhibition to present cell maturation and cell

proliferation (Purseglove JW 1972; Purseglove JW 1976). Recently it was

studied that SW480 cells were transfect or with hsp 70c DNA sense and

antisense orientation and effect of Curcumin on affected cells were

tested Curcumin was ineffective on cells with hsp sense but showed

positive result on cells with antisense hsp and caused apoptosis (Araujo

CCA & Lenon LL 2001).

1. Curcumin inhibits tumorigenesis - there are numerous reports of

chemo-preventive and chemotherapeutic uses of Curcuma.

(Aggarwal BB et al. 2003). Curcumin checks normal cell

transformation into tumor suppressor gene.

2. Curcumin checks proliferation of the tumor cells by effecting

oncogenes HER-2, growth factor receptors and decoy receptors. It

also has inhibitory effects on cyclin D1 (Slamon DJ 1987; Chen H

et al. 1999).

3. Curcumin also induces apoptosis by up regulation of caspase 3

and down regulation of expression of NF-kB (Pahl Hl 1999;

Baldwin AS 2001; Bava SV et al. 2005; Siwak DR et al. 2005;

Shishodia S et al. 2005; Gloire G et al. 2006). Due to this function

Curcumin is able to significantly inhibit growth of ovarian cancer.

Curcumin has also proved to be effective in ectodermal skin

carcinoma and breast cancers. Curcumin is also effective in

checking metastasis because it checks expression of various cell

surface adhesion molecules such as intercellular cell adhesion

molecules such as intercellular cell adhesion molecule, vascular

cell adhesion molecule and endothelial cell leukocyte adhesion.

69

These molecules are absolutely critical for metastasis (Kumar A et

al. 1998; Ohene-abukawa 2000). Jaiswal et al. (2002) showed the

cancer sensitivity drug cisplatin causes nephro-toxicity when

supplemented neat, so overdoses are not given. But use of

cisplatin along with Curcumin may reduce the dosage of cisplatin.

Deeb et al. 1994 explored that Curcumin and TNF related

apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) cooperatively act to promote

death of LNCap cells. The Curcumin and TRAIL combined

increased the number of hypodiploid cells and induced DNA

fragmentation in LNCap cells. Curcumin also encounters many cell

proliferation genes which are resisitant to chemotherapy. There

are numerous reports which suggest that Curcumin is also

effective against multiple myeloma (Li WQ et al. 2001; Philips &

Kundee GC 2003; Bharti AC 2003).

4. Down regulation of COX-2 expression-

Over expression of cycloxygenase (COX-2) is associated with wide

variety of cancers including colon (Fourier DB & Gordon G B

2000), Lung (Hida et al. 1998) and breast cancers (Chen H et al.

1999). Several groups have shown that Curcumin down regulates

COX-2 protein expression in many tumor cells mainly through

deactivating NF-k B (Plummer SM 1999; Reddy BS et al. 2000).

5. Inhibition of angiogenesis-

It is known that blood vessel formation is esential for solid tumor

growth and metastasis. Curcumin has been shown to suppress the

formation of human vascular endothelial cells (Singh A K et al.

1996; Arbiser et al. 1998; Chen HW 1998; Folkman J 2001).

Infact various works going on mechanism of curing various types

of cancers and scientists are working on molecular level of mode

of action. Further Curcumin also checks metastasis and have

effect on some very important factors like TNF, chemokineases,

adhesion molecules cycloxygenase-2 and matrix mettoproteases

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(Kuttan R et al. 1985; Slamon DJ 1987; Haung HC et al. 1992;

Kroutla L et al. 1994; Idaemaro MF et al. 1995; Kuo ML et al.

1996; Ohene-Abukawa Y & Pignatelli M 2000; Haddad JJ et al.

2001; Mukhopadhyaya A et al. 2001; Mukhopadhyaya A et al.

2002; Bharti AC et al. 2003). Turmeric contains Compounds that

blocks or suppresses proliferation of breast carcinoma cell lines in

culture (Mehta K et al. 1997; Ramchandra C 1999). It has been

proved that breast carcinoma cellslines BT 20, SKBR 3 MCF 7,

T47D and ZR 75 -1 are completely inhibited by Curcuma.

Recently, suppression of proliferation of multiple cells has been

demonstrated (Simon A et al. 1998; Perkins S 2003).

6. Curcumin suppresses the expression of MMP 9 and inducible Nitric

oxide synthase (iNOS) (Lin L et al. 1998; Kumar A 1999; Menon

LG et al. 1999; Pan MH et al. 2000; Nelson KK 2003; Jageti GC

2007).

7. Curcumin down regulates cyclin D1 expression. Cyclin D1, a

component subunit of cyclin dependent kinase Cdk 4 and Cdk 6, is

a rate limiting factor in progression of cells. Antiplroliferative

expression of Curcumin may be related to inhibition of CD

expression (Bartkova J et al. 1994; Nishida N et al. 1994; Adeliade

J et al. 1995; Caputi M 1999; Gumbiner LM et al. 1999; Drobnjak

M et al. 2000).

8. Curcumin inhibits proliferation of VSMCs. For cardiac ailments

Curcumin inhibits proliferation of peripheral blood monoclear cells

(PMBC) and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) (Huang H et al.

1992; Chen YR & Tan TH 1998).

9. Curcumin lowers serum level. Soudamini et al. (1992) suggested

that Curcumin significantly lowers the increased peroxidation of

lipids in tissues of liver, lungs, kidneys and brain. Thus Curcumin

helps in condition associated with peroxide-induced injury such as

71

liver damage and arterial disease (Punithavathi D et al. 2000;

Punithavathi D et al. 2003).

INHIBITION OF LDL OXIDATION

Curcumin inhibits oxidation of LDL. Curcumin have lipid lowering

potency in vivo, probably due to alterations in fatty acid metabolism

(Rao DS et al. 1970; Patil TN et al. 1971; Keshavarz K 1976; Quiles JL et

al. 1998; Naidu KA & Thippeyswamy NB 2000; Venketasan P and Rao

MN 2000; Asai 2001).

INHIBITION OF PLATELET AGGREGATION

Platlet aggregation contributes to the pathway resulting to

atherosclerosis. Reports suggest Curcumin inhibits platelet aggregation.

Srivastava et al. (1995) founded that curcumin increased the synthesis

of PGI2 thus could be preferable for patients prone to thrombosis and

requiring anti-arthritic therapy. Cucumin shows anti-coagulant activity by

inhibiting collagen and adrenaline induced platelet aggregation in vitro as

well as in vivo in rats. Curcumin inhibits collagen- and adrenaline-

induced aggregation of cyclin syntheis in rat throracic aorta (Srivastava

KC and Mustafa T 1993).

SUPRESSION OF DIABETES

Babu et al. (1995) found that Curcumin feeding improves the

metabolic status in diabetic conditions, despite no effect on

hyperglycemic status or body weight.

The mechanism by which Curcumin improves this situation is

probably by virtue of its hypo cholestrolemic influence and its antioxidant

properties (Babu PS et al. 1997).

MUSCLE REGENERATION

Curcumin mediated suppression of NF-kB and modulation of NF-kB

is beneficial for muscles repair (Thaloor D et al. 1999).

72

WOUND HEALING PROPERTIES

Pahn et al. (1999) concluded that curcumin possessed inhibitory

capacity against H2O2 induced damage in human keratinocytes and

fibroblasts and this protection may lead to wound healing (Liacini A et al.

2002).

CHECKS GALLSTONES FORMATION:

Curcumin reduces the biliary cholesterol concentration and

apotent antinucleating activity (Hussain MS & Chandrasekhara N 1992;

Hussain MS & Chandrasekhara N 1994).

PROTECTION AGAINST HIV:

Curcumin was a modest inhibitor of HIV-1(IC50=100 micro M) and

HIV-2(IC50= micro M) proteases. Curcumin regulates simple inhibition of

replication of HIV. Abraham SK & Sharma L found Curcumin to be a

potent and selective inhibitor of HIV-ILTR directed gene expression

modifications of the Curcumin structure raised the IC50 value but

complexes with boron lowered it (Sui Z et al. 1993; Mazumdar A et al.

1995; Mazumdar A et al. 1997; Bathelemy S et al. 1998; Kumar A et al.

1999).

PROTECTION

A number of studies have suggested that Curcumin, the

biologically active constituent in turmeric, protects against A

disease by turning on the gene that codes for the production of

antioxidant proteins. A study published in Italian journal of biochemistry

(December 2003) discussed Curcumin role in the induction of antioxidant

bilirubin, which protects the brain from oxidative free radical injury. Such

oxidation is responsible for aging and neurodegenerative disease like

. Curcumin strongly induces expression of the gene called

Hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1) in astrocytes. Curcumin also inhibits amyloid

A aggregation in brain cells, thus preventing disease (Pengell

Andrew 2004; FaliaM et al. 2007). Lim et al. (2001) found that Curcumin

73

reduced oxidative change and

With low dosage insoluble beta amyloid and soluble beta amyloid and

plaque burden is significantly reduced.

PROTECTION AGAINST CATARACT FORMATION:

Oxidative stress has been suggested to be common underlying

mechanism of cataractogenesis, and augmentation of the antioxidant

defences of the ocular lens has been shown to prevent or delay

cataractogenesis. Curcumin may be effective protection agent against

cataratogenesis induced by lipid peroxidation (Awasthy et al. 1996).

PROTECTION AGAINST DRUG INDUCED MYOCARDIAL TOXICITY:

Curcumin treatment ameliorated the early manifestation of

cardiotoxicity and prevented the rise in serum creatin kinase (CK)

exerted by acute Adriamycin (ADR) (Venkatesan N 1998).

LIVER PROTECTION AGAINST ALCOHOL INDUCED TOXICITY:

Curcumin blocked endotoxin-mediated activation of NF-kB and

suppressed the expression of cytokines, COX-2 and iNOS in kupffer cells.

Thus Curcumin prevented alcoholic liver disease (Nanji AA et al. 2003).

Xu et al. (2003) found that Curcumin significantly inhibited the

proliferation of activated Hepatic stellate cells (HSC) and induced

apoptosis in vitro. The characteristic of Curcumin indcluding the

antioxidant potential, reduction of activated HSC growth, and no adverse

health effects, make it a potential cure for prevention and treatment of

hepatic fibrosis.

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PROTECTION AGAINST DRUG INDUCED LUNG INJURY:

It is found that Curcumin is a potent anti-inflammatory and anti-

fibrotic agent bleomycin (BLM) induced pulmonary fibrosis (Venkatesan

N 1997; Punathavathi D 2000).

Curcumin inhibited the increase in lung myeloperoxidase activity,

lung hydroxyproline content, and c-junc protein in amiodarone treated

rats. Several researches also indicate that Curcumin is an important

therapeutic potential Praquat (PQ) lung injury (Venkatesan N 2000).

PROTECTION FROM INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE:

Curcumin exerts beneficial effects in experimental colitis and

therefore useful in IBD (Ukil A et al. 2003).

Curcumin attenuates experimental colitis through a mechanism

that also inhibits the activation of NF-k B (Sahl B et al. 2003).

PROTECTION AGAINST VARIOUS STRESSES:

Curcumin is found to be a potent inducer of Hemo-oxygenase 1

(HO-1) a redox-sensitive inducible protein that provides protection

against various forms of stress (Balogun E et al. 2003).

PROTECTION AGAINST ENDOTOXIN SHOCK:

Curcumin helps in endotoxin shock by improving survival and

reducing severity of endotoxin shock symptoms such as lethargy,

diarrhea and watery eyes following a challenge with lipopolysaccharides

(Madan B 2003).

PROTECTION AGAINST PANCREATITIS:

Curcumin markedly inhibited NF-k B, IL-6, TNF alpha & iNOS in

the pancreas. Based on several studies Gukovsky et al. (2003)

suggested that Curcumin may be useful for pancreatitis.

75

PROTECTION AGAINST MULTIDRUG RESISTANT:

Curcumin effects on apoptosis in multidrug resistant cell lines have

been reported (Piwockwa 2000). Mehta et al. (1997) examined the anti

proliferative effect of Curcumin against the multi drug resistant lines

(MDR). Curcumin prefentially arrested cell in the G2/S phase of the cell

cycle

ANTI-VENOM EFFECT:

Ar-termerone isolated from Curcuma longa neutralizes both

haemmorrahgic activity of bothrops venom and 70% leathal effect of

crotalus venom in mice. It acts as an enzymatic inhibitor of venom

enzymes with proteolytic activity (Araujo CAC & Leon LL 2001).

ANTI-FERTILITY EFFECT:

Curcumin has a strong anti-fertility impact. It inhabits 5- alpha

reductatse which converts testosterone to 5 - dihydrotestosterone and

inhabits growth of flank organ (Garg SK 1974; Garg SK et al. 1978;

Shukla Y et al. 2002; Shukla Y and Arora A 2003).

ANTI BACTERIAL ACTIVITY:

Both Curcumin and the oil fraction suppress growth of several

bacteria like Streptococcus, Lactobacillus etc. Bhavani Sankar &

Srinivasan Murthy (1979) states that Curcumin prevents growth of many

bacteria like Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Helicobacter and Lacto

bacillus etc. Even the aqueous extracts prevent bacterial multiplication.

ANTI-FUNGAL ACTIVITY:

Ethanol extract of Curcuma longa shows anti-fungal effect

against fungi like Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium moniliforme etc

(Apisariyakul A et al. 1995; Wuthi M et al. 2000; Jaypraksha GK et al.

2004).

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ANTI-SCHISTOSOMAL EFFECT:

In Chloroform extract Anti-Schistosomal activity of Curcuma longa

is seen. It was lethal to schistosomal masoni worms after a 24 hour

incubation period in a culture medium at concentration upto 100 g/ml

(Deshpande UR et al. 2003).

ANTI-VIRAL EFFECT:

Curcumin act as a potent antiviral agent. It also shows anti-HIV

(Human Immuno deficiency virus) activity by inhibiting the HIV-1

integrase needed for viral replication (Aarujo CAC et al. 2001).

RADIO-PROTECTIVE AGENT:

The hepatobiliary clearance of 99mTC-Mebrofenin

radiopharmaceutical in D-galactosamine induced hepatic rats was

studied. The turmeric extract treatment increased the hepatic uptake of

radioactivity and thus showed an improved liver function by

detoxification. Chaudhary D et al. (1998) found that the treatment of

Curcumin prior to irradiation restored the specific activity of glyoxalase

system to almost the control level which was suggestive of the radio

protective ability of Curcumin.

ANTI-DEPRESSANT:

Aqueous extracts of Curcuma longa had shown Anti-depressant

effects in vivo, in immobility reduction in the tail suspension test and the

forced swimming test in mice. It works by inhibiting the brain

monoamine oxidase A at the dose of 140 mg/kg & monoamine oxidase B

at dose of 560 mg/kg. Kulkarni and Dhir (2010) demonstrated the

protective action of curcumin in unpredictable chronic stress model.

Anmal challenged with chronic unpredictable stress demonstrates llower

levels of norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine in the brain. Chronic

administration of curcumin did not affect depleted norepinephrine but

restored levels of serotonin and dopamine (Kirtikar KR and Basu BD

1991).

77

COMMERICIAL PRODUCTS OF TURMERIC:

Value-added products from turmeric include curcuminoids,

dehydrated turmeric powder, oils and oleoresin.

Dried Rhizome:

Turmeric is mostly imported as Rhizome and then it is processed

by industries which powder it. Rhizomes come as bulbs, splits and

fingers. Fingers are the secondary branches of the mother rhizome

(bulbs). Bulbs are further broken to splits which are easier to grind

fingers are more fibrous and this gross good price.

Turmeric Powder:

Turmeric powder is released in retail markets. Ground Turmeric is

used in food industry as color, flower and preservative. Since,

Curcuminoids the colouring agent of Curcuma get deterred by light and

oxidative conditions, thus the uv proof packaging is necessary.

Oleoresin:

Turmeric extractives, or, oleoresins, are obtained by solvent

extraction of the powdered rhizome. This process yields 12 percent of an

orange viscous liquid, which depending on the solvent used and on the

turmeric type and cultivar, contains various proportions of the colouring

matter, i.e. the curcuminoids, the volatile oils which impart the flower to

the products and non-volatile fatty and resinous materials. The

compounds of interest in turmeric oleoresin are the curcuminoids (40 to

55 percent). The curcuminoids, which consists mostly of Curcumin, can

be further purified to a crystalline material, and are used preferably in

products where the turmeric flavour is undesirable. The advantage of

spray-dried turmeric oleoresin over ground turmeric is that it is devoid of

starch, the predominant component in dried rhizome and also proteins

and other forces (Kaufman B Peter et al. 1999).

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Essential Oil:

Essential Oil is of less importance in western food industry but

possess a place for its medicinal value, quite a lot literature is present to

prove its medicinal value. The essential oil of turmeric is extracted from

steam distillation or super critical fluid extraction of powdered rhizome.

It is also a product of curcuminoid purification from oleoresins. Turmeric

oil comes from the plant Curcuma longa, a green plant Rhizome has a

tough brown skin and an orange flesh (Gujral ML et al. 1953).

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COMMON TURMERIC VARIETIES:

Ground turmeric comes from finger which extend from roots

turmeric as dry other plant have several varieties. Nearly 60 varieties of

turmeric are known. Famous varieties of turmeric are-

Local Haldi

China Scented

Thodopuza

Red Streaked

Alleyppe etc.

Common commercial forms (varieties) of turmeric in India-

Erode and Salem turmeric

Rajapore and Sangli turmeric

Nizamabad bulb

Other important varieties in Tamil Nadu are Erode local, BSR-1,

PTS-10, Roma, Suguna, Sudarsana and Salem local.

Alleyppe finger turmeric, Rajapuri, Madras, Erode, Sangli

turmeric and Nizamabad bulb are most accepted exported

varieties.

Varieties like Vayama, Sonia Rajinder, Suvarna, Kedaram,

Prabha, Vallabh Priya are grown these days.

Various phytoclones like CL-68, CLS-16, CEL-324, CL-72,

CLS16, NH-5, and NDH-18 are used by pharmaceutical

companies.