CHAPTER –2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

CHAPTER – 2

Review of literature

Emotional intelligence is a dynamic construct influenced by diverse

biological, psychological, and social factors. A good deal of research has

been conducted on emotional intelligence and it was found to be appearing as

an important factor in the prediction of personal, academic and career

success. Studies on emotional intelligence with respect to various

psychosocial correlates have been found in a variety of fields. Empirical

studies investigating the relationship of emotional intelligence with numerous

psychological and psychosocial factors were reported by several researchers

and simultaneously revealing the significance of emotional intelligence and

its beneficial aspects with remarkable contribution in the field of

interpersonal relationships, success in work and personal life, health

psychology, managing occupational stress, academic field, improving

personality, enhancing performance and many more positive behavior

pattern. Review of literature on emotional intelligence regarding different

demographic and psychological correlates is presented below:

Demographic correlates

Research on emotional intelligence with regard to certain demographic

factors such as age, sex, locale and socio economic status has been reported

widely. Numerous studies were intended to find out the impact of

demographic variables on emotional intelligence of individuals. However,

these studies doesn’t reached to similar conclusions but, have reported the

significance of demographic variables in studying emotional intelligence.

Following are some of the reviews in this context:-

Age

The older children displayed greater emotional competence than their

younger counterparts. It has been found that emotional intelligence increases

with age or grade. It has been also reported that emotional maturity was

positively related with physiological maturity. Salovey and Mayer, 1990)

have shown that the EI developed with increasing age and experience.

Goleman (1995) found that the signs of EI appear among very young

children.

Goleman (1996) have also stated that emotional intelligence increases

with age and it can be learned, cultivated and increased in adulthood. In a

series of longitudinal studies, it was shown that people can change their EI

competencies over two to five years (Boyatzis, 2000).

Mayer et al. (2000) also showed with a series of studies that emotional

intelligence increased with age and experience which qualifies it as an ability

rather than a personality trait. Wong and Law (2002) working with different

samples have found that, age is positively correlated with emotional

intelligence across different job situations.

Similarly, Kafetsios (2004) had reported in his study among 239 adults

aged between 19-66 years, that older participants scored higher on three out

of four branches of EI i.e. facilitation, understanding and management. This

study supports the view that emotional intelligence develops with age.

Srivastava and Bharamanaikar (2004) concluded from their study

among the sample of 291 Indian army officers regarding the relationship

between EI and their age, that EI had increased with age.

To measure the emotional intelligence and its relation with age among

secondary school teachers, Tyagi (2004) have conducted a study and found

that the level of emotional intelligence is low and independent of age.

Another study examining the long term stability (32 months) of

emotional intelligence- related abilities over the course of a major life

transition (The transition from high school to university) was reported by

Parker, Saklofske, Wood, Eastabrook et al. (2005). During the first week of

full time study, a large group of undergraduates completed the EQ-i: short; 32

months later a random subset of these student (N=238), who had started their

postsecondary education within 24 months of graduating from high school,

completed the measure for a second time. The study found EI scores to be

relatively stable over the 32 month time period. EI scores were also found to

be significantly higher at time 2; the overall pattern of change in EI- levels

was more than can be attributed to the increased age of the participants.

Van Rooy, Alonso and Viswesvaran (2005) have made a study in

which a common measure of emotional intelligence was administered to 275

participants. (216 female) to examine how different groups score on a test of

EI differences were compared for age. Results indicated that emotional

intelligence scores tended to increase with age.

Chapman and Hayslip (2006) have made a cross sectional analysis in

order to measure emotional intelligence in young and middle adulthood.

Differentiation of the construct of emotional intelligence was investigated in

young and middle-aged adults. Mid life adults reported significantly greater

use of optimism (a component of emotional intelligence) as a mood

regulation strategy than was reported by young adults.

Another study on relationship between emotional intelligence and age

reported by Gowdhaman and Murugan (2009) among B.Ed. teacher trainees

(N= 300) have revealed a significant effect of age on emotional intelligence.

Contradictory to this finding, Jacques (2009) had reported that age did not

predicted emotional intelligence among a sample of 221 college students.

Sex

Thingujam and Ram (2000) in their attempt of Indian adaptation of

Emotional Intelligence Scale (Schutte et al, 1998) had developed Indian

norms (N=811) for males and females separately and found that women were

significantly scoring higher than men. Similarly, Mohanty and Devi. L (2010)

have revealed in their study on gender differences among EI (N=60) that girls

are more optimistic and well aware of their feelings in comparison to boys.

Girls are more aware and understand their own feelings (Components of EI)

than boys.

Similarly Ciarrochi, chan and Bajgar (2001) found that EI was reliable

measured in adolescents and was higher for females than males.

The relationship between emotional intelligence and sex differences

among 134 adolescents involved in a six week training camp run by the

military was investigated by Charbonneau and Nicol (2002). Results revealed

that girls scored somewhat but not significantly higher than the boys on

emotional intelligence.

Mishra and Ranjan (2008) have also been studied whether the gender

difference affects emotional intelligence of adolescents (N=80, 40 male, 40

female). The results showed that adolescent boys and girls differ significantly

on emotional intelligence and boys were found to be significantly higher on

emotional intelligence than the girls. The higher scores of adolescent boys

indicate that they are better on interpersonal, intrapersonal, adaptability and

stress management skills and their overall general mood (happiness and

optimism) are of higher order than the adolescent girls.

To observe emotional intelligence levels of undergraduate male and

female college students (N=200) (100 males and 100 female) 17-20 years,

Nasar and Nasar (2008) have made an attempt and the results ensures the

presence of higher emotional intelligence in the adolescent girls students in

comparison to the boys. Brackett, Mayer and Warner (2004) have also been

reported in their study among 330 college students that women scored

significantly higher in emotional intelligence than men. Lower emotional

intelligence in males shows principally the inability to perceive emotions and

to use emotion to facilitate thought was associated with negative outcomes

including illegal drug and alcohol use, deviant behaviour and poor relations

with friends.

In the study reported by Uma Devi and Rayal (2004) based on gender

differences among EI (N=224) it was revealed that seventy six percent of

girls have scored EI above average. Whereas, eighty one percent of boys have

scored their EI above average. This concluded that boys have scored slightly

higher on their emotional intelligence as compared to their counterparts.

Hunt and Evans (2004) have reported in their study on individuals

[N=414 (181 male and 233 female)] having traumatic experiences and

simultaneously studied on their emotional intelligence level, and the results

showed that males have higher EI than females.

However, Kafetsios (2004) had reported gender differences in

emotional intelligence from a sample of 239 adults aged between 19 to 66

years who completed the Mayer, Salovey and Caruso emotional intelligence

test (MSCEIT V2.0) in which females scored higher than males on emotion

perception and experimental area.

Moving ahead to next review on sex differences in emotional

intelligences. Study reported by Pandey and Tripathi (2004) on a sample of

100 individuals (50 males and 50 females) completing the measure of EI,

consisting of identification of emotion, perception and recognition of emotion

with probing, perception and recognition of emotion-without probing,

understanding emotional meaning and emotion intensity rating. Results

revealed that females scored significantly higher than male and were more

proficient in managing and handling their own emotions as well as of others.

Pant and Prakash (2004) have studied gender differences in emotional

intelligence for Indian participants (N=60). 30 male and 30 female subject/

individuals were approached for the study from personnel and human

resources departments of both government and non-governments

organizations; as well as students with an educational level of post

graduation. Multifactor emotional intelligence scale was used for assessment

process. Results showed no substantial gender differences on the various EI

dimensions. More specifically indicating that both males and females do not

differ significantly on the two sub- tasks of ‘managing emotions’. Whereas,

‘Managing others’ (sub tasks) has the males (M=0.28, S.D. = 0.08) scoring

higher than the females (M=0.26, S.D.=0.08) on the sub-task of ‘managing

self’, both the males and females have the same mean (m=0.25). However,

women scored higher, though not significantly than men on total EI (M

women = 5.13, M men=4.86).

Petrides, Furnham and Martin (2004) examined participant’s estimates

of own and parental psychometric intelligence (IQ) and emotional

intelligence (EI). About 224 participants (82 male, 138 female and 4 who did

not reported their gender) were asked to estimate their own and their parent’s

IQ and EI scores on a normal distribution ranging from 55 to 145 points. The

results confirmed the hypothesis supporting the view that people perceive

psychometric intelligence as a primarily masculine attribute in contrast with

emotional intelligence, which they perceive as a primarily feminine attribute.

But this result has been altered when the participants had estimated their

scores on a range of specific EI facets instead of overall self estimate.

In order to measure the relationship between emotional intelligence

and gender, Tyagi (2004) have conducted a study among secondary teacher.

The results revealed that emotional intelligence is independent of gender.

Mathur, Malhotra and Dube (2005) have evaluated the gender

differences in the selection variables of emotional intelligence, which were

attribution, taking responsibility and scholastic achievement in high school

students (N= 83, M=36, F=47) with an age group of 13 to 15 years. The study

does not revealed any significant gender-differences on the dimensions of

emotional intelligence. So, the study concluded that there is no significant

difference among boys and girls on the selected components of EQ.

Assessing on an ability measure of EI, Brackett, Warner and Bosco

(2005) find out in their study on 86 heterosexual couples that, female partners

were significantly higher on their emotional intelligence scores than male

partners and that EI scores were uncorrelated within couples.

VanRooy, Alonso and Viswesvaran (2005) in their study examined

gender differences on emotional intelligence by administrating a common

measure of emotional intelligence on 275 participants (216 female). Results

indicated that females scored slightly higher than males.

Similarly, Austin, Evans, Gold water and Potter (2006) studied among

a group of 156 first year medical students who have been completed

measures of emotional intelligence and physician empathy, and a scale

assessing their feelings about a communications skills course component.

Results showed that females scored significantly higher than males on EI.

Depape, Hakim-Larson, Voelker, page et al. (2006) has examined the

gender as the predictor of emotional intelligence, in a diverse sample of 126

undergraduate participants (42 male, 84 female) and reported that gender was

not a significant predictor of emotional intelligence, as contrary to their

expectation.

Miville, Carlozzi, Gushue and Schara (2006) examined culturally

relevant variables including, universal-diverse orientation (UDO - an attitude

characterized by awareness and acceptance of similarities and differences

between self and others, and emotional intelligence. 211 counseling graduate

students completed measures of these variables as well as demographic

sheets. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that UDO and emotional

intelligence along with gender, significantly explained variance in empathy.

Contrary to this, Hunt and Evans (2004) have reported in their study on

individuals [N=414 (181 male and 233 female)] having traumatic experiences

and simultaneously studied on their emotional intelligence level, and the

results showed that males have higher EI than females.

Study done by Saranya and Velayudhan (2008) among 30 male and 30

female, university students regarding gender differences in emotional

intelligence revealed that there exists no significant difference in self

awareness, self regulation, social awareness and social skills among day

scholars boys and girls. There exists a significant difference in the dimension

of motivation. Girls are better motivated than boys, this is because girls have

a better driving and pulling forces which result in persistent behaviour

directed towards certain goals.

Another study made by Singh Chaudhary and Asthana (2008) on

impact of gender on emotional intelligence of adolescents, among a sample of

400 adolescents (200 male and 200 female) from various schools and

colleges. The results revealed that male and female adolescents exhibit some

emotional intelligence, concluding that both male and female adolescents are

caring, giving, supportive and enriching.

Carr (2009) have studied sex differences in emotional intelligence

among a student sample of medical schools (N= 177). Results indicated that

male candidates had higher emotional intelligence scores than females.

However, Gowdhaman and Murugan (2009) have been reported a

significant effect of gender on emotional intelligence, in their study among

300 B.Ed teacher trainees.

Jadhav and Havalappanavar (2009) investigated the level of emotional

intelligence among male and female police constable trainees (N=200).

Results revealed that women police constable (WPC) trainees have scored

significantly high on emotional intelligence than their counterparts. It may be

because of the fact that men spend most of their time with peers and home,

whereas, women spend most of their time from the childhood in the home,

with family members and even in their later life at house. Hence they learn

how to behave with others and how to control their emotions. Women are

keener in every aspect and they utilize opportunities properly etc.

Furthermore, the results also revealed that the women police constable

trainees (WPC) scored higher on self motivation, emotional stability,

commitment, altruism empathy and self awareness factors of emotional

intelligence in comparison of male candidates.

Tatawadi (2009) have studied the differences in emotional maturity

among male and female students studying in a management school. The

results revealed that the females are emotionally stronger than the males. The

girls score higher with regard to empathy, social responsibilities and

interpersonal relationships than boys. They are more sensitive towards their

relationships with parents, friends and siblings. All these traits help them to

acquire more emotional intelligence as compared to boys.

Socio-economic status

Studies on emotional intelligence in relation with socio-economic

status are reviewed as under:

An exploratory study of the relationship between emotional

intelligence and socio economic status was done by Holmes (2007) in which

emotional intelligence was considered as criterion variable and SES as

predictor, and measured by household income, parent education and

occupation. Bivariate and multivariate correlational analysis revealed

significant positve relationship except mother’s occupation and household

income. Further Namdar, Sahebihagh, Ebrahimi and Rahmani (2008) have

found a significant relationship between emotional intelligence score and the

student’s satisfaction of their family socioeconomic status among nursing

students.

In order to find out the effect of monthly income on the level of

emotional intelligence among B.Ed. teacher trainees (N=300) Gowdhaman

and Murugan (2009) have executed on empirical study and results showed

that the socio economic status or monthly income do not cause any

significant effect on the emotional intelligence.

The relationship between emotional intelligence and socio economic

status was studied by Jacques (2009) among 221 college students and the

study reported that socio economic status did not predicted emotional

intelligence.

Mohanty and Devi, L. (2010) in their study, revealed that good

education and occupation of parents in positively and significantly effects the

interpersonal relationship (EI) of the adolescents. It means that parents

having good occupation have adolescents having the ability in establishing

and maintaining mutually satisfying relationship characterized by emotional

closeness and intimacy.

Locale

Mayer and Salovey (1997) have suggested that individuals from

different sub-cultures approach emotions differently. According to Sibia,

Srivastava and Misra (2003) EI, differ across cultures.

Study locating the discourse on emotions in the context of culture and

human development by Sharma and Sharma (2004) was explored the notion

of emotional competence among a sample of adolescents (N=70) aged 12-18

years included boys and girls studying in class VI to class XII in a one senior

secondary school in a rural zone of New Delhi. The children lived their

sharing of common ecology, facilitative of greater interaction among each

other and were much less exposed to the spaces and lives outside. On the

basis of open ended interview and classroom-based enactments as well as

written exercises accompanied by group discussions it was concluded that the

developing awareness of emotions in children as means of describing oneself

is revealing of the interplay of developmental aspects of thought and feeling.

The study enabled to discern the varied understanding and use of emotion in

children’s everyday lives.

To delineate the human ecological factors affecting emotional

intelligence skills of school teachers (N=60) a study was made by Duhan and

Chhikara (2007). Study revealed a significant association between the

developmental facilities (exosystem variables), provided in community

surrounding and emotional intelligence skills of teachers. The results also

revealed that most of the high category respondents (16.7%) were having

more developmental facilities (i.e. hospital, bank, park, club, market etc.) in

their surroundings, whereas near about 19% (out of 28%) of low category

respondents were having less number of development facilities. Carr (2009)

have found in her study that Asian students demonstrated higher emotional

intelligence total and branch scores than white students. The highest and

lowest emotional intelligence scores were obtained for the branches

understanding emotions (mean= 110, SD= 19.0) and perceiving emotions

(mean=94, S.D.=15.6) respectively.

Gowdhaman and Murugan (2009) have studied the locate effect

(mentioned as community) on the emotional intelligence of 300 B.Ed. teacher

trainees and inconsistently found that there is not any significant effect of

community on the emotional intelligence.

Social Correlates

Persons with higher emotional intelligence are found to be more social.

There are some studies available in the literature related to the emotional

intelligence. Emotional intelligence plays a significant role in establishing

and maintaining relationship (Goldman, 1995) Molouff and Schette (1998)

found in their study that the persons with higher emotional intelligence were

more socially accepted and they display better social skills. Emotional

intelligence includes those traits that are most likely to ensure success in

marriage or love affair and the lack of it explains the reasons why people face

failures in their personal and professional life despite having high IQ.

All meaningful relationships such as parent-child, teacher- student,

between peers or colleagues etc., which are perceived as our strengths are

usually based on dimensions of emotional intelligence. Theories supported

that if one has a good amount of emotional intelligence, the person will have

a good ability to adjust and a special capacity to solve problems of daily life.

An analysis of the traits of persons high on psychometric intelligence (IQ) but

low on emotional intelligence (EQ) yields the stereotype of a person who is

critical, and uncomfortable with others.

EI was correlated slightly but positively with belief in social relation

(Thingujam and Ram1999).

Schutte et al. (2001) found that higher scores EI had higher scores on close

affectionate relationship.

Lopes, Salovey and Straus (2003) had explored links between

emotional intelligence and interpersonal relationships; in a sample of 103

college student and found that individuals scoring highly on the managing

emotions subscale of the Mayer, Salovey and Caruso emotional Intelligence

test (MSCEIT), were more likely to report positive relations with others, as

well as perceived parental support and less likely to report negative

interactions with close friends.

Kafetsios (2004) studied the relationship between attachment

orientation and emotional intelligence (N=239) adults, aged 19-66 years, who

completed the MSCEIT V2.0 and the relationship questionnaire. Results

revealed that secure attachment was positively related to all sub-scales

(except perception of emotion) and total EI scores. Further, contrary to

expectations, dismissing attachment was positively associated with the ability

to understand emotion.

Lopes, Brackett, Nezlek, Schutz et al. (2004) have studied on

emotional intelligence and social interaction among a sample of 118

American college students. Higher scores on the ‘managing emotions’

subscales of the MSCEIT were positively related to the quality of interactions

with friends, evaluated separately by participants and two friends. Further in

a diary study of social interaction with 103 German College students,

‘managing emotions’ scores were positively related to the perceived quality

of interactions with opposite sex individuals, scores on this subscale were

also positively related to perceived success in impression management in

social interactions with individuals of the opposite sex.

An empirical study undertaken to conceptualize the notion of EI in the

Indian social-cultural context was reported by Sibia, Misra and Srivastava

(2004). Responding to open ended questions, the participants (N=1047)

described the emotional qualities desired by them in children and those

required to be successful in life. The indigenous view of EI takes into

cognizance such as factors as social sensitivity, pro-social values, action

tendencies and affective states. Results indicate that the Indian view of EI is

context sensitive and focuses onthe role of family and society in shaping

one’s emotions.

Another finding was that successful social adjustment was related to a

more accurate perception of variations in other’s mood, which strengthens the

hypothesis that emotion perception is essential for adaptation on a social

level. To assess whether emotional intelligence is related to self-assessed

relationship quality, an ability test of EI and measures of relationship quality

were administered to 86 heterosexual couples in a university setting, as

reported in the study made by Brackett, Warner and Bosco (2005). Results

reveled that, couples with both partners low on EI tended to have the lowest

scores on depth, support and positive relationship quality and the highest

scores on conflict and negative relationship quality. Furthermore, couples

with both partners high on EI did not consistently have higher scores on

positive outcomes and lower scores on negative outcomes than couples with

one high-EI partners.

Linguistic characteristics of writing about the September 11, 2001,

terrorist attacks were evaluated through a social cognitive processing theory

framework by Graves, Schmidt and Andry Kowski (2005). A total of 537

people completed an internet based survey and 177 chose to write about their

thoughts and feelings related to 9/11 people who wrote about their thought

and feelings reported more total symptoms of 9/11 related distress and greater

attention to feelings. Linguistic differences emerged among participants

classified by high, moderate, or low distress and were also evident in terms of

participant’s emotional intelligence and perceived social environment.

To examine the relationship between the dimensions of emotional

intelligence and selected social variables among120 parents and their children

between the age range of 15-17 years a study was reported by Uma and Uma

Devi (2005) and the results revealed that the parental education and

occupation has significant and positive relationship with the dimension of

emotional intelligence like social regard, social responsibility, impulse

control and optimism. The total intra personal subscale is significantly and

positively related to significantly and positively related to mother’s

education, occupation and income emphasizing the significance of mother in

enhancing the self development skills of adolescents. The second component

of emotional intelligence is the interpersonal sub scale, which include the

dimensions empathy, interpersonal relations and social responsibility. In the

interpersonal subscale of emotional intelligence of the total sample it was

noted that none of the parent related and family related variables had any

significant relationship with any of the dimensions or to the total

interpersonal sub scale.

Parker, Saklofske, Shaughnessy, Huang et al., (2005) have reviewed

that culture can influence the experience and expression of emotions. they

have made a cross cultural study and examined the generalizability of the

youth form of a widely used self-report measure of EI (EQ-i: Yv) in a sample

of 384 aboriginal youth from several rural areas in Canada (mean age= 125.

years) This sample was matched (by age and gender) with a second rural

Canadian sample of non aboriginal youth (N= 384). The four factor model for

the measure (separate dimensions for interpersonal, intrapersonal,

adaptability and stress management abilities) was tested using confirmatory

factory analysis with both samples. Multiple goodness of fit indicators

revealed that the model had good fit to the data from both samples. The

aboriginal respondents were found to score significantly lower on the

interpersonal, adaptability and stress- management dimensions compared to

the non-aboriginal children. Further, results are discussed in the context of EI

as a vulnerability factor for a number of health-related problems in children

and adolescents.

Schmidt, and AndryKowski (2005) had examined the role of social and

dispositional variables associated with emotional processing in adjustment to

breast cancer. This study investigated psychological adjustment as a function

of emotional intelligence, social support and social constraints in 210 patients

recruited via postings to internet- based breast cancer support groups.

Regression analysis indicated high social constraints and low emotional

intelligence were associated with greater distress. Evidence suggested high

emotional intelligence could buffer against the negative impact of a toxic

social environment. Furthermore, results support a social- cognitive

processing model of adaptation to traumatic events and suggest consideration

of emotional intelligence may broaden this model.

Van Rooy, Alonso and Viswesvaran (2005) had studied group

difference in emotional intelligence. In this study a common measure of

emotional intelligence was administered to 275 participants to examine how

different group score on a test of EI. Group differences existed for ethnicity

but favoured minority groups, mitigating potential adverse impact concerns,

as shown by results.

The effect of social skills intervention on the emotional intelligence of

children with limited social skills was examined by Betlow (2006).In this

study, children identified as socially deficient either did, or did not attend

weekly group social skills intervention over on 8 week period. Both

experimental and wait list control groups were assessed pre and post

intervention using the Baron Emotional Quotient inventory: youth version to

evaluate baseline and resultant levels of emotional intelligence. Results did

not revealed and statistically significant differences between children enrolled

in a social skills training group as compared to a wait- list control group.

With a purpose to investigate whether emotional intelligence has any

role to play in regard to altruistic behaviour Bhatpahari and Ajawni (2006)

have made a study by considering equal numbers of subjects (N=60),

randomly selected from larger population of high and low EI groups.

Altruism was studied in an experimental situation, wherein sharing behaviour

was studied as the criterion of altruistic behavior. It was found that subject

with high EI excel those with low EI as regarding to their altruistic behavior

i.e. they share more of the received reward with the co-participations than

emotionally low intelligent subject.

Brackett, Rivers, Shiffman and Lerner et al (2006) have made a study

relating emotional abilities to social functioning, further making a

comparison of self report and performance measures of emotional

intelligence. Three studies used J.D. Mayer and P. Salovey’s (1997) theory

emotional intelligence (EI) as a framework to examine the role of emotional

abilities (assessed with both self-report and performance measures) in social

functioning. Self ratings were assessed in ways that mapped on to the Mayer-

Salovey- Caruso Emotional Intelligence test (MSCEIT) , a validated

performance measure of E.I. In study 1, self rating and MSCEIT scores were

not strongly correlated. In study-2, men’s MSCEIT scores, but not self-rating,

correlated with perceived social competence after personality measures were

held constant. In study 3, only the MSCEIT predicted real time social

competence, again, only for men.

Kim (2006) had examined the relations between adult attachment

orientations and both emotional intelligence and cognitive fragmentation.

Authentic self, which refers to a genuine sense of the self, was proposed as a

mediator of such relations. 115 undergraduate students participated in the

study. Applying structural equation modeling, the results showed that degree

of authentic self mediated the relations between attachment dimensions and

either emotional intelligence or cognitive fragmentation. Specifically, a

higher score on the secure attachment dimension was associated with a

greater degree of authentic self, which in turn, was associated with greater

levels of emotional intelligence and having a fewer fragmented cognitive

concepts about the self and romantic relationships. On the other hand a higher

score on the anxious ambivalent attachment dimension was associated with

lower degree of authentic self, which in turn, was associated with a lower

level of emotional intelligence and having more fragmented cognitive

concepts about the self and romantic relationships.

Kumar and Bhushan (2006) have examined the relationship among

emotional intelligence and interpersonal communication practices (IPC);

among 120 male students of IIT Guwahati. Results revealed that IPC neither

correlated with EI. Dimensions of interpersonal communication were found

to be negatively correlated with self management and social skill dimension

of emotional intelligence.

Moving ahead to another study made by petrides, sangareau, Furnham

and Frederickson (2006) on trait emotional intelligence and children’s peer

relations at school. Trait emotional intelligence (or trait emotional self

efficacy) is a constellation of emotion related self-perception and dispositions

comprising the affective aspects of personality. This study was aimed at

investigating the role of trait EI in children’s peer relation at school.(N=160)

participants were administered the trait EI questionnaire and were

subsequently asked to nominate all, classmates who fitted each to seven

distinct behavioural descriptions (cooperative, disruptive, shy, aggressive,

dependent, leader, and intimidating). The teachers were also asked to

nominate all pupils who fitted the seven descriptions. As a result, pupils with

high trait EI scores received more nominations for cooperation and leadership

and fewer nominations for disruption, aggression and dependence. Factor

analysis of teacher nominations revealed two orthogonal factors

encompassing pro-social and anti social descriptions, respectively. Finally the

study concluded that high trait EI pupils scored higher on the pro social and

lower on the antisocial factor.

In order to investigate the relationship between social anxiety and

emotional intelligence or of their shared impact upon interpersonal

adjustment, Summerfeldt, Kloosterman, Antony and Parker (2006) have been

made a study, by using structural equation modeling with self report data

from a large nonclinical sample (N= 2629). EI was found to be highly related

to social interaction anxiety, but not performance anxiety. A model

permitting these three predictors to inter-correlate indicated that the EI factor

was the dominant predictor of interpersonal adjustment, substantially

reducing the unique contribution made by interaction anxiety. This pattern

reflected the principal contributions made to interaction anxiety by the

interpersonal and particularly, intrapersonal domains of Emotional

Intelligence.

Emotion regulations abilities and the quality of social interaction was

studied by Lopes, Salovey, Cote, Beers et al., (2005) emotional regulation

abilities measured on a test of emotional intelligence, were related to several

indicators of the quality of individual’s social interaction with peers. In a

sample of 76 college students, emotion regulation abilities were associated

with both self reports and peer nominations of interpersonal sensitivity and

prosocial tendencies, the proportion of positive vs negative peer nominations,

and reciprocal friendship nominations. These relationships remained

statistically significant after controlling for the Big-five personality traits as

well as verbal and fluid intelligence.

Previous studies have consistently shown emotion regulation to be an

important predictor of intercultural adjustment Emotional intelligence theory

suggests that before people can regular emotions they need to recognize

them, thus emotion recognition ability should also predict intercultural

adjustment. Keeping this in view Yoo, Matsumoto and Le Roux (2006) made

a study testing this hypothesis in international students at three times during

the school year. Recognition of anger and emotion regulation predicted

positive adjustment, recognition of contempt, fear and sadness predicted

negative adjustment. Emotion regulation did not mediate the relationship

between emotion recognition and adjustment, and recognition and regulation

jointly, predicted adjustment. These results suggest recognition of specific

emotions may have specific functions in intercultural adjustment, and that

emotion recognition and emotion regulation play independent role in

adjustment.

Duhan and Chhikara (2007) have studied the association of parenting

technique and types of exposure to mass media (T.V. Programs) referred as

macrosystem variables, with emotional intelligence skills. Results revealed a

significant association between parenting techniques and emotional

intelligence skills. The results show that most of the parents of the high

category respondent (16.7%) adopted authoritative discipline in home where

as, 11.7 percent followed permissive type of techniques. Out of 28% of the

low category respondents,13.3% adopted authoritarian parenting discipline

and only 3.3% exerted authoritative type of discipline. It may be inferred that

more suitable the parenting style, better will be the emotional intelligence

skills. The results further show that the other macro system variable i.e. type

of T.V. Programs was found non significant with emotional intelligence skills

of respondents.

Singh and Saini (2007) have revealed in their study regarding

emotional intelligence and interpersonal relationships, that the measures of

emotional stability is significantly related with the variables of managing

relations and integrity which concludes that the persons who are emotionally

stable posit good interpersonal relations, they enjoy the trust of other and they

tend to be less aggressive and hostile to others.

Similar study was reported by Varshney (2007) on influence of

parental encouragement on emotional intelligence of intermediate students

(N=100, 50 boys, 50 girls). Results revealed that parental encouragement had

a positive effect on the emotional intelligence of boys and girls, revealing

there by that higher parental encouragement is associated with good

emotional intelligence and vice-versa. It implies that discouragement do not

flourish the emotional intelligence of students. The higher mean scores of EI

show that affectionate, liberal and considerate home environment promotes

the E.I.

In order to analyze the effect of parent’s emotional intelligence on self

destructive intelligence syndrome (SDI) of individuals, study was made by

Goyal and Singh (2008), conducted on the sample of 80 students of MIT

Moradabad. The subjects were requested to fulfill the self-destructive

intelligence syndrome scale by themselves and the emotional intelligence

scale by their parents (father only). The high emotionally intelligent father

and the low emotionally intelligent father groups were formed on the basic of

scores obtained from emotional intelligence scale. By mean of ANOYA, the

results revealed that the parent’s emotional intelligence is a significant

determinant of SDI Syndrome of the individual.

With a purpose of studying the effect of emotional intelligence training

on peer relationship of the adolescent students; Purohit and Ajawani (2008)

selected a random sample of 240 student studying in eleventh class, assigned

equally to control (non training) and experimental (training) groups. Both the

groups were initially tested for their peer relationship and then experimental

group followed a EI training programme for 18 days while the control group

passed a silent period of 18 days, after 18 days they were retested for their

peer relationship. Results revealed that, training group genuinely improved

more in comparison to those of Non- training group in regard to their peer

relationship.

To see the difference among day scholars and hostel student (N=60) in

prosocial behaviour and emotional intelligence, Saranya and Velayudhan

(2008). The results clearly indicated that there was s significant difference

among day scholars and hostel student in different dimensions of prosocial

behaviour viz Altruism civic sense, courtesy, conscientiousness

sportsmanship and perception towards university environment. There is a

significant difference among day scholars and hostel students in their

emotional intelligence dimensions. viz. self awareness self-regulation,

motivation, social-awareness and social skills. Furthermore, the hostel

students seem to have a better emotional intelligence than day scholars.

Sethi and Ajawani (2008) have studied emotional intelligence as the

function of parent- child relationship. To study whether parent-child

relationship exerts any effect on emotional intelligence, a sample of 120

students aging 16 to 18 years and studying XI and XII class with good parent-

child relationship and 120 students with poor parent-child relationship were

selected randomly from a large population. Parent- child relationship scale

(Sharma & Chauhan, 2002) and emotional intelligence scale (Ajawani et al.,

2003) were used to assess the parent child relationship and emotional

intelligence of the subjects respectively. An average emotional intelligence

score of the subjects with good parent-child relationship (M=309.94) was

found to be higher than that of with poor parent-child relationship

(M=235.20). The obtained CR (CR=45.49) for the difference is significant at

0.01 level of significance.

Another study aimed at examining the direct and indirect relationships

between emotional intelligence, subjective fatigue and the amount of social

support gained, made by Brown and Schulte (2009). 167 university students

completed the questionnaires assessing, subjective fatigue, emotional

intelligence and social support. Results indicated that the amount of social

support and satisfaction with social support, both partially mediated between

emotional intelligence and fatigue. It concluded that the association between

subjective fatigue, emotional intelligence and social support may facilitate an

understanding of the etiology of fatigue.

Mohanty and Uma Devi (2010) have examined the relationship

between the EI of adolescents of secure attachment style and selected socio

personal variables among 60 students, measuring attachment style by

‘Attachment scale Hazen and Shaver (1987) and emotional intelligence

inventory (2003). Results revealed that those adolescents who were securely

attached with their parents, had better interpersonal relation, good problem

solving skills and were happier. It was further concluded that the conducive

home environment with secure feeling, give raise to emotionally intelligent

individuals in future.

Biological / Health correlates

Health is an important factor in the life of the individuals, as it affects

almost every single aspect of their life and determines their well-being. Poor

health can make one to be dependent on others even for the basic necessities

of life and this can effect one’s perception of oneself. In essence, health

seems to be one of the most significant factors effecting adjustment, well-

being and happiness. Health can not be limited to only physical well-being

alone. It have many aspects. One of them is psychological health, comprises

good self esteem, enjoying a general feeling of well being, creativity,

problem-solving skills and emotional stability.

Modern life is becoming highly complex because of the process of

urbanization and related social changes which influence the lives of people

(Kaur, 1992) Anxiety and stress owing to the competitive life are reflecting

on the behavior of individuals in every sphere of life which not only

negatively influence their emotional health and social interaction but also

adversely effect their overall adjustment in their respective fields and

performance. The consequent stress may lead to symptoms such as,

headaches, backaches, high blood pressure, panic, stomach problems, sexual

dysfunction, reduced autoimmune problems like allergies or some form of

arthritis, mood and sleep disturbances and also disturbed relationship with

family and friends.

Thingujam and Ram (2000) during the process of Indian adaptation of

emotional intelligence scale (Schulte et al., 1998) reported, as a part of the

convergent validity studies that EI was correlated strongly and positively with

coping with stress, and moderately and negatively with trait-anxiety.

It has been found that cognitive intellectual abilities are largely based

in the neocortex areas of the brain, while emotional functioning is largely

supported by the neurologic circuitry found in limbic areas (eg. the

amygdala). In terms of the two cerebral hemispheres, the right hemisphere is

more involved in emotional processing (particular negative affect) than the

left which sustains linguistic and logical activities (Carlson, 2001).

Jausovec, Jausoves, and Gerlic (2001) recorded electro encephalogram

(EEG) of people with high emotional intelligence (EIQ=120) and average

emotional intelligence (EIQ=89) while solving tasks from an emotional

intelligence test (MSCEIT). Significant differences in relating to EI were

found in induced and event related band power in the theta (4.4.-6.4 Hz)

lower-2 alpha (8.4-10.4 HZ) and upper alpha band (10.4-12.4Hz),

individualls with high EIQ showed less desynchronization in the upper alpha

band, as well as more left hemisphere theta desynchronization. Besides EIQ

and the mean frequency were significantly correlated. They claim that these

results are similar to those reported for performance and verbal components

of general intelligence.

Slaski and Cartwright (2002) investigated the relationship between a

measure of EQ, subjective stress, distress general health, morale, quality of

working life and management performance among management population

(N=224) of a large retail organization. The results found, indicated that

managers who scored higher in EQ, suffered less subjective stress,

experienced better health and well being, and demonstrated better

management performance.

Emotional intelligence is the single most important factor predicting

success and happiness in life and leading to good mental health (Sugarcane,

2002) Studies have shown that lower emotional intelligence related with

many self-destructive behavior such as deviant behavior and cigarette

smoking (Trinidad and Johnson, 2001; Brackett and Mayer, 2003).

In order to explore mental health nurse’s experiences of emotional

intelligence in their nursing practice by means of qualitative interviews,

Akerjordet and Severinsson (2004) developed interview questions from the

literature on EI and studied using a hermeneutic analysis. Four main themes

emerged relationship with the patient; the substance of supervision;

motivation; and responsibility. It was concluded that EI stimulates the search

for a deeper understanding of a professional mental health nursing identity.

Emotional learning and maturation process are central to professional

competence that is, personal growth and development. In addition, the moral

character of the mental health nurse in relation to clinical practice is of

importance. The findings imply multiple types of intelligence related to

nursing science ass well as further research possibilities within the area of EI.

Leible and snell (2004) have examined Borderline personality disorder

(BPD) and multiple aspects of emotional intelligence. It was investigated that

whether personality disorder symptomatology would be associated with six

aspects of emotional intelligence: motional awareness, private emotional

preoccupation, and public emotional monitoring. The results indicated that

several personality disorders were systematically associated with these

aspects of emotional intelligence.

Trinidad, Unger, Chou and Johnson (2004) had studied about the protective

association of emotional intelligence with psychosocial smoking risk factors

for adolescents. EI was assessed with a shortened version of the multifactor

emotional intelligence scale, (adolescent version) and was administered to

416, sixth graders from middle schools in the Los Angeles area. Results

indicate that high EI is a protective factor for smoking risk factors in

adolescents. Linear regression models revealed that high EI was associated

with greater perceptions of the negative social consequences of smoking (p<

0.001) and with being more efficacious in refusing cigarette offers (p<

0.001). Logistic regression models revealed that high EI was associated with

a lower likelihood of intending to smoke in the next year. Those with high EI

may be better able to benefit from social influences based prevention

programs.

Research has correlated high emotional intelligence with lower levels

of perceived stress, positive conflict styles and other measures of positive

adaptations in difficult work environment (Abraham, 2005).

In an another study done by Austin, Saklofske and Egan (2005)

emotional intelligence, life satisfaction and health related measures were

assessed in Canadian (N=500) and Scottish (N=204) groups. Results showed

that EI was found to be negatively associated with alcohol consumption and

positively associated with life satisfaction and EI is a good predictor of

health-related outcomes.

Jain and Sinha (2005) had studied the predictive ability of emotional

intelligence, trust, and organizational support in general health. The sample

consisted of 250 middle-level executives from 2-wheeler manufacturing

organizations. Results suggest that the dimensions of EI termed positive

attitude about life predicted both factors of general health positively : (a)

sense of accomplishment and contribution and (b) botheration- free existence

‘organizational support’ predicted sense of accomplishment and contribution,

whereas ‘vertical trust’ predicted botheration free existence, accompanied by

the ‘assertiveness’ and ‘positive self-concept’ dimension of EI. The

implications of the results are discussed in terms of promoting the general

health of employees through training on EI skills and through the criterion of

an atmosphere of trust and recognition within the organization.

Another study aimed at examining the direct and indirect relationships

between emotional intelligence and subjective fatigue; reported by Brown

and Schulte (2006). 167 university students completed questionnaires

assessing subjective fatigue, emotional intelligence and a range of other

psychological factors. A series of regression analyses were used to examine

the direct and indirect relationships between subjective fatigue and

psychological factors. Results indicated that higher emotional intelligence

was associated with less fatigue. The psychological variables depression,

anxiety, optimism, internal health locus of control, each mediated partially

between emotional intelligence and fatigue. Additionally, sleep quality

partially mediated between emotional intelligence and fatigue.

Day, Therrien and Carroll (2006) had examined emotional

intelligence’s ability to predict health outcomes after controlling for related

constructs, or EI’s ability to moderate the stressor- strain relationship. The

study explored the relationships among EI (as assessed by a trait-based

measure, the EQ-i) daily hassles, psychological health/ strain factors (in terms

of perceived well-being, strain and three components of burnout). After

controlling for the impact of hassels, the five EQ-i subscales accounted for

incremental variance in two of the five psychosocial health outcomes.

However, the EQ-i scales failed to moderate the hassles- strain relationship.

Gohm, Corser and Dalsky (2006) examined the association between

emotional intelligence (emotion-relevant abilities) and stress (feelings of

inability to control life events) among 158 freshman. The results suggest that

emotional intelligence is potentially helpful in reducing stress for some

individuals, but unnecessary or irrelevant for others. The results highlights

among the highly stressed intense but confused participants in particular

because they have average emotional intelligence, but do not appear to use it,

presumably because they lack confidence in their emotional ability.

Kulshreshtha and Sen (2006) had investigated subjective well being in

relation to emotional intelligence and locus of control among 150 executives

of different job strata. The results of the study reveal that emotiond

intelligence and locus of control have significant correlation with subjective

well being. The results further concluded that emotional intelligence is a

strong predictor of subjective well being. Subjects with high emotional

intelligence and internal locus of control scored significantly high on positive

affect and scored significantly low on negative affect. Similarly subjects

scored high on emotional intelligence and have internal locus of control

scored significantly high on all the three dimensions of life satisfaction scale.

Rieb (2006) have made a correlational study exploring the association

between measures of emotional intelligence and ratings, of student clinical

effectiveness. The EQ-I and the MSCEIT were administered to 30 clinicals

psychology graduate students undergoing training in basic, interviewing

skills. Test results were compared with coder ratings of these same student

clinicians engaged in videotaped role-plays of counselling sessions. Specific

core interpersonal qualities (eg. Warmth, genuineness, respect, empathy)

were rated, and an average core competency score was determined. Results

did not show any significant correlations.

Shulman and Hemenover (2006) studied whether dispositional EI

predicted psychological health. Participants (N= 263) completed measures of

three EI disposition viz. perception, understanding and regulation of

emotions, psychological well being and emotional distress. Participants

completed the health scales a second time three month later. Results revealed

that dispositional EI is related to health outcomes crosssectionally and

predicts health over time.

Trinidad, Unger, Chou and Johnson (2006) have studied the impact of

EI on adolescent smoking. For this purpose multifactor emotional intelligence

scale, Adolescent version was used to measure emotional intelligence of

adolescents. The results reported that High emotional intelligence (EI) is

associated with decreased adolescent smoking. Hunt and Evans (2004)

investigated whether emotional intelligence (EI) can predict how individuals

respond to traumatic experiences. On a sample of 414 participants (181 male,

233 female), a measure of EI along with the impact of event scale revised,

the monitoring and blunting questionnaire (MBQ) were administered. The

results showed that participants with higher NEIS scores (emotional

intelligence) report fewer psychological symptoms relating to their traumatic

experiences, that monitors are more likely to have higher NEIS scores than

blunters. Results also revealed that traumatic events had a grater impact on

females than males.

Benson, Truskett and Findlay (2007) have explored burnout prevalence

rates and examined the relationship between burnout and EI in an Australian

surgical population. The sample comprised 126 participants (53 Ssts, 75

fellows ; mean age 44.03 years ) completed a battery of self report measures

of burn out, EI and social desirability. Measures achieved reliability

coefficients between 0.68 and 0.89 indicating adequate internal consistency.

A series of independent samples t-test indicating that burn out levels

regardless of career stage, correlated significantly with early retirement and /

or retraining intentions and was inversely related to overall EI level. A series

of regression analyses revealed that emotional control, emotional recognition

and expression and understanding of emotions were significant predictors of

burn out.

Recent research in psychology indicates that a personal competence in

the recognition, management and utilization of emotions may hold the key to

personal health, wealth and happiness. Emma and Dianne (2008) examined

the predictive value of social support and emotional intelligence and their

interaction effects on subjective well-being. The results showed that social

support and emotional intelligence and their interaction effects, significantly

predicted subjective well-being and explained 44%, 50% and 50% of the

variance in SWL, positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) respectively.

At step-two social support predicted NA and SWL, and at step-four one

interaction effect was significant.

Review examining the joint predictive effects of trait EI, extraversion

conscientiousness and neuroticism on 2 facets of general well being was

reported by Singh and Woods (2008) among a sample of 123 individuals of

employed community from the Indian subcontinent, who have completed the

measure of the five- factor model of personality, trait-EI and general well-

being facets worn-out and up-tight. Trait EI was released but distinct from the

3 personality variables, but predicted general well-being no better than

neuroticism. In regression analyses, trait- EI predicted between 6% and 9%

additional variance in the well being criteria, beyond the 3 personality traits.

Finally it was concluded that trait- EI may be useful in examining

dispositional influences on psychological well-being.

In an another study, (Hertel, Schutz and Lammers 2009) emotional

abilities were measured with MSCE17 (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, 2002) in

patients diagnosed with major despressive disorder, substance abused

disorder or borderline personality disorder and a non clinical control group.

Findings showed that all clinical groups differed from controls with respect to

their overall emotional intelligence scores. Specifically it was found that the

ability to understand emotional information and the ability to regulate

emotions best distinguished. The groups findings showed that patients with

substance abuse disorder and borderline personality disorder was most

impaired.

Study focussing on new mother’s perceptions of emotion intelligence

reactions and thoughts by means of a descriptive design was reported by

Akerjordet and Severinsson (2009). The study included 250 postnatal

mothers (a response rate of 80% ) the data were analyzed using descriptive

and inferential statistics. Results confirmed that from a health perceptive

emotional intelligence is an important component in relation to stress

management and mental health. However, emotionally perspective women

seem to be affected by stress and depression to a greater extent. The relative

strength of the association between the score also provides a valid and useful

overall measures of new mother’s perceptions.

A number of different psychological factors have been implicated in

the multifactorial aetiology of disordered eating (DE), attitudes and

behaviours. With respect to this view a study aimed to explore the possible

differences in emotional intelligence, body image and anxiety levels in young

females with disordered eating attitudes and healthy controls was reported by

Costarelli, Demerzi and Stamon (2009) among 92 Greek female university

students 18-30 years old responding on Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26). The

multi dimensional body self questionnaire (MBRSQ), the state trait Anxiety

Inventory (STAI) and The Bar On EQ-i. The EAT-26 revealed that 23% of

the subjects presented D,E, attitudes. Women in the DE attitudes group had

lower levels of EI in comparison to the control group, particularly in factors

such as emotional self awareness (P<0.05), empathy (p<0.05), interpersonal

relationships (p<0.001), stress management (p<0.05) and happiness (P<0.05).

the MBRSQ has revealed significant difference between the two groups in

terms of over weight pre occupation (P<0.001) the DE attitudes group had

higher anxiety scores (STAI) although the differences were non-significant.

Finally anxiety levels (STAI) were significantly correlated with levels of EI

(P<0.001).

Priya Thulasi, C., Jiji and Jayakumari, S. (2009)have investigated

whether there is any significant difference in the emotional intelligence of

Poliomyelitics and non-poliomyelitics (N=120) age ranged 18-35 years. The

result revealed that the psychological aspects (namely self awareness, mood

management, self motivation, impulse control, people skills, empathy,

sociability, self regulation) of emotional quotient are more or less same for

the poliomyelitics and non-poliomyelitics, which means that the two groups

do not differ in their emotional intelligence. It further concluded that basic

psychological processes in physically handicapped person are not different

from others as a function of disability.

In order to analysis the differences in emotional intelligence among

alcoholics, deaddicts and non alcoholic, a study was made by Radhakrishnan,

Gayatridevi and Velayudhan (2009). Results revealed that alcoholics had

lower level of emotional intelligence than deaddicts. Emotional intelligence

was found to increase as a result of deaddiction. The individual improved on

all sub dimensions of emotional intelligence namely self awareness, self

regulation, motivation, social awareness and social skills. They were able to

be aware of their emotions, to manage themselves and meet commitments, to

achieve and initiate, and to influence people and to communicate effectively.

This was the effect of the psychotherapy and treatment they received during

deaddiction. The result also revealed that alcoholics had a lower level of

emotional intelligence than non-alcoholics. Emotional intelligence of

alcoholics was found to be lower than that of the normal population. Whereas

it was found that deaddicts had a lower level of emotional intelligence than

non alcoholics.

Li-chuan Chu (2010) evaluated the benefits of mediation in regard to

EI, perceived stress and negative mental health with cross sectional and

experimental studies, among 351 full time working adults with different

amount of experience in meditation and found that those participants with

greater meditation experience, exhibited higher EI and less perceived stress

and negative mental health than those who had less or none. It then randomly

divided 20 graduate students with no experience of meditation into a

mindfulness meditation group (n=10) and a control group (n=10) and

measured them for same variables. Pre-treatment and post-treatment to test

the hypothesis, found that those who completed the mind fullness meditation

training demonstrated significant improvements compared to the control

group.

Educational correlates

Research evidence demonstrating the predictive effects of emotional

intelligence on academic achievement is growing enormously.

Alan Mc Cluskey (1999) highlighted the importance of emotional

intelligence to find their way into school curricula. According to him,

introducing emotions in schools would be a radical change.

A strong indication that emotional intelligence is predictive of

academic success is provided in several studies (Parker, 2004; Swart, 1996)

Pau et al. (2004) found that students with a high level of emotional

intelligence were more likely to adopt reflection and appraisal, social and

interpersonal, organization and time management skills. Whereas, low

emotionally intelligent students were more likely to engage in health

damaging behaviour.

Following are some more relevant reviews regarding academic success

and emotional intelligence:-

Mathur, Dube and Mallhotra (2003) have studied the relationship

between emotional intelligence and academic achievement. Data was

collected on a sample of 83 adolescents (boys and girls) from a local public

school. Results revealed that emotional intelligence corroborates and

compliments academic achievement. The data also exhibits that adolescents

who have higher level of responsibility do better on scholastic performance,

make better adjustments and are more confident.

The education sector, it has been reported that children with high EI

are more confident, are better learners, have high self esteem and few

behavioural problems, are more optimistic and happier, and also handle their

emotions better ( Ghosh and Gill, 2003).

Barchard (2004) had examined the ability of emotional intelligence to

predict academic achievement, in a sample of undergraduate psychology

students using year-end grades as the criterion. The predictive validity of

emotional intelligence was compared with the predictive validity of

traditional cognitive abilities and the Big-five dimensions of personality. In

addition, the incremental predictive validity of each of these three domains

was assessed. Only some measures of emotional intelligence predicted

academic success, and none of these measures showed incremental predictive

validity for academic success over and above cognitive and personality

variables. This may be due to the overlap between many emotional

intelligence measures and traditional measures of intelligence and personality

limits their incremental predictive validity in this context.

Parker (2004) have studied on the relationship between emotional

intelligence and academic achievement. The transition from high school to

university was used as the context for examining the relationship between

emotional intelligence and academic achievement. During the first month of

classes 372 first-year full time students at a small Ontario university

completed the short form of the emotional quotient inventory (EQ-i short). At

the end of the academic year the EQ-i: short data was matched with the

student’ academic record. When EQ-i: short variables were compared in

groups who had achieved very different levels of academic success (highly

successful student who achieved a first- year university GPA of 80% or better

versus relatively unsuccessful students who received a first- year GPA of

59% or less ) academic success was strongly associated with several

dimensions of emotional intelligence.

However, Petrides, Frederickson and Furnham (2004)

investigated the role of trait emotional intelligence in academic performance

and in deviant behaviour at school on a sample of 650 pupils in British

secondary education (mean age = 16.5 years). Trait EI moderated the

relationship between cognitive ability and performance. In addition, pupils

with high trait EI scores were less likely to have had unauthorized absences

and less likely to have been excluded from school. It was concluded that the

constellation of emotion-related self-perceived abilities and disposition that

the construct of trait EI encompasses is implicated in academic performance

and deviant behaviour, with effects that are particularly relevant to vulnerable

or disadvantaged adolescents.

The relationship between emotional intelligence and academic

achievement was examined by Parker, Creque, Barnhart, Harris et al (2005)

among 667 high school students. The students completed EQ-i: YV. At the

end of the academic year EQ-i :YV, data was matched with student’s

academic records for the year. When EQ-i: YV variables were compared in

groups who had achieved very different levels of academic success (highly

successful students, moderately successful and less successful based on

grade-point-average for the year), academic success was strongly associated

with several dimensions of emotional intelligence. Further, results are

discussed in the context of the importance of emotional and social

competency on academic achievement.

Reilly (2005) in his article suggests that negotiation courses using

traditional lectures combined with role plays and simulated exercises can be

used to train students in understanding emotion and increasing their

emotional intelligence. The article defines emotion and emotional

intelligence, describes and analyzes one simulated exercise that has proven to

be particularly potent in the classroom for teaching both the theory and

practice of emotional intelligence; sets forth the rudimentary components of a

possible curriculum for emotions training, and concludes with reasons why

law schools and other professional degree-granting programs can and should

make training in emotions a curriculum staple.

Another study aimed at examining academically gifted (N=38) and non

gifted (N=125) high school students from Israel, to compare mean emotional

intelligence scores; was reported by Zeidner, Shani-Zinovich, Matthews and

Roberts (2005) various assessment procedure and relation between emotional

intelligence and ability, across different populations participants completed

the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso emotional Intelligence test (MSCEIT), the Schutte

Self-Report Inventory (SSRI), and the vocabulary subtest of the Hebrew

version of the Weschsler Intelligence scale for children-Revised (WISC-R-

95). Gifted students scored higher on the MSCEIT, but lower on the SSRI.

Findings suggest that individual differences are measures dependent, with the

profile of scores variable across EI assessment procedures. Concepts assessed

by the MSCEIT resemble a type of intelligence, whereas findings with the

SSRI are problematic from this perspective.

Another study in this context was investigated by Austin, Evans,

Goldwater and Potter (2006) among a group of 156 first year medical

students who have completed measures of emotional intelligence and

physician empathy, and a scale assessing their feelings about a

communication skills course component. Exam performance in the autumn

term on a course component (health and society) covering general issues in

medicine was positively and significantly related to EI score but there was no

association between EI and exam performance later in the year. High EI

students reported more positive feelings about the communication skills

exercise. Structural equation modelling showed direct effect of EI on autumn

term exam performance, but no direct effects other than previous exam

performance on spring and summer term performance. EI also partially

mediated the effect of gender on autumn term exam performance. These

findings provide limited evidence for a link between EI and academic

performance for this student group.

However, in the study of Bastian, Burns and Nettelback (2006) on 246

predominantly first year tertiary students investigating the relation between

emotional intelligence and academic achievement, it was reported that

correlations between emotional intelligence and academic achievement were

small and not statistically significant.

Parker, Hogan, Eastabrook, Oke et al., (2006) had examined the

relationship between emotional intelligence and academic retention.

Participants were selected from a sample of 1270 young adults (368 male,

902 female) making the transition from high school to university. They were

recruited during the first week of classes in the first year at the university and

completed a measure of emotional intelligence. Participant’s academic

progress was tracked over the course of the year and students were divided

into two groups. The first group consisted of students who withdrew from the

university before their second year of study (N= 213), and the second group

consisted of a matched sample (on the basis of age, gender and ethnicity) of

students who remained at the university for a second year of study (N=213).

Results revealed that student who persisted in their studies were significantly

higher than those who withdrew on a broad range of emotional and social

competencies.

The construct of emotional intelligence provides a framework for

understanding emotional processes in students with reading disabilities.

Pellitteri, Dealy, Fasano and Kugler (2006) in their article examined

underlying affective processes as they relate to cognition, motivation and

social functioning. Ecological and individual interventions for influencing

learning and social adjustment were described. Consideration was given to

the emotional factors in the school environment, the interpersonal interactions

of peer groups, opportunities for facilitating emotional learning, and dynamic

affective- aesthetic responses of the individual during the reading process.

Moving ahead to an article created by Hawkey (2006) on emotional

intelligence and mentoring in pre-service teacher education, the emerging

discourse of emotional intelligence is discussed in relation to mentoring in

pre-service teacher education. Possible reasons for the neglect of emotion and

affect in pre-service teacher education, and in education more broadly, are

discussed. The emerging focus on emotion in these fields is also examined in

light of existing policy critiques. The dangers and pitfalls of using an

emotional lens to look at the activity of mentoring and identified. The article

focuses on policy and practice in relation to mentoring in pre-service teacher

education in Britain, although the issues it raises and pertinent in the wider

international field.

Austin, Evans, Magnus and O’Hanlon (2007) have done a preliminary

study of empathy, emotional intelligence and examination performance

among medical students in year 2,3 (pre clinical) and 5 ( clinical). In order to

find out whether EI and Empathy are related to academic success,

questionnaires assessing EI and empathy were made completed by students.

Associations of EI and empathy with academic success were examined using

Pearson correlation. Results showed that associations between academic

performance and EI were sparse and there were none between academic

performance and empathy, but the effects of EI on problem-based learned

(PBL) groups were found positively correlated.

To explore the relationship of spiritual intelligence and emotional

intelligence with science achievement of Higher secondary male students,

Bansal (2007) have made a study among a sample of 200 male students of the

age group of 15 to 18 years, studying in elevanth class of the intermediate

colleges of Mathura city. Results shows that high positive correlation (r=.65)

was found between science achievement and emotional intelligence whereas

very high positive correlation (r=.73) was found between science

achievement and spiritual intelligence.

To explore the relationship between teaching effectiveness and emotional intelligence. Chhabada and Ajawani (2008) have conducted a study on 30 teachers having high emotional intelligence and 30 of them having low emotional intelligence (N=60). The study aimed at finding out the difference between teaching effectiveness of both the aforesaid groups of teachers. Results revealed that teachers having high emotional intelligence score higher on teaching effectiveness as compared to teachers having low emotional intelligence. Further it confirmed a significant relationship at (0.01 level of significance) between teaching effectiveness and emotional intelligence.

EI is reported to be a predictor of the interpersonal and

communications skills medical schools are looking for in applicants. Study

done by Carr (2009) describes EI scores in medical students and explores

correlation between EI and selection scores at the university of Western

Australia. Mean scores of the 177 respondents (58%) reflected the normal

distribution of scores (98, SD= 15.0) in the general population. No significant

correlations were found between EI total or EI branch scores and any of the

selection scores.

Another study examining the influence of emotional intelligence on

academic self-efficacy and achievement was reported by Dey (2009), among

150 undergraduate students (age= 18-20 years). The result demonstrated that

emotional intelligence and academic self-efficacy significantly correlated

with academic achievement. On the basis of findings, it was suggested that

emotional intelligence should be integrated into undergraduate curriculum.

The results confirmed the positive impact of academic self-efficacy and

emotional intelligence in the relationship between academic self efficacy and

achievement. Gowdhaman and Murugan (2009) analyzed the emotional

intelligence among the B.Ed, teacher trainees (N=300). The mean EI score of

300 students is 129.58 and median value is 132 with SD=15.29. The results

concluded that emotional intelligence of the B.Ed teacher trainees is normal

(Average).

A study was conducted to assess the impact of intervention package on

emotional intelligence skills of school teachers by Duhan, Chhikara and

Sangwan (2009). The intervention program was imparted to the 30 teachers

in various schools for a period of 15 days in each school. After a gap of one

month post testing was done and the impact of the given package was

measured. To see the effectiveness of the program, a group of 120 children

(10 children each from 6 pre school classes and 6 primary classes) were also

pre-tested and post-tested (after implementation of the program to teachers)

on a check list developed to judge the emotional intelligence. A significant

difference between pre and post testing assessment of emotional intelligence

skills in all the four aspects of emotional intelligence was found which was

also observed in children’s behaviour. The teachers were instructed to pass on

the learned emotional skills (through intervention) to the children of their

classes. It concluded that to inculcate the emotional skills and their

appropriate use among children it is must for the teachers to be emotionally

intelligent then only they can motivate the children to learn the emotional

intelligence skills.

Singh and Kumar (2009) have conducted a study on secondary school

teachers of convent schools (English medium) and saraswati schools (Hindi

medium) to analyze their emotional intelligence. The results had indicated

that emotional intelligence of teachers of convent schools and Saraswati

schools differ significantly. It was also observed that Saraswati school

teachers are good in Self-motivation, Value orientation and Commitment

whereas Self-awareness, Self-development, Managing relation, Integrity, and

Altruistic behaviour aspects of emotional intelligence. It also has been

observed that there is no significant difference between teachers of convent

schools and Sarawati schools on Empathy and Emotional stability aspects of

emotional intelligence.

Tatawadi (2009) studied about emotional maturity among management

students (N=200). Group one consist of 100 students of semester-I and group

two consisted of 100 students studying in semester IV. The results showed

that mean scores of students of semester one and semester four show no

significant difference in their emotional maturity.

Cognitive Correlates

Most psychologists today believe that our cognitions, our perceptions,

memories and interpretations are an essential component of emotion.

Emotions have two main components: physical arousal and a cognitive label

(e.g. Schachter’s two factor theory of emotion). Our everyday experience

suggests, there are indeed many links between emotion and cognition. The

way we feel, influences the way we think and our thoughts, often shape our

moods and emotions. People’s feelings can systematically influence what

kinds of thoughts are retrieved from memory.

Our thoughts seem to exert strong effects on our emotions, and this

relationship works in the other direction as well. So, there are important links

between emotion and cognition- between the way we feel and the way we

think. The findings of many studies indicate that our current moods can

strongly influence several aspects of cognition. Another way in which affect

influences cognition is through its impact on the style of information

processing we adopt.

The experience of emotion and its evaluation involves diverse brain

regions. Lane (2000) has argued that complex, blended emotions are

mediated by distinct hierarchically organized brain structures. From this

perspective, unconscious emotional responses are governed by lower brain

areas while the appraisal of emotion and reactive behaviours require higher

cortical mechanisms.

Austin (2004) have examined the relationship between trait emotional

intelligence (EI) and tasks involving the recognition of facial expressions of

emotion. Two facial expression recognition tasks using the inspection time

(IT) paradigm assessed speed of emotional information processing. An

unspeeded emotion recognition task was also included, and a symbol IT task

was used to assess speed of processing of non-emotional information. It was

found that scores on all three emotion-related tasks were strongly

intercorrelated as were scores on all the three IT tasks. The two emotional IT

scores remained significantly correlated when symbol IT performance was

partialled out.

Bastia et al. (2005) claimed that people with higher emotional

intelligence are more satisfied in their life and they perceived better problem

solving and coping ability. Different studies revealed different amazing

results on emotional intelligence. It was reported that overall E.I., perceiving

emotion and regulating emotions all contributed positively to individual

cognitive based performance, but understanding emotions did not add to the

explanation of variance in individual cognitive based performance over and

above the level attributable to general intelligence.

Jausovee and Jausovee (2005) have studied the differences in induced

gamma and upper alpha oscillations in the human brain related to verbal/

performance and emotional intelligence. 30 respondents participated in the

study who could be clustered as high-average verbal/performance intelligent

(HIQ/AIQ) or emotionally intelligent (HEIQ/ AEIQ). The EEG was recorded

while students were performing two tasks: the Raven’s advanced progressive

matrices (RAPM), and identifying emotions in pictures (IDEM). Significant

differences in event related desynchronization/ synchronization (ERD/ ERS)

related to verbal/ performance intelligence were only observed for the IDEM

task. HEIQ individuals displayed more gamma band ERS and less upper

alpha band ERD than did AEIQ individuals. It was concluded that HIQ and

HEIQ individuals employed more adequate strategies for solving the

problems at hand. The results further suggest that emotional intelligence

represent distinct components of the cognitive architecture.

Bennett, Bendersky and Lewis (2005) have examined cognitive ability

and negative emotionality, maternal characteristics (parenting, verbal

intelligence, and depressive symptoms), environmental risk, and child sex

among 184, 4-year old, predominantly African American children.

Regression analyses indicated that cognitively skilled children who resided in

relatively low risk environments with verbally intelligent mothers possessed

greater emotional knowledge. Proximal (4-year) child cognitive ability was a

stronger predictor than distal (2 -year) cognitive ability. Positive parenting at

4 years was correlated with child emotion knowledge, but this relation

disappeared when parenting was examined in the context of other predictors.

These findings highlight the potential role of child cognitive ability, along

with environmental risk and maternal verbal intelligence, in children’s

emotion knowledge and demonstrate the importance of examining a variety

of predictors for their unique contribution to emotion knowledge.

Bastian, Burns and Nettelbeck (2006) investigated relationship

between emotional intelligence and problem solving on 246 predominantly

first-year tertiary students and the results showed that higher emotional

intelligence was correlated with better perceived problem solving .

Bay and Lim (2006) had examined the relationship between the seven

variables of Gardner’s (1983) theory of multiple intelligences and the four

components of the emotional intelligence construct. Three hundred sixty

upper primary school students (age range 10-11 years) completed the Teele

Inventory of Multiple Intelligences, Teele (1995) and the Mayer- Salovey-

Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test- Youth Research Version (Mayer,

Salovey and Caruso, 2002). Results found a negative correlation between

interpersonal and interpersonal intelligence, logical/mathematical intelligence

is negatively correlated with interpersonal intelligence, and no relationship

was found between a student’s interpersonal intelligence and their total

emotional intelligence quotient.

Emotional intelligence may influence appraisals of stressful tasks and

subsequent task performance. The study made by Lyons and Schneider

(2006) examined the relationship of ability-based EI facets with performance

under stress. They expected that high levels of EI would promote challenge

appraisals and better performance, whereas low EI levels would foster threat

appraisals and worse performance undergraduates (N=126) performed mental

math and videotaped speech tasks. Results revealed that certain dimensions

of EI were related to more challenge and enhanced performance. Some EI

dimensions were related to performance after controlling for cognitive ability,

demonstrating incremental validity.

In recent years working memory deficits have been reported in users of

MDMA (3,4- methyl-enedioxymethamphetamine, ectasy). In order to assess

the impact of MDMA use on three separate central executive processes (set

shifing, inhibition and memory updating ) and also on ‘prefrontal’ mediated

social and emotional judgement processes; Reay, Hamilton, Kennedy and

Scholey (2006) studied among 15 polydrug ectasy users and 15 polydrug

non-ectasy user controls who have completed a general drug use

questionnaire, the Brixton Spatial Anticipation task (set shifting), Backward

Digit Span procedure (memory updating), Inhibition of Return (inhibition),

an emotional intelligence scale, the Tromso Social Intelligence Scale and the

Dysexecutive Questionnaire (DEX) compared with MDMA- free polydrug

controls, MDMA polydrug users showed impairments in set shifting and

memory updating, and also in social and emotional judgement processes. The

latter two deficits remained significant after controlling for other drug use.

These data lend further support to the proposal that cognitive processes

mediated by the prefrontal cortex may be impaired by recreational ectasy use.

Another study attempted to reveal the role of emotional intelligence in

syllogistic reasoning ability of problem solving was put forth by Alex and

Ajawani (2008). A final sample of 120 students with high emotional

intelligence and 120 students with low emotional intelligence were selected

randomly after administering emotional intelligence test on a larger

population selection studying in 11th class. The selection of high and low

emotional intelligent subjects was based on Q1 and Q3 statistics. A

syllogistic reasoning problem solving ability test was administered to assess

subjects syllogistic reasoning problem solving ability. It was found that

average score on syllogistic reasoning problem solving ability of students

with high emotional intelligence score (M= 13.19) is greater than those with

low emotional intelligence (M=12.37). The obtained CR (CR=2.70) is

significant at 0.01 level of significance and provides empirical ground to

retain research hypothesis.

The relationship of emotional intelligence with coping strategies, was

examined in adults (n=599) by Pashang and Singh (2008). The results

revealed that problem solving was used more by people with high level of

E.I. It means that they tried to cope with their problems intellectually. The

mean scores on problem solving, distraction positive and acceptance

strategies showed that the subjects with high levels of E.I used these

strategies more than those with low levels of EI. On the other hand, the

subjects with the lowest levels of EI coped with their anxiety through

distraction negative, religion, denial or social support more than the other

strategies. The results of the study confirmed that individuals in medium level

of EI also used acceptance strategy more than other strategies these type of

people accept the stressful situation at the first step and then try to use the

other strategies.

Personality correlates

Personality refers to individual differences in the ways in which people

confront challenges of the world. Emotions contribute to thought and also

have linkage with personality. The construct of personality type and

emotional intelligence have attracted researchers in the area of psychology

and other social sciences.

Though, emotion plays an important role in linking personality, in this

context emotional intelligence is proposed as a way of identifying and

organizing the specific skills needed to understand and experience emotions

most adaptively (Goleman, 1995; Mayer, 1995; Mayer and Salovey, 1993;

Mayer, Salovey and Caruso, 2000; Salovey and Mayer, 1990). Following are

some studies relevant to different personality aspects and emotional

intelligence.

Kokkonen and Pulkkinen (2001) in their longitudinal study examined

the role of extraversion and neuroticism as antecedents of emotion regulation

and dysregulation among 89 women and 81 men (27 years) by using

standardized version of Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), further

at the age of 33, the subjects completed the Big Five personality inventory, a

authorized adaptation of NEO personality inventory. Whereas emotion

regulation was measured by the ‘Repair’ subscale of the meta regulation scale

and emotion social support was measured by the life situation questionnaire

(at the age of 36 years). Structural equation modeling demonstrated that prior

neuroticism led to higher emotional ambivalence (disregulation) and lowered

used of ‘Repair’ and extraversion, on the other hand was linked to lower

emotional ambivalence at age 36. Extraversion also led to higher attempts to

rely on emotional social support to regulate emotions but less interest in using

‘Repair’. Correlational findings revealed that extraversion and neuroticism

showed differential continuity between ages 27 and 33.

Another study exploring link between emotional intelligence and

personality traits (extraversion and neuroticism) have been reported by

Lopes, Salovey and Straus (2003) in a sample of 103 college students. The

association between emotional intelligence and personality traits remained

statistically significant, as the results showed that higher emotional

intelligence is positively linked with neuroticism as assessed by MSCEIT and

Big-Five personality test.

Furnham and Petrides (2004) made a study hypothesized that trait EI

would be a positive predictor of happiness and that this relationship would

remain statistically significant even after controlling for the effects of the Big

five personality factors. It was further hypothesized that cognitive ability

would not be significantly associated with either trait EI or happiness.

Participants completed measures of trait EI, happiness, personality and

cognitive ability. Results revealed that cognitive ability was not related either

to happiness or to trait EI. Trait EI explained over 50% of the total variance

in happiness. The positive relationship between trait EI and happiness

persisted with the Big five, but the Big five personality dimensions did not

account for a significant amount of happiness variance when trait EI was

partialled out.

Another study examining the relationship of emotional intelligence

with leadership effectiveness and success was reported by Srivastava and

Bharamanaikar (2004) among 291 Indian army officer using a structured

interview schedule. Emotional intelligence was measured using work profile

questionnaire (EI version), and leadership effectiveness was assessed by

MLQ-5x, where subordinates identified the leadership style. Study showed a

strong relationship between EI and transformational leadership. Showing a

significant correlation, the results indicated that army officers with higher

scores on the EI perceived them to be more successful in their careers. It was

concluded that high EI augments transformational leadership behaviours,

thereby enhancing leadership effectiveness.

Vanderzee and Wabeke (2004) have examined the interactions

between trait emotional intelligence and the Big-Five personality traits. Three

higher order factors were found to underlie the Bar-on Emotional Quotient

Inventory (Bar-On 1997): sense of accomplishment, empathy and

planfulness. Trait-EI was found to be substantially related to Extraversion,

Agreeableness, Emotional stability and Autonomy. Nevertheless, the EI-

factors predicted additional variance over and above the Big- five

competency to support.

Warwick and Nettelbeck (2004) have studied among 84 tertiary

students completed questionnaires measuring emotional intelligence (EI),

personality, affiliation, abstract reasoning ability, emotional knowledge and

task orientation. Among personality variables, extraversion and agreeableness

correlated moderately with total Trait meta mood scale (TMMS) (P<0.01),

and weakly (P<0.05) with openness, conscientiousness and neuroticism

TMMS was also correlated with emotional knowledge (P<0.01) but not with

abstract reasoning or interest in affiliation. Results from the same sample

with the Mayer, Solovey Caruso Emotional intelligence test (MSCEIT)

revealed inconsistancies between the two EI Scales. Thus openness,

extraversion conscientiousness, neuroticism and interest in affiliation were

not significantly related to the MSCEIT, but agreeableness and emotional

knowledge (P<0.01) and abstract reasoning ability (P<0.05) were. Results

also found that EI as estimated by the TMMS, but not the MSCEIT, was

correlated with task orientation (P<0.01), but this effect disappeared when

personality was controlled for.

Austin, Saklofske and Egan (2005) had studied relationship between

emotional intelligence, personality and alexithymia among Canadian

(N=500) and Scottish (N=204) groups. EI was found to be negatively

associated with alexithymia and the results also show that EI is more strongly

associated with personality factors.

In and another study done by Barbuto and Burbach (2006) the

relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership

was explored. 80 officials were considered as leaders and the staffers as

members. Results showed that the emotional intelligence of the leaders

shared significant variance with self perceptions and rater perceptions of

transformational leadership. The result also somewhat support the predictive

value of emotional intelligence in antecedent leadership field research.

Chan (2006) assessed the self perceptions of gifted students (N=212)

regarding their creativity, family hardiness and emotional intelligence The

results of regression analysis indicated that family hardiness and emotional

intelligence had separate and direct effects on self-perceived creativity, and

their effects were additive, rather than multiplicative, as their interaction

terms did not yield significant increment in variance accounted for in the

criterion of prediction. Similar results were obtained when different

components of emotional intelligence were considered with some suggestive

evidence that family hardiness could interact with specific components of

emotional intelligence in the prediction.

Day, Therrien and Carroll (2006) had explored the relationship among

emotional intelligence (as assessed by a trait- based measure the EQ-i), Big

five personality factors and type- A behavior pattern (TABP). Results

revealed that EQ-i was highly correlated with most aspects of personality

and TABP, concluding that personality aspects and type-A behavior patter

are good predictors of emotional intelligence.

Depape, Hakim-Larson, Voelker, page et al (2006) had examined self-

talk as a predictor of emotional intelligence among a diverse sample of 126

undergraduate participants (42 male, 84 female) ‘self-talk’ has been discussed

in the literature as a means of enhancing self-awareness and self regulation,

both of which are considered important in the construct of emotional

intelligence. The results indicated that year of study and self talk were

significant predictors of emotional intelligence and were associated with

emotional intelligence in a positive direction.

Jahoda, Pert and trower (2006) reported two studies in which they

compared the emotion recognition and perspective-taking abilities of 43

frequently aggressive individuals and 46 non aggressive individuals. The

perspective taking task required participants to distinguish between reactions

of angry versus calm characters. Although both groups had similar success

with elements of the task, the aggressive group proved better at predicting

character’s attributions. Results suggest that deficits in emotion recognition

and perspective taking cannot be assumed to be causal or maintaining factors

of frequent aggression.

Kumar and Bhushan (2006) have examined the relationship among

emotional intelligence and personality factors. The questionnaires of EIQ and

Big-5 were administered on 120 male students of ITI Guwahati. Regression

analysis confirmed that personality predicted self-awareness and self-

management dimensions of emotional intelligence. Correlation between

adjustment (personality dimension) and self-management (EI Dimension)

was highly positive, showing that an adjusted person will also be able to

manage himself/ herself. Personality was found as a predictor of self-

awareness and self management. However sociability (personality dimension)

had a negative correlation with social skills (E.I. dimension).

Another study, comparing emotional intelligence and the personality

factors of the five factor model (FFM) as predictors of task induced stress

responses. Participants (N=200) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 task

conditions, 3 of which were designed to be stressful. Results confirmed that

low EI was related to worry states and avoidance coping, even with the FFM

statistically controlled. However EI was not specifically related to task-

induced changes in stress state. Results also confirmed that neuroticism is

related to distress, worry and emotion-focused coping and conscientiousness

predicted use of task-focused coping (Matthews, Emo, Funke and Zeidner,

2006).

To examine the utility of dispositional models of emotional

intelligence (EI) , Shulman and Hemenover (2006). studied whether

dispositional EI, is synonymous to personality. Participants (N=116)

completed measures of three EI dispositions viz perception, understanding,

regulation of emotions and Big-five traits. Results revealed that dispositional

EI is not synonymous with personality and predicts meaningful life outcomes

above and beyond the big-five personality traits.

Iveevic, Brackett and Mayer (2007) examined the relationship between

EI and emotional creativity (EC) in which EI and EC were expected to be two

distinct sets of abilities. Intercorrrelations and confirmatory factor analyses

supported the hypothesis that the relationship between EI and EC corresponds

to the relationship between cognitive intelligence and creative ability. Self

report measure of EC significantly correlated with laboratory and self-

reported creativity measures in both the studies, while ability measures of EC

only correlated with self reported artistic activity. Finally, EI was found

uncorrelated with creative behavior. In order to examine the relationship

between curiosity and emotional intelligence in a sample of graduate and

undergraduate students in business administration courses (N=312), Leonard

and Harvey (2007) have made an attempt. Curiosity was assessed using the

Melbourne Curiosity Index (MCI, Naylor, 1981) and the curiosity and

exploration Inventory (CEI, Kashdan, Rose and Fincham, 2004. EI was

measured using the Trait Meta-Mood scale (TMMS; Salovey, Mayer,

Goldman, Thrvey and Palfai, 1995). The results indicated that there is a

significant relationship between trait curiosity and emotional intelligence.

Singh and Saini (2007) have studied emotional intelligence and

aggression in association with coronary heart diseases. Correlations reveal

that persons who are self motivated, they are emotionally stable and less

prone to aggressive behavior. Findings also reveal that the persons who are

better in managing the relations are less aggressive and hostile. Furthermore,

management of certain emotional aspects and aggression have the meaningful

impact in the prevention and rehabilitation of CHD patients.

Next review deals with the study of relationship between emotional

intelligence and self esteem of adolescents (N=80) by Mishra and Ranjan

(2008). Emotional intelligence was measured with the help of Mangal

Emotional Intelligence Inventory (MEII) and self-esteem was measured with

the help of Canadian self-esteem Inventory (CSEI) – (Adult form). The

correlation was found to be 0.61, which is sufficiently high positive. The

results thus, revealed that the emotional intelligence and self-esteem are

positively correlated.

To find out the relationship between the dimensions of emotional

intelligence and creativity among the undergraduate colleges students, Nasar

and Nasar (2008) have made an investigation and the obtained results showed

that emotional intelligence, which consists of two components, first one is the

ability to appraise, express, regulate and utilize one’s own emotions and the

second one is the ability t o appraise and regulate emotions in other, both are

related to subjects creativity and its three prime components namely, fluency,

flexibility and originality. It was concluded that creative persons are

emotional as well as emotionally sensitive and higher potentialities like

emotional intelligence and creativity are significantly correlated.

Suri(2008) investigated the impact of emotional intelligence on

adjustment of adolescents (N=400) studying in class twelve of various

schools affiliated to CBSE, New Delhi. They were subjected to emotional

intelligence inventory’ (Mangal and Mangal) and Bell’s Adjustment

Inventory developed and standardized by Ojha. Results revealed a significant

correlation between emotional intelligence and adjustment among the

students.

Rathee (2009) have investigated the interrelationship between

emotional intelligence and adjustment among female college students

(N=100), (50 sports person and 50 non sports person) who were administered

the sevenfold emotional intelligence scale and adjustment inventory for

college students. The results depicted that a significant correlation at 0.01

level was found between emotional intelligence and overall adjustment, with

regard to the sports group. The finding of this study have revealed that the

sports and physical activities undoubtedly contribute positively to one’s

emotional intelligence and overall adjustment. It was concluded that both

emotional intelligence and overall adjustment do influence each other and are

also interrelated.

Occupational correlates

The work plays a central role in people’s life. Therefore, the workplace

is the ideal setting for the promotion of social and personal competencies

which are vital for a healthy and productive life. The concept of emotional

Intelligence has become very significant in behavioural science as well as in

business management. It may help organizations to hire emotionally healthy

and potentially successful personnel Goleman’s prediction of success at

workplace with high EI (Goleman, 1998) seemed as a ray of hope in the

changing business world. Dealing objectively with emotions is extremely

important for the productive management of organizations. Emotional

intelligence may be the most important influencer of success on the job,

according to studies done over the last decade. The emotional intelligence

factor has been shown to be four times as accurate in predicting efficiency at

the work place as the traditional IQ factor. It is essential in organizations in

order to maintain a cordial relation with co-workers, clients, public and other

people which is essential for the growth of the organization. Studies done in

the organizational contexts show the importance of emotional intelligence in

handling the problems in organizations.

The benefits of applying EI in the workplace may include higher

tolerance for stress, better people management skills and more effective

performance as part of a team (Klohnen, 1996).

Researches have also showed the linkages between job satisfaction and

EI. Higher levels of EI predicted higher levels of job satisfaction and stronger

connections with co-workers and supervisors (Abraham, 1999). Fisher (2000)

linked emotions and moods with job satisfaction. Recently, Cote and Morgan

(2002) found that amplification of positive emotions increased job

satisfaction while suppression of unpleasant emotions decreased job

satisfaction.

The EI construct has important implication for maintaining the

commitment, productivity, and job satisfaction (Cooper and Sawaf, 1997) . In

the organization domain, several studies examine the relevance and

prevalence of emotional intelligence in the context of the corporate sector.

Singh (2003) compared Japanese and Indian managers and concluded

that Japanese managers were high on thinking, while Indian managers were

high on feeling. Further it has been argued that since Indians, by and large

have high affiliation need, this needs to be tapped effectively through the

appropriate use of the concept of EI that yields enhancement in productivity.

This shows that the need of EI is not uniform across occupations.

The relationship of EI was studied with leadership effectiveness,

success and job satisfaction among Indian army officers by Srivastava

(2003). It was found that emotionally more intelligent army officers adopted

a transformational style of leadership to motivate their subordinates to

perform beyond expectations. They also perceived them to be more

successful in their careers.

Higgs (2004) have studied the relationship between emotional

intelligence and performance in UK call centers. To explore the relationship

between the EI of call center agents and ratings of their performance, a

sample of 289 agents from three organizations was studied. Results included

a strong relationship between overall EI and individual performance as well

as between several EI elements from the model and performance concluding

that individuals having good emotional intelligence were better on their work

performance.

Another study examining the relationship of emotional intelligence and

job satisfaction among 291 Indian army officers using a structured interview

schedule was reported by Srivastava and Bharamanaikar (2004). The result

showed that the overall regression equation between the dimensions of EI as

predictors and job satisfaction as criterion variable was not significant. This

result suggested that EI does not contribute towards satisfaction with the job.

Whereas, other researches have showed the linkages between job satisfaction

and EI. Higher levels of EI predicted higher levels of job satisfaction and

stronger connections with co-workers and supervisors (Abraham,1999;

Kahn, 1990). Kahn (1990) in his study of job satisfaction reported that more

psychologically meaningful job tasks resulted when those tasks included

positive interactions with coworkers.

Sy and Cote (2004) have given their view that organizations continue

to employ the matrix organizational form as it enables companies to use

human resources flexibly, produce innovative solutions to complex problems

in unstable environments and increase information flow through the use of

lateral communication channels. Despite its strengths, the matrix has inherent

problems. They identified that there are four interpersonal challenges that

impede matrix performance: misaligned goals increase competition among

employees, roles and responsibilities are unclear, decision making is untimely

and of possibly low quality and silo-focused employees do not cooperate. It

was proposed that emotionally intelligent employees can function better in

matrix. Solution were offered for both managers and employees to improve

performance in matrix organizations by applying the four components of

emotional intelligence, specifically managing, understanding, using and

perceiving emotion to each interpersonal change.

Vander Zee and Wabeke (2004) examined the usefulness of trait-

emotional intelligence among a sample of 1,186 top managers who filled out

questionnaires for emotional intelligence and were evaluated by a consultant

on their competencies. Three higher order factors were found to underlie the

Bar-On emotional quotient Inventory (Bar-On,1997): Sense of

accomplishment, empathy and planfulness. On the whole, top managers

scored higher on the EI dimensions compared with a general population

sample. High EI scores were particularly found among managers from

enterprising occupational environments that is environments dominated by

activities that entail persuading the leading others to attain organizational

goals or economic gain.

Another review was reported by Zeidner, Matthews and Roberts

(2004) for conceptualizations and empirical evidence in support of emotional

intelligence and its claimed role in the occupational environment.

Consideration is given to the purported status of EI in occupational and career

assessment (with particular emphasis on personal selection and placement),

Job performance, and satisfaction. Overall this review demonstrates that

recent research has made important strides towards understanding the

usefulness of EI in the workplace. The review concludes by providing a

number of practical guidelines by providing a number of practical guidelines

for the development and implementation of EI measures within occupational

settings.

The study made by Duran, Extremera & Rey (2005) investigating the

relationship among dimensions of self reported Emotional Intelligence,

burnourt and engagement among staff in services for people with intellectual

disabilities had investigated that emotional clarity was significantly

associated with personal accomplishment and dedication. Further, repair to

moods (subscale of work engagement scale) was significantly correlated with

all engagement dimensions and with personal accomplishment. The study

shows significant relationships with emotional functioning and work related

with emotional functioning and work related variables in a professional

sample.

Wong, Wong and Law (2005) have studied the interaction effect of

emotional intelligence and emotional labour on job satisfaction, using a

sample of 307 respondents from six different jobs, findings that emotional

intelligence and the nature of job requirement (i.e. emotional labour) have an

interacting effect on job satisfaction.

Clanton (2006) have examined the relationship between emotional

intelligence and self esteem as they relate to job satisfaction. Preliminary

analysis of the data did not provide statistically significant results. However,

in another study Muhammad (2006) aimed to predict job satisfaction as a

factor of emotional Intelligence among a diverse group of two hundred

participants, results indicated that an individual’s emotional intelligence

quotient was a significant predictor of the level of job satisfaction.

Pradhan, Awasthy, Kumar and Patnayak (2006) have attempted to

examine the role of emotional intelligence in conflict management and

organizational commitment. The study was conducted on 66 (male)

executives randomly selected from various departments of a reputed private

organization, on which EQ inventory (Bar-On, 1997), conflict management

scale (Sayeed, 2001) and organizational commitment scale (Sayeed, 2001)

were administered. The results showed that emotional intelligence very

poorly correlates and moderately contributes to organizational commitment

and conflict management strategies. Further, it was revealed that different

dimensions of emotional intelligence were found to be poorly associated with

organizational commitment and conflict management. Except few, most of

the correlations are not statistically significant. It shows that there exist a

poor association between emotional intelligence, organizational commitment

and conflict management. By implication it can be said that EI may not be

having high correlation with organizational commitment and for better

conflict management. EI is only contributing significantly to integrating

strategy of conflict management and does not contributes much in predicting

organizational commitment and for better conflict management.

However, an another study investigating the relation of employee and

manager emotional intelligence to job satisfaction and performance made by

Sy. Tram and O’ Hara (2006) among 187 food service employees from nine

different locations of the same restaurant franchise, have found that the

employee’s emotional intelligence was positively associated with job

satisfaction and performance. In addition, manager’s emotional intelligence

had a more positive correlation with job satisfaction for employees with low

emotional intelligence than for those with high emotional intelligence.

Wasylyshyn, Gronsky and Haas (2006) made a survey focused on the

effectiveness of a coaching program commissioned by a global company for

high potential employees who wanted to develop their emotional competence.

Survey results indicated sustained learning and behaviour change among

program participants over an extended period. Successful outcomes appeared

to be related to the careful scrutiny of program participants, a collaborative

model, an insight-oriented coaching approach and persistent efforts to brand

the program as a developmental resource.

Pandey and Kothari (2007) have made a study to investigate the

influence of emotional intelligence and A/B personality type on learning

styles among executives and to describe how an aspect of learning theory,

specifically learning styles, can be applied to the development of the

behavioural patterns of executives through training programs. 50 executives

were related from two organizations in manufacturing industry. The findings

of the study revealed that emotional intelligence and personality type has a

positive effect on the learning styles among executives. It further revealed

that the executives who have higher emotional intelligence are inclined

towards theoretical style of learning and give second preference to pragmatist

learning, on the other hand individuals with average level of emotional

intelligence prefer reflector and pragmatist style of learning, whereas the

individuals having lowers levels of E.I. showed a scattered preference in their

learning style.

Next review deals with the study made by Thangapandian and

Prithivikashini (2007) which focuses on the relationship between emotional

intelligence and organizational citizenship behavior among 70 professionals

working in the various software companies. The result indicate that all five

dimensions of organizational citizenship behaviours i.e. altruism, civic sense,

courtesy, conscientiousness and sportsmanship have a significant relationship

with emotional intelligence. This shows that the individuals in general have a

helping tendency, support and participation in job activities, respect for other

individuals, proper role performance and is also sportive while working in an

organization.

The issue of occupational stress and conflict among nurses is a major

concept. Developing the competencies of EI and understanding how to

effectively handle conflict is necessary for nurses working in a highly

stressful occupation. Keeping this in view Morrison (2008) aimed at

determining the relationship between EI and preferred conflict handling

styles of registered nurses (N=94) working in three south Mississippi health

Care facilities. 92 valid sets of data instruments were collected for this study.

Results showed that higher levels of EI, positively correlated with

collaborating and negatively with accommodating.

Brackett et al., (2010) examined the relationship between emotion

regulation ability (ERA) as assessed by MSCEIT and both job satisfaction

and burnout among secondary school teachers (n=123), also examining the

mediating effects of affect and principal support on these outcomes. ERA was

associated positively with positive affect, principal support, job satisfaction

and one component of burn out, personal accomplishment. Two path model

demonstrated that both positive affect and principal support mediated

independently the association between ERA and both personal

accomplishment and job satisfaction.

Psychometric Correlates

Emotional intelligence measures vary widely in both their content and

in their method of assessment. In particular, emotional intelligence measures

tend to use either a self-report personality based approach, or an ability-

based assessment procedure.There is now an array of validated instruments

for the assessment of different aspects of emotional intelligence model (Bar-

on, 2000; Mayer et.al., 2000; Boyatzis et al., 2000).

Thingujam and Ram (2000) made an attempt at Indian adaptation of

emotional intelligence scale (Schulte et al, 1998) but no item modification

was made. The internal consistency was estimated at 0.89. They made a

classification of the individual status on EI ranging from below average to

very superior, which is based on general intelligence classification. As a part

of the convergent validity studies they also reported that EI was correlated

strongly and positively with coping with stress, moderately and negatively

with trait-anxiety, and slightly and positively with belief in social relation

(Thingujam and Ram, 1999).

Latha, Sriram, Surendran and A. Suresh (2002) aimed to construct and

validate a questionnaire to measure the emotional competence of individual

which is applicable to Indian sample. The factor analysis of 52 item version

of the scale resulted in 2 major components, emotional competency and

emotional incompetency. This resulted in 37 items of which 25 items

measured directly the competency and remaining 12 items measuring

emotional sensitivity and reactivity. Discriminant validity resulted in a single

competence function discriminating those who score high and low on the

scale. The moderate reliability of the test score indicates the usefulness of test

in measuring the emotional competence level of individuals across life. It was

concluded that the four factors of this scale viz. emotional competence,

emotional sensitivity, emotional insulation and emotional withdrawal to a

large extent estimate the maturity of an individual and his emotional skills.

The Psychometric properties of the empathy quotient (EQ) measured

by Baron- Cohen (2003) were examined by Muncer and Ling (2006). In

particular, confirmatory factor analysis comparing a unifactorial structure and

a three correlated factor structure proposed by Lawrence et al., (2004) was a

better fit. Exploratory analysis using modification indices suggests that it

might be possible to measure the three factors of empathy; cognitive

empathy, emotional reactivity and social skills with three five item scales.

The problems of self report measures were discussed as were the problems

posed by the pattern of sex differences on these three factors.

The emotional intelligence (EI) Scale devised by Schulte et al., (1998)

is widely used in EI research. There have been criticisms of this scale, mainly

related to its preponderance of forward-keyed items; differing results on its

factor structure also exist. Austin, Saklofske, Huang and Mckenney (2004)

investigated the effect on the scale’s psychometric properties of reversing

some items and adding some new items. The short form of Bar-on EQ- i was

completed by the same group of participants, comprising 500 canadian

undergraduates. The use of item reversals and additional items was found not

to improve the EI scale’s internal reliability. In contrast to previous studies,

only three factors could be identified for the new 41 item scale: optimism/

mood regulation, utilization of emotions and Appraisal of emotions. Overall

EI measured using the 41-item scale and the short EQ-i were highly

correlated, whilst correlations between the subscales of the two tests were

theoretically interpretable.

Bhattacharya, Dutta and Mandal (2004) have attempted a study to

examine the factor structure of the construct of emotional intelligence in

India (N= 101), M=71, F=30, M age = 27.66 years). From a pool of items

drawn from various scales developed in Western countries, 49 items were

selected that were subjected to principal component factor analysis followed

by varimax rotation. Analysis yielded five factors: ‘appraisal of negative

emotions’, ‘appraisal of positive emotions,’ ‘ interpersonal conflicts and

difficulties, ‘interpersonal skills and flexibility’ and ‘emotional facilitation

and goal orientedness’ Finding suggested that the construct of emotional

inter-personal skills and flexibility, and goal-onwarding intelligence involve

appraisal and experience of emotion for self an inter-personal situations in

valence-specific terms (positive-negative) in India.

Day and Carroll (2004) examined the construct and criterion- related

validity of an ability-based measure of EI (Mayer, Salovey and Caruso, 2000)

were examined. The four factor model for the MSCEIT fet the data well. The

MSCEIT sub-scales were modestly co-related with personality, unrelated to

individual-level citizenship behavior, and some what related to group-level

citizenship behavior. Only the emotional perception scale of the MSCEIT

was correlated with performance on a cognitive decision- making task.

Another study exploring approaches to the development of emotional

intelligence was made by Dulewicz and Higgs (2004). Technical data on the

instruments used to measure EI, the emotional intelligence questionnaire

(EIQ) and the EQ-i (Bar-on 1997) are reported. Findings from three studies

involving managers, team leaders and the skippers and crews from around the

world yacht race and presented to explore whether emotional Intelligence

scores change after training and other experiences. A revised model to

explain how the elements of emotional intelligence are related to each other

in presented and tested, and possible explanations of why some elements are

more amenable to development actions are proposed.

Latha (2004) have made an attempt to assess the reliability validity and

utility of the emotional competence scale (ECS). The reliability measures and

concurrent validity of the 37 item scale established on multiple representative

samples. Using product moment correlation a test-retest reliability coefficient

of 0.76 was obtained. The questionnaire is validated against Hardiness scale,

intelligence scale the findings reveals a stable, internally consistent measure

of emotional competency and a sensitive tool.

Law, Wong and Song (2004) reviewed the definition of emotional

intelligent (EI) and argued that EI is conceptually distinct from personality. In

their study 1, they showed that EI was related to yet distinct from personality

dimensions and that it had incremental predictive power on life satisfaction.

They further examined the construct validity of self- reports and other’s

ratings of EI using two samples in study 2. In a student sample, parent’s

ratings explained additional variance in the student’s life satisfaction and

feelings of powerlessness after controlling for the Big-five personality

dimensions. Whereas in the work sample, peer rating were found to be

significant predictors of job performance ratings, provided by supervisors

after controlling for the Big-five personality dimensions.

Van Rooy and Viswesvaran (2004) had used meta-analytic techniques

to examine the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and

performance outcomes. This study was aimed at investigation of predictive

validity and nomological net. A total of 69 independent studies were located

that reported correlations between EI and performance or other variables such

as general mental ability (GMA) and the Big five factors of personality

(extraversion, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness

to experience). Results indicated that across criteria, EI had and operational

validity of 0.23 various moderating influences such as the EI measure used,

dimensions of EI, scoring method and criterion were evaluated. EI correlated

0.22 with general mental ability and 0.23 (agreeableness and openness to

experience) to 0.34 (extraversion) with the Big five factors of personality.

Sibia, Misra and Srivastava (2005) have made a study whose central

focus was on incorporating the dimensions of emotional intelligence,

delineated in the Indian socio cultural context and the conceptualization and

development of a measure of emotional intelligence in the Indian socio

cultural context. The emotional intelligence test (EIT) developed as a result

of this study was based on four dimensions of EI and incorporates the aspects

of affective functioning in the Indian context. The components included

social sensitivity, pro-social behavior, action tendencies and affective states

guided constructing the items across all the four dimensions namely

identifying, assimilating, understanding, and regulating the affective

processes. It possess test retest reliability coefficient of 0.75 and content

validity was also established.

For the purpose of development and validation of a self report measure

of 10 facets emotional intelligence, as a multidimensional trait domain; Tett,

fox and Wang (2005) had undertaken three studies (N=138, 163, 152).

Results support the reliability (internal consistency, test-retest) and validity

(content, criterion, construct, structural) of the proposed scales and their

distinctiveness among themselves and with respect to more established trait

domains (eg. Personality). Specifically, three satisfaction and four cross

cultural adaptability facets were predicated uniquely by 9 of the 10 proposed

subscales, controlling for social desirability, the Big five, positive and

negative affect, and self monitoring. Result confirm that trait- EI can be

measured using self-report and conceptualized as a distinct multidimensional

domain.

Another study investigating the association between perceived

emotional intelligence (PEI) measured by the Trait Meta-Mood scale

(TMMS), and life satisfaction in Spanish undergraduate university students,

was reported by Extremera and Fernandez-Berrocal (2006). Specially, the

predictive and incremental validity of this self-report measure of emotional

intelligence was examined. Whether PEI would account for variance in

satisfaction with life beyond the level attributable to mood states and

personality traits, was investigated. Correlation analysis showed significant

associations between clarity and repair and higher life satisfaction.

Hierarchical multiple regression analysis confirmed these findings and

indicated that clarity accounted further variance in life satisfaction not

accounted for by mood states and personality traits. These findings extend

previous studies and provide additional support for the incremental validity of

the TMMS suggesting that clarity contribute to life satisfaction independently

from well-known mood states constructs and personality traits.

Gignac (2006) examined relation between self- reported emotional

intelligence and life satisfaction by testing incremental predictive validity

hypotheses via structural equation modeling (SEM) in a small sample. In this

investigation, structural equation modeling was used for the purposes of

modeling a general EI factor as a potential incrementally predictive predictor

of life satisfaction. The results demonstrated that a general EI Factor was

associated with SWLS as =0.61 and that this effect was only partially

mediated by PA and NA, such that the validity coefficient was reduced to

=0.49.

Based on characterization of the emotional intelligence, a scale in

Hindi language has been developed by Kumar and Bhatia (2006) to measure

various aspects of emotional intelligence on different samples. Different

procedures followed for estimating reliability and validity of this scale. The

final form of the emotional intelligence scale (EIS) contained 44 items,

distributed in four dimensions of emotional intelligence scale which covers

both positive and negative items viz. recognizing emotions (self),

recognizing emotions (others), understanding emotions and using emotions.

In order to obtain the split-half reliability, the test was administered and

responses of these were used and the odd-even items were correlated and

corrected by using spearman Brown prophecy formula to give an r of 0.92.

the test-retest reliability was also determined on an interval of two week

which was found 0.86 and after an interval of two months 0.83 Kuder

Richardson (KR) Reliability of the scale was found 0.81. Furthermore, the

scale possesses logical validity or validity by definition which is another

name for content validity. It also justified the face validity.

Further, a comprehensive review of research regarding five type of

validity for each of four major tests used to measure emotional intelligence

(EI) was provided in an article of McEnrue and Groves (2006). It culls and

synthesizes information scattered among a host of articles in academic

journals, technical reports, chapters and books, as well as unpublished papers

and manuscripts. It enables human resource development professionals and

researchers to determine the absolute and incremental value they are likely to

derive by using anyone of the tests to assess and develop emotional

intelligence among managers and employees.

Sibia, Misra and Srivastava (2006) had reported on the

conceptualization and development of a measure of emotional intelligence in

the Indian Socio-cultural context. The 34 items scales incorporates the four

dimensions of emotional intelligence (identifying, assimilating,

understanding and managing emotions) with the components of emotional

intelligence discerned in the Indian context-social sensitivity, prosocial

interaction, action tendencies and affective states.

Tett and Fox (2006) had made a study aimed to evaluate the factor

structure of six core trait-EI facets from Salovey and Mayer (1990), assess

the stability of the core factor structure across student (N=184) and workers

(N=225) samples, and explore relations between core EI dimensions and four

proximal outcomes from the same mode. A three factor structure including

“Self orientation, other orientation, and emotional sharing”, replicated well

across samples. Relations involving EI outcomes were less consistent. The

study concluded that trait- EI warrants assessment as specific facets rather

than a global construct, core trait- EI structure may be stable across

population and EI applications are context specific.

Brannick, et al., (2009) had compared the trait and ability measures of

emotional intelligence among medical students, for evidence of reliability,

convergence and overlap with personality. First and second year medical

students completed the MSCEIT (an ability measure), the Wong & Law

emotional intelligence scale (WLEIS- a trait measure) and on industry

standard personality test (the NEO, Nr-Ex-openness test) results indicated

that the MSCEIT showed problems with reliability. The MSCEIT and

WLEIS did not correlate highly with one another (overall scores correlated at

0.18). the WLEIS was more highly correlated with personality scales than the

MSCEIT. It was concluded that the different tests supposed to measure EI do

not measure the same things the ability measure the same things the ability

measure was not correlated high personality, but the trait measure was

correlated with personality.

Miscellaneous

Layman (1972) conducted extensive review of literature that focused

on emotional- social development as a consequence of sports participation

and motor development and concluded that physical fitness and sports

participation do have a positive influence on emotional and social well-being.

Sports activities have a significant positive association with perceived

emotional intelligence, psychological and interpersonal functioning. Sports

participation do produce significant effect in controlling emotional

disturbances, developing healthy attitudes personality adjustments and

regulating other personal characteristics like mood states and self esteem

(Salovey et al., 2002; Schutte et al., 2000).

Zizzi, Deaner and Hirschhorn (2003) had explored relationship

between emotional intelligence and athletic performance in a sample of 61

division I baseball players (aged 18-23 years).The subjects completed an

informed consent form and the emotional intelligence scale. This study

provides modest support for the link between emotional skills (i.e. emotional

awareness, control and utilization) and atheletic performance. The results

suggest that components of emotional intelligence appear to be moderately

related to pitching performance, but not related to hitting performance.

Study highlighting the importance of intervention programmes in

enhancing emotional intelligence and thereby promoting meaning and quality

in life intra and interpersonally, was reported by Pareek, Mittal, Hingar and

Kaur (2005) to evaluate the effect of “Basic Human Process Laboratory”

course in enhancing emotional intelligence and enriching meaning in life.

Eight subjects participating in this course, who volunteered themselves for

psychological assessment comprised the sample. Results revealed the

significant improvement in post mean scores of overall emotional intelligence

and its components like self awareness, self management, internality/

optimism and empathy, except motivation and social skills. Pre and post

mean scores of purpose in life also differed significantly showing enhanced

meaning in life of the subjects.

Moving ahead to the study of Resnicow, Salovey and Repp (2005)

which reports that expression of emotion in music performance is a form of

non verbal communication to which people may be differentially receptive.

Among 24 undergraduates, the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso emotional intelligence

test was applied to assess individual differences in the ability to identify,

understand, reason with and manage emotions using hypothetical scenarios

that are conveyed pictorially or in writing. Additionally, a listening test was

used applied in which they tried to identify the intended emotions in

performances of classical piano music. Emotional intelligence and emotion

recognition in the music task were significantly correlated (r=0.54), which

suggests that identification of emotion in music performance draws on some

of the same sensibilities that make up everyday emotional intelligence.

Rogers, Qualter, Phelps and Gardner (2006) examined the extent to

which coping strategy predicts and EI moderates, belief in paranormal.

Previously, some other researches suggests that belief in the paranormal

serves as a mechanism for coping with stress (Irwin, 1992) and that it is

positively associated with high emotional intelligence (Dudley, 2002). Those

researches were extended by taking a general population sample of 253

predominantly Caucasian respondents completed Psychometrically sound

measures of each construct and applying hierarchical multiple regression

analysis on the data obtained by paranormal belief scores with predictors

entered in four steps i.e. demographics, then three sub-types of coping

strategy (active-cognitive, active behaviour or avoidant), four subtype of EI

(optimism/ mood regulation, appraisal of emotions, social skills and

utilization of emotions) and 12 coping EI Interaction variables. Findings

suggest a tendency not to use active behavioural coping is moderated by low

emotional appraisal in predicting global paranoramal beliefs. Further, a

tendency to use avoidant coping in moderated by a high utilization of

emotions in predicting the endorsement of new age philosophies.

Taute (2006) attempted to define the concept of emotional intelligence

and determine whether individual differences in such a competence are

discernable. Creation of such a measure allows experimentation to determine

whether such a competence significantly moderates responses to positive and

negative emotional appeals in public service announcements. Implications of

differences in emotional intelligence for persuasive message with emotional

content are discussed.

In another study 343 students were exposed to self enhancement

programme with particular reference to emotional intelligence showed a

significant difference in their emotional intelligence after the programme for

two weeks. The follow-up showed sustained emotional intelligence after

three months (Amudhadevi and Velayudhan, 2007). Another study objected

to asses the emotional intelligence in working and non working women was

reported by Shrivastava, Singh and Pandey (2008). For this purpose data was

collected on 25 working and 25 non working women, who were matched on

age, education and class. Results revealed that the mean scores for different

dimensions of emotional intelligence was found to be greater in non working

women than working women. The scores for self awareness for working and

non working was found to be more or less similar. The T- ratios yielded

significant difference for only three subscales of EI i.e. assertiveness

independence and impulse control. The results did not yield significant

difference between the total mean EI scores of working and non working

women, confirming the null hypotheses made for the study that there would

be no significant difference between the working and non working women

mean scores.

Arora, Badaya and Bhatnagar (2009) have made an study to make

comparison between the emotional quotient (EQ) of children of working

mothers and home makers between children of working mothers with fixed

time schedule and working mothers with unpredictable time schedule and

between children of working women in service and children of working

women in business. The results reveals that there is no significant difference

between EQ of children of working mothers and home makers although it is

slightly higher among children of home makers. Further it was discovered

that EQ of children of working mothers with fixed time schedule is

significantly higher than that of children of working mothers with

unpredictable time schedule. No significant differences was found between

EQ of children of working mothers in service and children of working

mothers in business although it was slightly higher for children of working

mothers in service. EQ of children of home-makers was significantly higher

than children of working with unpredictable time schedule. But there was no

significant EQ difference either between children of home-makers and

children of working mothers with fixed time schedule or between children of

home makers and working mothers in service or between children of home-

makers and children of mothers in business.

Rathee (2009) have investigated the level of emotional intelligence

among sports person and non-sports person (N=100). The results revealed

that sports persons had obtained significantly higher mean scores on the

emotional intelligence as compared to the non-sports person, which indicate

better emotional intelligence. The results further reaffirm the view that sports

participation enhances the level of emotional competence and thus resulting

in higher level of emotional intelligence.