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Chapter-2
Review of Relevant Literature
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Reviews on Co-curricular Activity
2.3 Reviews on Social Competence
2.4 Reviews on Altruism
29
Chapter-2
Review of Relevant Literature
2.1. Introduction:
One of the indispensable parts of the research is reviewing the
literature. The review of related literature is a sort of formal training,
which enables the researcher to understand the objectives and the
corresponding hypotheses of the study. It acquaints the researcher
with the current knowledge and serves as a pole star in delimiting and
defining the problem. The most important reason for reviewing the
literature is to know about the recommendations of the previous
researchers for further researches, which they have listed in their
studies. This step helps to eliminate the duplication of what has been
done and provides useful hypothesis and helpful suggestions for
significant investigation. Essentially, review of related literature
economizes time and energy of the researcher. Thus, the review of
related literature is an essential aspect of research problem as it is a
step of scientific method; it forms the foundation upon which all the
future work is to be built. If we fail to acquire this formation of
knowledge provided by the review of literature our work is likely to
be shallow.
A literature review…
Provides an overview and a critical evaluation of a body of literature
relating to a research topic or a research problem.
Analyzes a body of literature in order to classify it by themes or
categories, rather than simply discussing individual works one after
another.
30
Presents the research and ideas of the field rather than each individual
work or author by itself.
Purpose of a literature review:
A literature review situates your topic in relation to previous
research and illuminates a spot for your research. It accomplishes
several goals:
Provides background for your topic using previous research.
Shows you are familiar with previous, relevant research.
Evaluates the depth and breadth of the research in regards to your
topic.
Determines remaining questions or aspects of your topic in need of
research.
Review of related literature in the concerned field is of greater
significance in locating the research problem. It plays the pivotal role
at the crucial juncture of planning of the study. Review of related
literature is an intellectual pursuit, “essential to the development of the
problem and to the devotion of an effective approach to its solution”.
The importance of the related literature cannot be denied in
research. It works as guide not only with regard to the quantum of
work done in the field but also enable us to perceive the gap and
lacuna in the concerned filed of research. The similar or related study
carried out by research workers at various levels is called review of
related literature.
31
2.2 Reviews on Co-curricular Activity
The co-curricular activities are very important for the
development of the child. As such these activities should be arranged
very carefully. Physical activities keep the balance of the development
of a child. Only studies or theoretical work make them dull and weak.
Hence physical activities are necessary. A sound body has a sound
mind. Physical fitness is necessary for the mental work. Now, a
subject as physical education is also introduced at 10+2 level and
teachers are trained for the physical education. Teachers play an
important role in the co- curricular activities of the school under the
preparation.
Co-curricular activities ensure the harmonious growth of
personality in children. It is a source of strength for streamlining the
talents of the child. It also helps to improve analytical thrust for
knowledge, competitive spirit, communication abilities, value
orientation, leadership teamwork and various other facets of life. Co-
curricular activities help in the development of mind and personality.
For the all-round development of the personality; intellectual,
emotional, social, moral and aesthetic growths are utmost important.
These growths succeed if curricula are supplemented with co-
curricular activities.
Co curricular activities also provide students with a network of
peers and adults who have interests and talents similar to their own.
Students who participate have the chance to excel individually, be part
of a group, and gain real-life lessons about the importance of
teamwork, responsibility, commitment, and hard work (Educational
Research Service 1999).
32
According to Zill, Nord, and Loomis (1995) participation in co
curricular activities improves an adolescent's chances of avoiding such
risky behaviors as dropping out, becoming a teenage parent, engaging
in delinquency, smoking or abusing drugs or alcohol through three
mechanisms.
National Federation of State High School Associations [NFHS]
of America (1999) had stated that co curricular activities are an
extension of not a diversion from, a good educational program and
support the academic mission of the school. Students who participate
in activity programs tend to have higher grade point averages, better
attendance records, lower dropout rates and fewer discipline problems
than students who don't participate.
Allison (1979) found out that students who participate in co
curricular activities not only do better academically than students who
do not but also develop other facets of their personalities in the
process. Self-esteem, self - confidence, social cooperation, and
leadership skills are just a few of the cognitive factors that are
affected. Co curricular activities allow students to blend aspects of
their academic learning into personal actions
Haensly, Lupkowsky, and Edlind (1986) reported that co
curricular activities may be one of the reasons many students stay in
school or find personal meaning for their middle level and high school
years. Students who are involved in co curricular activities are able to
extend and enrich previously learned academic skills through
competitions and real-world simulations. In the co curricular setting,
they may also develop and practice artistic, psychomotor talents;
leadership skills; and future career and occupational skills
33
Zill, Nord, and Loomis (1995) found out that goal-directed
activities develop skills in young people, and they may foster positive
character traits. Both individual and group activities can teach students
the importance of vigilance, hard work, attention to detail, practice,
patience, and persistence in the face of setbacks. Group activities
encourage cooperation and team- work, personal sacrifice for group
goals, and empathy qualities that benefit young people in their studies,
their jobs, and their personal lives, as well as help them become
responsible and successful adults.
Zill, Nord,and Loomis (1995) reported that research also shows
that low levels of participation in student activities are characteristic
of at-risk students (Klesse and D‟Onofrio 1994). Compared with
students who reported spending 1–4 hours a week in co curricular
activities, students who reported spending no time in school-
sponsored activities were 57 percent more likely to have dropped out
before their senior year, 49 percent more likely to have used drugs, 37
percent more likely to have become teen parents, 35 percent more
likely to have smoked cigarettes, and 27 percent more likely to have
been arrested.
Vandra K. N. (1994) conducted „A Study of Co-curricular
activity in Saurastra Primary School. The Objectives are (1) to know
general and class wise activity in school. (2) to know Co-curricular
activity in school time and after school time. (3) to know in which
activity schools are participated. (4) to know who is organized this co-
curricular activity. (5) to remove the obstacles in co-curricular
activity. (6) to get real image of co-curricular activity in primary
school. The investigator takes sample of 8 P.T.C. College out of 24 in
Saurashtra. The tools to get information with the use of
questionnaires. The Conclusion are (1) the professors are interested
34
and fortitude in co-curricular activity. (2) No negative effect in co-
curricular activity with educational work. (3) The student‟s intelligent
quoentient is very high in co-curricular activity. (4) In during co-
curricular activity time, money, counseling, co-operation, fortitude
and planning‟s absent.
Wagner (1999) found out that Co curricular activities encourage
personal accomplishments and the development of interpersonal skills.
Adolescents who participate in these activities have opportunities to
assume meaningful roles and responsibilities. The sense of efficacy
student‟s gain from these experiences can be an important protective
factor for those growing up under adverse circumstances.
Upadhyay N. B. (1998) carried out a study on „Educational
Programmed and Co-Curricular Activity in Primary School of
Vishavadar Taluka‟. The Objectives are (1) to get information of
educational programme in primary school of vishavadar taluka. (2) To
know schools information like number of students, numbers of
teachers and educational qualifications of the teachers. (3) To know
materialistic facilities in vishavadar primary school. (4) To know co-
curricular activity in classroom time and after class-room time. (5) To
know obstacles cause of curriculum of co-curricular activity. (6) To
know usage of co-curricular activity. (7) To get real image of co-
curricular activity in schools. The sample size nineteen self finance
schools and ninety three district schools are selected. The tool was
used to get information with self-oriented questionnaires. The
Conclusion are (1) the primary schools of vishavadar they don‟t have
enough materialistic facilities. (2) The economy reason is the main
reason behind the non co-curricular activities happen in schools of
vishavadar taluka. (3) The parents play a very vital role to remove the
35
obstacles to co-curricular activity. (4) In primary schools of
vishavadar taluka very less spiritual co-curricular activities took place.
Commission on National Community Service (1993) America
indicate that Youth service can build a community. When young
people from different racial, ethnic, economic, and educational
circumstances work together in close quarters, they come to trust each
other and depend on each other. Youth service can build up the young
people themselves: When young people engage in community service,
they become valued, competent resources, rather than clients of social
institutions, such as schools, and gain self-satisfaction and respect.
Their experience can transform who they are in their own eyes and in
the eyes of others. Youth service can inculcate a sense of civic
responsibility as young people come to appreciate the value of the
community and the contribution they can make to it; they develop a
lasting commitment to do their part and do it well.
Rubin, Bommer and Baldwin (2002) examined six hundred
eighteen business students and the relationships of their
extracurricular involvement to four interpersonal skills were
examined. Significant relationships were found and recruitment
implications are discussed. They suggest that there is widespread
agreement that success in organizations requires more than high
intellect. Thus, college recruiters commonly examine job candidates'
extracurricular activities in search of “well-rounded,” emotionally
intelligent, and interpersonally skilled students. Intuitively,
extracurricular activities seem like valuable student experiences;
however, research evidence is sparse, suggesting far more questions
than answers.
Shukla (2003) added that the school ground must be well-
situated with reference to location and environment. Co-curricular
36
activities would be enhanced with the presence of a playground. The
school must be housed in a grand building with a playground. It must
be pleasing in its aesthetic environments and designed to
accommodate the most progressive features of an educational
programme: races, PT shows, parades etc.
Clark (2007) stated that teaching process through games was
effective as compared to the alternative ways to teach. Games were
used to practice the knowledge and skills. A further factor which
affects personality development of a child is the quality of teachers
available and the ability of a teacher to dispense education. This can
be gauged by evaluating performance of students.
Parmar N. J. (2010-11) has done „A study of the Co-curricular
activities of the teacher‟s trainees of the P.T.C. College of the
Gandhinagar district‟. The objectives are -(1) To study of Co-
curricular activities in trainees of P.T.C. college in Gandhinagar
District. (2) To study of Co-curricular activity in teacher trainees of
P.T.C. College in relation to their caste, area, year and types of
college. (3) To study of co-curricular activity in teacher trainees of
P.T.C. College in relation to their prayer, gender and types of college.
(4) To study of co-curricular activity in teacher trainees of P.T.C.
College in relation to sports activity, caste, area year and type of
college. (5) To study of Co-curricular activity in teacher trainees of
P.T.C. College in relation to competitive exam and types of the
college. (6) To study of Co-curricular activity in teacher trainees of
P.T.C. College in relation to physical education of culture activity and
types of the college. The Conclusion are (1) we may say in the
summery of whole prayer association that in colleges. The percentage
of present in prayer is 84.75% total in which the girls are 85% and in
villages non granted colleges in which the total percentage of present
37
students in prayer is 84.50% in contrast in city granted colleges we
can measure the present students in prayer is 85%. (2) In competitive
activity according to drawing competition the boys and girls are 80%
participate to this activity and the non granted villages schools
students are 76.50% participated. (3) In summary we may say that
kho-kho play more than any other game the players of this game in
total 71.25% in which boys 71.50% and girls are 71%. Non-granted
colleges of village whose total players are 70%. In contrast in city
granted colleges we find 81% in totality. (4) In summary of others
activities we may say that the percentage of participation of Guardian
day is 78.25%. in which 75% are boys and 82.50% are girls. In village
non granted colleges the percentage of participating is total 79.50%. in
city are granted colleges we found total percentage is 79.50%.
The study of Bawa and Debnath (1993) has shown that students
suffering from high anxiety got relieved of it through a regular
participation in co-curricular and extracurricular participation.
Participation in this activity improves self-esteem, selfsatisfaction,
personal worth and emotional adjustment.
Amin R. M. (1972) conducted „A Study of Co-curricular
activity in secondary school of Baroda City‟. Objectives are -(1) To
arrangement of co-curricular activity and currently running activity in
secondary school of Baroda city. (2) In every co-curricular activity
normally how many students take part in arrangements of activity. (3)
To get idea of doing co-curricular activity and its progress. (4) To
evaluate co-curricular activity and get information about how do we
develop it. The Sample size we have selected 22 higher secondary
school of Baroda district which include students of standard 8 and 9.
Conclusion are (1) In Baroda secondary school I found from Co-
curricular activities very satisfied each sport but some activities are
38
not. (2) Have seen all Co-curricular activity repeatedly which are done
after school time. (3) I found that little contribution of new teachers
and parents and don‟t get grant or fee from education
ministry/department. (4) Personally students don‟t take part in any
activity of school. (5) In many schools I can see competition in
activity like sports and group discussion.
Tahir Mehmood et. al. (2012) designed the study to find out the
impact of co-curricular activities on personality development of
Secondary School Students. On the basis of data analysis, it was found
that co-curricular activities have significant impact on selected
personality traits.
Zahida Habib (2012) reported that the modern education system
recognizes that child comes to school for all-round and better
development. It aims at the development of the total personality of the
child and for that school provides opportunities for experience.
Results indicated that Community Model Schools were better in
student‟s performance due to well organized co-curricular activities
and physical facilities than Govt. Girls Primary Schools. By and large
it came out that the performance of community model schools is better
than Govt. Girls Primary Schools it is due to the well organized co-
curricular activities in Community Model Schools.
Poonam (2002) conducted a study of the perception of assistant
teachers about co-curricular activities at primary stage with special
reference to value inculcation. The objectives of the study were: 1. To
find out the various types of co-curricular activities organized in
primary schools. 2. To study the perception of teachers regarding
purpose of organizing co-curricular activities. 3. To Study the
awareness of teachers about the potential of co-curricular activities as
a source of value inculcation. To study the problem faced by the
39
teachers in organization of co-curricular activities. This study was
confined to the teachers of Municipal Corporation of Delhi in
Najafgarh Zone. The major findings of the study were that (i) 42 per
cent schools were organized notice board decoration and only four
percent schools subjects clubs and visits to the institutes like bank and
post office. (ii) Majority of schools organized cultural development
activities like celebration of festivals (86%) of these 72% organized
them annually. (iii) Majority of the teachers were in favored of co-
curricular activities. They said these activities were important and not
wastage of time. Most of the students considered that co curricular
were major source of value inculcation of students. (iv) Almost all
teachers (98%) said that financial constraints restricted the
organization of co-curricular activities in schools.
Barnett and Weber (2008) asserted there is a wealth of research
which has documented the positive effects of extracurricular
recreational involvement on pre- and adolescent functioning as well as
deterring negative effects of dropping out of school or becoming
involved in self-harming practices. The study also perceived the
benefits of children participating in different types of recreational
activities. Their results showed the vast majority of mothers whose
children participated in recreational activities believed there were
significant positive benefits related to the development of character
attributes, both in terms of self and in how one treats others. Mothers
attributed their children‟s learned experiences as a result of
participation in various types of recreational activities including
individual sports, team sports, performing, and community
involvement.
40
Tchibozo (2007) also found that extra-curricular activities play
a role in impacting occupational status, access to large firms, and
unemployment. Those with longer periods of time spent in extra-
curricular activities and those participating in student and cultural
activities were less likely to obtain managerial positions. Participation
in student and social organizations led to an increased likelihood of
joining a large firm in one‟s first role. Wages were more likely to be
lower for those who participated in social sector or student extra-
curricular activities than those in athletics. Finally, as it relates to
unemployment, graduates who were not in leadership roles in their
extra-curricular activities, those in cultural activities, or those who had
long-term involvement in their organizations were more likely to
experience unemployment prior to obtaining their first role.
2.2.2 Reviews on Social Competence:
Shiner (2000) examined the relationship between personality
traits and social competence. Deptula, Cohen, Phillipsen, and Ey
(2006) similarly explored the construct of personality through peer
optimism in its relation to social competence. The researchers
collected data from 232 third through sixth grade children from a
public elementary school. In Deptula et al.'s (2006) study, the
researchers constructed a questionnaire designed to assess children's
social competence through optimism regarding peer relations.
Children were asked to respond to questions regarding the different
expectations they have towards their peers. The questions were
phrased as being either optimistic or pessimistic and the children were
asked to respond using a four-point Likert scale. In addition, children
were given a full class roster and were asked to identify all of their
peers who they considered a friend. This procedure was done to
41
identify mutual friendships and to help determine if optimism would
influences the number of nominations given and received. Gender
differences among the children were also considered (Deptula et al.,
2006). After an analysis of the data, the findings indicated that all of
the children were at least somewhat optimistic about peer relations,
despite differences of gender or age. However, when comparing social
competence and optimism, differences between genders were found.
The findings showed that less optimistic boys were just as likely to
have mutual friendships and social competence when compared with
more optimistic boys. For girls, the results indicated that having
friends and displaying social competence has more to do with
perceived self-competence (i.e. internalizing variables) than actual
optimism. This remarkable finding suggests that the development of
social competence may have more to do with the perception of the
self, rather than the sole personality characteristics of the child.
Nelson et al. (2009) used general competence scores of the
PSPCSA, peer ratings, and teacher ratings to explore how social
behaviors, subtypes of withdrawal, and peer acceptance/rejection
relate to self-perceptions of preschoolers. They found that children
who have lower self-perceptions of their abilities than their peers
tended to engage in more reticence, solitary-passive withdrawal, and
solitary-active behavior. To explore the possible origins of negative
self-perceptions in young children, Nelson, Rubin, and Fox (2005)
examined the relations between various nonsocial behaviors (i.e.,
reticence and social withdrawal), observed peer acceptance at ages
four and seven, and self-perceptions at age seven. Their findings
suggested a gender difference. For girls, nonsocial behavior was
negatively related to observed peer acceptance at ages four and seven;
further, peer acceptance as early as age four was found to influence
42
self-perceived competence at age seven. For boys, reticence at age
seven negatively predicted perceived peer acceptance, perceived
physical competence, perceived and cognitive competence at age
seven. Further, solitary-passive withdrawal at age four positively
predicted cognitive self-perceptions at age seven, and negatively
predicted perceived peer acceptance and perceived physical
competence at age seven.
Schneider and Byrne (1989), Ruffalo and Elliot (1997), and
Fagan and Fantuzzo (1999) reported that parent and teacher ratings of
children‟s social competence do not agree with each other. On the
other hand, van Aken and van Lieshout (1991) and Swick and Hassell
(1990) have found evidence indicating that parents and teachers
perceive children‟s social behaviour as reasonably similar (see also
Pakaslahti & Keltikangas-Järvinen, 2000). Galloway and Porath
(1997) concluded that both parents‟ and teachers‟ perceptions of
children‟s overall social skills were similar, but that differences
emerged at the level of specific kinds of social skills. Teachers
evaluated children as behaving more co-operatively than parents did,
and parents evaluated their children as being more assertive than
teachers did.
Tram and Cole (2000) conducted a longitudinal study which
investigated whether self perceived competence played a mediating or
moderating role between life events and depressive symptoms in ninth
grade students. A mediator accounts for the interaction between two
variables, whereas a moderator is a variable that influences the
direction or strength of two variables. The authors of this study
concluded from their findings that self-perceived competence served
as a mediator, not a moderator, of the relation between negative life
events and depressive symptoms; negative events predicted changes in
43
self-perceived competence, while self-perceived competence predicted
changes in depressive symptoms.
One such research by Hemphill and Sanson (2001) revealed that
a child with a negative, reactive temperament whose parents use harsh
punishment may be more likely to develop behavioural problems and
lower social competence than the same child with a parent use
inductive reasoning. Smart and Sanson (2001) investigated children‟s
social competence at 11 to 12 years, and found that children with
difficult temperament who had a poor relationship with their parents
had significantly lower social competence.
Visser and Antheunis (2010) conducted a study abent Online
Communication and Social Well- being: How Playing World of
Warcraft Effects the Players‟ Social Competence and Loneliness
Sample 800 High School Students Results revealed that there is no
direct effect between playing World of Warcraft (WoW) and
adolescents‟ social competence and feelings of loneliness. However,
indirect effect with the variety of communication partners as a
mediator was found. Adolescents who play WoW have more variety
in their communication partners during the game. Moreover, variety in
communication partners leads to an increase of social competence and
a decrease of loneliness.
2.2.3 Reviews on Altruism:
Satow (1975) found that those individual with high approval
needs would be more likely to help other than individual whose need
for approval was low and that such differences would be greatest even
others witnessed the act of helping.
44
Batson et al (1986) reported that certain personality
characteristics are associated with increased helping has led to these
claim that there is an altruism personality. But these personality
characteristics associated with motivation to benefit another as and in
itself (altruistic motivation)? in order to address this question, 60
female undergraduate participate in two session study. Within cell
correlation revealed that with three of the personality variable, self
esteem, ascription of responsibility, and empathic concern. For each of
this variable, however the pattern of correlation suggested that the
underlying motivation was egoistic. Higher score were associated with
increased helping when subject anticipated being reminded of their
failure to help (difficult escape), but not when subjects did not
anticipated being remained (easy escape).
Kapila (1987) carried out a study of Altruism, Personality,
Achievement, Motivation and Adjustment of Doctors. The sample
consisted or 200 doctors from district Patiala (Punjab, India). There
were a hundred males & a hundred female doctors. Altruistic scale by
Ronald, Chrisjhon and Febber (1981), Eysenck‟s personality
Questionnaire by Eysenck & Eysenck (1975), Achievement
Motivation Questionnaire by Ray (1974, 1975), Bell‟s Adjustment
inventory by bell (1937) were keeping in view the aim of the study.
Her result shows that there is a positive correlation between
extraversion & Altruism and there is negative correlation between
Psychoticism & Altruism.
McGuire et al (1994) studies the relation between altruism and
mental disorders. Data suggested that the theories of kin selection and
reciprocal altruism are viable working models to explain altruistic
behavior (AB). It remains to be demonstrated whether these model
can explain the behavior of person with mental disorders for whom
45
AB is reposed to be reduced. The author review proximate factors
thought to influence both altruistic decision making and inter
individual variation in altruistic behavior. The focus is on trait
signaling by potential beneficiaries and the evaluation of signals and
altruistic decision making by potential altruists. The point developed
in this review are combined with clinical and empirical findings to
analysis data on personality disorders, including a case study of
42women aged 22- 45 years with dysthymic disorder. Reduced
altruistic behavior (AB) may be (1) an evolved strategy, a
consequence of recognition system or algorithms, and or (2)
secondary response to an increase in symptoms.
Batson (1995) conducted study on empathy – enduced altruism
and the results of 2 experiments supported the proposal that empathy
enduced altruism can lead one act in a way that violates the moral
principal of justice. In each experiment participant were ask to make
an allocation decision that affected the welfare of other individual.
Participants who were not including feeling empathy tended to act in
accord with a principal of justice: participant who were induced to feel
empathy were significantly more likely to violate this principle,
allocation resources preferentially to the person for whom empathy
was felt. High empathy participants in perceiving partiality to be less
fair and less moral (Experiment-I) Overall to uphold a moral principal
of justice are independent prosocial motive that sometimes cooperate
but sometimes conflict.
Callero (1985-88) develop the symbolic integrationist approach
to prosocial behavior, focusing on the work on G.H.Mead (1934,
1938). It is argued that Mead‟s work offersa frame work for
understanding prosocial behavior at both the micro societal and the
micro- individual levels. His concept of social object, perspective the
46
generalized other is used to conceptualize prosocial behavior as role
behavior.
Smith and Shafeer (1986) conducted study of eight female
undergraduate two differed in public and private self consciousness
(SC) and in self reported altruism were afforded an opportunity to
assist a person in need. As anticipated, subjects high in private self
consciousness provided more assistance to the recipient than did
subjects low on this attribute; however, there was a tendency for
highly private subjects to be less helpful if they were also high in
public self consciousness. Analysis revealed that self – reported
altruism reliability predicted the helping behavior of subject high in
public self consciousness but did not predict the personal action of
those low in private self consciousness.
Killeen & Mc Carrey (1986) examined relation of altruistic
versus competitive values. 3 altruistic and 3 competitive instrumental
values from the Rokeach value survey were rank ordered by 83
nursing and 70 business students. Subjects also responded to an
invitation from a different response to volunteer for altruistic or
competitive task involving 10-20 hrs. of their time. Value oriented
was significantly related to individual/ competitive value orientation,
while 74% of the nursing students espoused the predominant social
altruistic value orientation. Analysis indicated a significant
congruency between the type 6 of Instrumental value the person
reported and the kind of activity chosen.
Schwartz (1993) conducted study on an altruism & social
influence. In his study he examined 319 last wills probate court
regarding expressions of individuality, altruism, and social influence
in the writing of a will. 10% of the testator s used testamentary
material, disinheritance, or altruism to express their individual; about
47
42% were personalized directly in other ways, while 48% displayed
indirect influence of family, friend and community. less than 100%
displayed primary influence of attorneys, bank, nursing home,
governments, religious or others organization. Although non of the 3
major theoretical position of testamentary behavior prevailed, the
individualist was found more of ten then family community position
and both were more common than the legalist position. Testators were
found not to be very frank or revealing.
Ribal (1962) hypothesized the existence of four personality
types relevant to giving and receiving behavior in social interchange.
The typology was based on two levels (high & low) on dimensions of
nurturance. The need to give other, and uccorance, the need to receive
from other. The 3 types identified were as follows: (1) the altruistic
self who has high need to give others and low needs to receive from
others. (2) The receptive giving self who ha high nurturance needs and
high succorance. (3) The inner sustaining self who has low nurturance
& succoraance needs.
Ribal (1963) also found that altruism female had high needs for
affiliation and interception and low needs for achievement and
dominance as defined by Edwards personal preference schedule
(Edwards, 1954). Altruistic males scored high on need for endurance.
Echwartz and Clausen (1970), however, fail to relate personality
difference to helping behavior.
Ranchburg et al (1980) examined the formation of altruistic
manifestations, in 13-14 year old to determine whether altruism is
behavior regulated by empathy or controlled by cognitive process
through reward or consideration of punishment or the transformation
of moral verdicts. Results suggest that belonging to the introvert or
extravert group determine the degree of giving. Data indicated that
48
giving altruistic behavior was not regulated by empathy but by
considering rewards & punishment. Though the interpretation of data
from the situation of self denying seems to be more complex. It is
hypothesized that giving is the extravert from while self denial is the
introvert from of altruism.
Sheoran (1983) found neuroticism, extroversion and life scale
to be positively correlated to altruism. Sethi (1985) also found
extraversion, neuroticism to be positively correlated altruism. But with
the line scale, it can be assumed that scores might be negatively
correlated with altruism in introverts but positively correlated with
extraverts.
Winniford et al. (1995) conducted a study by analyzing the
traits and motivation of college students involved in services
organizations. In their study they kept a sample of 443 students
involved in volunteer work before entering college by exploring the
trait and motivation that attracted. Altruistic motive were rated as
most important, followed by egoistic motivation and social obligation.
Factor analysis confirmed the conducted validity of the instrument,
and accounted for 54.9% of the variance in subject‟s initial
motivations for continued involvement. Content analysis of open
ended question showed that although altruistic motivations were cited
as being equally important in initially and continued involvement,
egoistic motivation, specifically friendship and interaction as being
important in continued involvement.
Mohan et. al. (1986) examined the altruistic behavior of
adolescents in relation to their personality and value. In the study,
administered personality, altruism and value scale to 100 male and
100 female high school subject (mean age of 16 year) to assess the
relationship among these factors. Instruments used include that
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personality Questionnaire developed by H.J. Eysenck and S.B.
Eysenck (1978), self –reported altruism scale developed by Ronald et.
al. (1951), and study of values developed by G.W.Allport et. al.
(1951) Altruism was found to correlate significantly with age and
theoretical social value, while sex was a significant determiner of
psychoticism, neuroticism, and likelihood of lying.
Goldberg (1995) examined altruism towards panhandlers: who
gives? Collected data on the proportions of passer by who gave
donations to panhandlers in Boston and Cambridge, Massachusetts. 11
male and 7 female Panhandlers and 6396 passerby were observed
1.6% of passerby gave donations. Male passerby gave more frequently
than did female male. When alone, gave disproportional to female
panhandlers. When in the company of a similarly aged female, male
disproportionately avoided giving to female panhandlers and did not
appear to show off by giving disproportionately to male panhandlers.
Female panhandlers did not receive more help than males.