18
Why It Matters The 1930s brought one of the greatest challenges to Texas and the United States since the Civil War. Ideas about the role of the government in economic matters were modified as new programs such as Social Security began. Texans provided important leadership in solving the nation’s problems. The Impact Today Many projects built with federal assistance in the 1930s continue to serve Texans. Among these are the Paseo Del Rio (the San Antonio Riverwalk), the San Jacinto Monument, Buchanan Dam, and facilities at many state parks. 496 CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression 1929 • Stock market crashed; the Great Depression began 1930 East Texas Oil Field discovered 1933 • Prohibition ended 1929 1931 1933 The Great Depression

Chapter 22: The Great Depression · during the Great Depression. Stock market crashes on Wall Street Preview of Events The Great Depression Begins Republican Herbert Hooverbecame

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Page 1: Chapter 22: The Great Depression · during the Great Depression. Stock market crashes on Wall Street Preview of Events The Great Depression Begins Republican Herbert Hooverbecame

Why It MattersThe 1930s brought one of the greatest challenges to Texas and the United

States since the Civil War. Ideas about the role of the government in economic

matters were modified as new programs such as Social Security began. Texans

provided important leadership in solving the nation’s problems.

The Impact TodayMany projects built with federal assistance in the 1930s continue to serve Texans.

Among these are the Paseo Del Rio (the San Antonio Riverwalk), the San Jacinto

Monument, Buchanan Dam, and facilities at many state parks.

496 CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

1929

• Stock market crashed; the Great

Depression began

1930

★ East Texas Oil Field discovered

1933

• Prohibition ended

1929 1931 1933

The GreatDepression

Page 2: Chapter 22: The Great Depression · during the Great Depression. Stock market crashes on Wall Street Preview of Events The Great Depression Begins Republican Herbert Hooverbecame

1939

• Nylon stockings firstcommonly worn

497CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

Step 1 Fold one sheet of paper in half from topto bottom.

Step 2 Fold it in half again, from side to side.

Step 3 Unfold the paper once. Cut up the insidefold of the top flap only.

Step 4 Label your foldable as shown.

This cut willmake two tabs.

Cause-Effect Study Foldable Make thisfoldable to record information about Texasduring the Great Depression and the New Deal.

Reading and Writing As you read the chapter,write under the flaps of your foldable what youlearn about these historic events. Underline thecauses of these events and circle informationthat identifies the effects of these events.

TheGreatDepression

1929 1941

The New Deal

Dusty Day in Texas by Grant Tyson Reynard reflects the stark

landscape of a Texas dust storm.

TEXASHISTORY

Chapter Overview

Visit the texans.glencoe.comWeb site and click onChapter 22—Chapter

Overviews to previewchapter information.

1939

• Gone With the Windproduced as a movie

1936

• Jessie Owens won four gold medals at the

Berlin Olympics

1935

★ James Allred became governor

1936

★ Texas celebrated centennial of independence

1935 1937 1939

Page 3: Chapter 22: The Great Depression · during the Great Depression. Stock market crashes on Wall Street Preview of Events The Great Depression Begins Republican Herbert Hooverbecame

498 CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

East Texas Oil Fieldis discovered

Texas Railroad Commissionlimits production in EastTexas Oil Field

Depression Hits Texas

Guide to Reading

Main Idea

The Great Depression affected Texasin a variety of ways.

Key Terms

stock, unemployment, wildcatter,

law of supply and demand,

martial law, economies of scale,

Dust Bowl

Reading Strategy

Organizing Information As you readthis section, complete a table like theone shown here by stating how theseparts of the Texas economy wereaffected by the Great Depression.

Read to Learn

• why the East Texas Oil Field was significant.

• how the cotton crisis was resolved.

Section Theme

Economic Factors Governor Sterlingworked with Texans to limit produc-tion of certain products and cropsduring the Great Depression.

Stock market crasheson Wall Street

Preview of Events

The Great Depression Begins

Republican Herbert Hoover became the president of the United States in1929. He had been in office for only seven months when Wall Street stockmarket prices fell sharply. Stock shares represent ownership in companies.During the 1920s, people hoping to make quick fortunes had driven up the

For future activist Emma Tenayuca of San Antonio, going to La Plaza de

Zacate as a young girl was exciting. People sold food and newspapers and

listened intently to political speeches. In an interview, Emma said, “There was

one place where I used to go particularly with my grandfather . . . and that

was La Plaza de Zacate, that was the square, Milam Square, right in front of

Santa Rosa Hospital.”

✦1929 ✦1930 ✦1931

Factories

Timber workers

Oil production

Cotton crops

Emma Tenayuca Brooks

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Columbus Marion Joinerwas born in Alabama. Aftermoving to Tennessee, hebegan a law practice in1883. In 1897 he moved toOklahoma and began specu-lating in oil. He made andlost two fortunes andmoved to Texas in 1926.

Joiner was convincedthere were oil deposits inRusk County, so in 1930 hebegan drilling. After twounsuccessful attempts, histhird well, Daisy BradfordNo. 3, opened up the largestoil field in the world at thattime. As “father” of the field,

Joiner was nicknamed “Dad.”Overwhelmed by finan-

cial problems and lawsuits,he later sold his well andleases for $1 million andretired. The city of Joiner-ville is named after him.

Columbus “Dad”Joiner 1860–1947

price of the stock of many companies. Someinvestors had borrowed money to buy stock.When the price of stocks fell, both they and thebanks that had loaned the money were wiped out.

The economic bad news continued. Factoriesclosed, creating widespread unemployment, orloss of jobs. Unemployed people could not buyproducts, so even more factories closed. Asprices of agricultural products dropped, theincome of Texas farmers suffered. People couldnot afford new houses, so East Texas timberworkers were laid off from their jobs.

President Hoover greatly underestimated theseverity, or depth, of the Great Depression. Hecalled on local churches and charities to increasetheir aid to the poor. He also asked people tohire their unemployed neighbors to do odd jobsaround the house. Hoover believed relief effortsshould begin at the state and city levels.

Explaining What were some results

of the sharply falling stock market prices?

Too Much Oil

Texans elected an oil businessman, RossSterling, as governor in 1930. He was immedi-ately confronted with economic crises, one of

which threatened the oil industry. In October1930, a wildcatter named Columbus Marion“Dad” Joiner drilled an oil well in northern RuskCounty. A wildcatter is a person who drills an oilwell in an area not known to contain oil. Thatwell, named the Daisy Bradford No. 3, was thefirst well of the East Texas Oil Field. This new fieldwas so big that it was named for a whole region.Kilgore, Longview, Tyler, Henderson, Gladewater,and many smaller towns boomed as thousands ofpeople descended upon East Texas.

Drilling in the new field provided high-paying jobs for farmers and timber workers. Adriller could make as much as $10 to $12 perday. As automobile dealerships, pharmacies,and clothing stores all benefited from the EastTexas Oil Field boom, the Great Depressionseemed far away.

At first the major oil companies were reluctantto invest in the East Texas field, which theybelieved would not produce any oil. One com-pany’s geologist even offered to drink every bar-rel of oil that the field produced. This leftopportunities for hundreds of small oil drillers—called “independents”—scattered throughoutGregg, Rusk, Smith, and Upshur Counties. Theydrilled wells in unlikely places. Soon the EastTexas field was producing more oil than all the

499CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

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500 CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

A

B

A BGovernor Sterling Citizen

Ideas for helping the cotton farmerspoured into Governor Sterling’s office,but which one would actually work?Did the cartoonist think the govern-ment would find the right solutionfor the problem of too much cotton?

Analyzing Political Cartoons

other fields in the rest of the state combined. Asthe law of supply and demand predicted, priceswent down as supply increased and demandstayed the same. With the same demand, produc-ers were willing to lower prices to make sure theywere not “stuck” with the oil. In the early 1930s,the price of a barrel of oil dropped.

Even at low prices, producers believed theyhad to keep drilling. If they stopped to wait forprices to go up, they feared someone else drillingelsewhere would get the oil. Finally, in April 1931,the Texas Railroad Commission issued an orderto limit production in the East Texas field.Independent operators believed this actionfavored the large oil companies. There was wide-spread cheating. Fake valves on pipes wereinstalled that indicated “shut” when the valvewas really open. Truckers carried “hot oil” at

night on back roads without using their head-lights. “Hot oil” was petroleum produced in vio-lation of the Railroad Commission’s orders andwas smuggled out of the Texas boom towns.

To enforce the order, Governor Ross Sterlingdeclared martial law and sent the Texas NationalGuard to the East Texas field. Eventually martiallaw ended, but overproduction continued for atime. By 1935, however, state and federal lawshad successfully controlled production, and oilprices became more stable.

Crisis for Cotton Farmers

Even though cotton remained the most impor-tant crop raised by Texas farmers, its pricesdeclined during the 1920s. The Great Depressionforced them even lower. In 1931 the average price

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Gulf of

Mexico

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

Mis

siss

ipp

iR

.

Rio Grande

Colora

do

R.

Red R.

Ohi

o

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GreatSalt Lake

LakeOntario

L. Erie

Missou

ri

R .

Arkansas

R.

Lake Superior

Huron

Lake

Lake

Mic

hig

an

N

S

EW

500

5000 mi.

0 kmLambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

50°N

40°N

30°N

130°W 120°W 110°W 100°W 90°W 80°W 70°W

SOUTHERNPA

C IFIC R.R.

ATLA NTIC AND PAC IFIC R.R.

ATCHIS ON, TOPEKA, AND S AN

TA

FE

R.R

.

M E X I C O

TEXAS

OKLA.

N. MEX.

ARIZ.

CALIF.

NEV.

OREG.

WASH.

IDAHO

MONT.

WYO.

UTAH

COLO.

N. DAK.

S. DAK.

MINN.

WIS.

IOWA

NEBR.

KANS.

MO.

ARK.

LA.

MISS.

TENN.

ALA.

KY.

ILL.

IND.

MICH.

OHIO

W.VA. VA.

MD. DEL.

PA.

N.Y.

N.H.

MAINE

N.J.

CONN. R.I.

MASS.

VT.

N.C.

S.C.

GA.

FLA.

C A N A D A

Dust Bowl

OklahomaCity

Chicago

St. Louis

AmarilloSanta FeLos Angeles

Barstow

Bakersfield

Yuma

TucsonEl Paso

San AntonioHouston

KansasCityAtchison

TopekaWichita

Enid

Clovis

Flagstaff

New Orleans

for a 500-pound bale of cotton was only $28.50.Because cotton did not spoil like other farm crops,it could be stored for years. The stored cotton andthe new crop created even larger surpluses. Aswith petroleum, the answer was to limit produc-tion, not just in Texas but nationwide.

The Texas Department of Agriculture urgedvoluntary reduction in the number of acresplanted in cotton, but few farmers cooperatedwith that suggestion. A more radical solutionwas proposed by the governor of Louisiana,Huey Long. He called the Louisiana legislatureinto special session and pushed through a lawprohibiting the planting of cotton in Louisianain 1932. The law, known as “drop-a-crop,” had aprovision that other cotton-growing states mustalso prohibit production in order for the law togo into effect.

Because Texas was the largest cotton-producing state, everyone knew that Texas must

agree if “drop-a-crop” was to become a reality.Governor Sterling did not think the idea wouldwork. Eventually the Texas legislature passed alaw calling for partial reduction. When a statecourt declared that measure unconstitutional,the whole plan collapsed.

Explaining Describe the “drop-a-

crop” plan.

Dust Storms Blanket the High Plains

After the arrival of the railroads, many of thelarge ranches of the High Plains were subdi-vided into farms. When wheat prices were highafter World War I, farmers bought tractors andexpanded their production. As prices declinedthroughout the 1920s, farmers tried to earn moremoney by planting more crops. The Plainsseemed perfect for the economies of scale that

Route 66Railroads

Severe wind erosion

City

Slight to moderate wind erosion

Throughout the 1930s, droughts,wind storms, and high tempera-tures contributed to the formationof the Dust Bowl.Analyzing What human actionswere contributing factors?

The Dust Bowl

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Checking for Understanding

1. Using Key Terms Write a sen-tence using the terms law of supplyand demand and unemployment.

2. Reviewing Facts Where didPresident Hoover believe reliefefforts for the Great Depressionshould begin?

Reviewing Themes

3. Economic Factors Why did the“drop-a-crop” plan fail?

Organizing to Learn

4. Creating Charts As you read thissection, create a chart like the oneshown below. List the creativeways people were paid during theGreat Depression.

Critical Thinking

5. Making Comparisons In whatways was the East Texas Oil Fielddifferent from other oil fields thathad been discovered in Texas?

Occupation Payment

Professors

Preachers

Merchants

came with mechanized agriculture. Economiesof scale mean that the unit cost of operationdecreases as the size of the operation increases.As with oil and cotton, however, overproduc-tion drove prices down. In 20 years, wheatdropped from $2.19 to 39¢ per bushel.

The decline in the price of wheat was only oneof the problems for High Plains farmers. Whenfarmers plowed grasses under, there was nothingleft to hold the soil when winds blew. A severedrought in the 1930s added to the problem. Thesoil literally blew away as the residents of thePlains watched. Dust from what came to beknown as the Dust Bowl was reported by shipcaptains in the Atlantic Ocean. Motorists inAmarillo, Lubbock, Dalhart, Muleshoe, and otherPlains cities often could not see 20 feet (6 m)down the street. People became ill from lung

diseases. Between 1932 and 1937, the worst yearsof the Great Depression, many families lost theirfarms because of the difficult economic times.

Texans Look for Answers

At first, Texans and other Americans looked tothemselves and each other for answers to theirgrowing economic problems. As banks failed,some merchant associations printed coupons thatcould be used as money. Universities that couldnot pay salaries allowed professors and theirfamilies to eat in the university dining halls.Many rural churches paid their preachers witheggs, chickens, vegetables, and firewood.

Mexican Americans and African Americans inTexas were especially hard hit by the GreatDepression. Between 1929 and 1931, large num-bers of Mexicans and Mexican Americans leftTexas for Mexico. Some migrated voluntarily, butmany were deported, or forced to leave theUnited States. To open jobs for Texas citizens,some residents of Texas and some U.S. citizenswere forced to go when they could not prove theircitizenship. The percentage of African Americanswho were unemployed was approximately twicethat of the rest of the population. Many AfricanAmericans left the state looking for work.

Describing What happened to

some Mexican Americans during the Great Depression?

502 CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

Dust storms such as this one could darken skies for hours and turnday into night. What were some of the effects of these storms?

History

Organizing The Dust Bowl made lifeharder for people during this time period.Find three details in the text supportingthis statement.

Page 8: Chapter 22: The Great Depression · during the Great Depression. Stock market crashes on Wall Street Preview of Events The Great Depression Begins Republican Herbert Hooverbecame

Why Learn This Skill?

Bar graphs can be used to help compare facts involv-ing numbers. Bars, or columns, represent quantities ortotals. Bar graphs can show change over time. Theycan compare quantities during the same time period. Abar graph might compare the number of studentsattending five different schools during the same year.

Bar graphs have horizontal and vertical axes thatdescribe the information. Sometimes a bar graphcompares more than one set of facts. In the graphshowing the oil wells of Texas, a key uses color todistinguish productive and unproductive wells.

Learning the Skill

Here are some steps to follow in reading a bargraph:

• Read the title to learn the subject of the graph.• Look at the information on the axes.• Compare the lengths of the bars on the graph.• Use the information to draw conclusions.

Practicing the Skill

Study the graph and answer the questions that follow.

1What is the subject and time period of this graph?

2What information is represented on the two axes?

3What does each color represent?

4Why do you think the number of wells decreasedfrom 1941 to 1950?

5In what time period were the most dry holes drilled?

6Create your own question relating to this bar graph.

Social StudiesSocial Studies

Reading a Bar Graph

Reading a Bar Graph Create your own bar graph.Use numbers or amounts for the vertical axis and yearsfor the horizontal axis. Possible topics include thenumber of students graduating from your school in thepast 10 years or the population of your city in the past10 years. Use books, encyclopedias, or the Internet tofind information. Write three questions that relate toyour bar graph.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 1, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

503

Oil Wells

Dry Holes

Oil Wells Drilled in Texas

Ave

rage

num

ber

drill

ed p

er y

ear

1889–

19001901–

19101911–

19201921–

19301931–

19401941–

1950

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

0

Years

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504 CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

Dallas hosts centennial celebration of Texas independence

Texas and theNew Deal

Guide to Reading

Main Idea

President Roosevelt helped Texas andthe United States to begin recoveringfrom the Great Depression.

Key Terms

alphabet agencies

mural

cooperatives

contour plowing

Reading Strategy

Classifying Information As you readthis section, complete a chart like theone shown here by filling in the waysthe New Deal helped Texans living inrural areas.

Read to Learn

• what the New Deal offered.• how Texans cooperated with the

Roosevelt administration.• how rural Texans were affected by

the New Deal.

Section Theme

Science and Technology Farmersused different farming methods toprotect the land and raise prices.

Franklin D. Rooseveltstarts New Deal

Preview of Events

The recollections, or stories, of everyday people can help bring history to

life and give it personal meaning. Emma Tenayuca of San Antonio remem-

bered how, as a teenager, the Great Depression hit her own family. “Times

became even harder as many people lost their jobs. In 1929 Wall Street

crashed. In 1932, the closing of the banks. My grandfather lost money in one

of them . . . He came over to me and said, ‘I’ve lost everything I have.’”

The New Deal Begins

President Hoover ran for reelection in 1932, but voters blamed him forthe Depression. They believed Hoover had not acted quickly enough toprovide help for needy people. His opponent, Franklin D. Roosevelt,won an overwhelming victory. Texans gave almost 90 percent of their

✦1933 ✦1936

Rural Problem How the New

Deal Helped

Electricity

Farming

Soil erosion

Texas bank, c. 1930

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votes to Roosevelt, who had promised “a newdeal for the American people.” He took office inMarch 1933, and his programs became part ofwhat was called the New Deal.

President Roosevelt began with a flurry ofactivity during “the first hundred days.” Amonghis other actions was ordering all banks to closefor a short time so examiners could determinewhich ones were strong enough to stay in busi-ness. He also asked Congress to pass laws tohelp solve the economic problems.

Vice President John N. Garner, a former Texasmember of the U.S. House of Representatives,helped push New Deal programs in Congress.Texans occupied some of the most powerful posi-tions in Congress, and Roosevelt needed theircooperation. The chart below shows Texans who chaired committees in the U.S. House ofRepresentatives during the New Deal.

New Deal Programs in Texas

The New Deal greatly increased the activity ofthe federal government in people’s lives. Beforethe 1930s the government’s main economicactions had been to collect taxes, print a moneysupply, and set up courts in which financial dis-putes could be settled. The New Deal createdagencies to deal with the many problems faced bythe nation as a result ofthe Depression. Theywere often known asthe alphabet agenciesbecause people calledthese organizations bytheir initials.

Some agencies such as the Federal EmergencyRelief Administration (FERA) gave funds tostates and local agenciesfor distribution directlyto unemployed people.Other agencies tried tosolve the unemploy-ment problem by hiringpeople for various proj-ects. The Civilian Con-servation Corps (CCC)provided outdoor em-ployment for youngmen while it helped preserve the nation’s resources. Nearly 50,000 Texans participated inthe CCC. Living in camps, workers planted trees,built erosion control structures, and completedother projects that helped conserve natural resources. They were paid $30 per month, $25 of which they were expected to send home totheir families. Many of the state parks theydeveloped, such as Garner, Bastrop, and PaloDuro, are still in use.

The National Youth Administration (NYA)hired high school and college students to per-form clerical and maintenance jobs. The studentsoften worked at schools and playgrounds. Theyalso helped build roadside parks and spreadgravel on highway shoulders. Lyndon Johnson

505CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

Proposed the Securities and ExchangeCommission to restore confidence inthe stock market.

Sam Rayburn

James P. Buchanan

Marvin Jones

Hatton Sumners

Bonham

Brenham

Amarillo

Dallas

Proposed the Rural ElectrificationAdministration to help rural residents obtainelectrical service.

Proposed the Federal CommunicationsCommission to regulate radio broadcasting.

Chaired the Appropriations Committee, whichapproved all government spending.

Worked to help farmers obtain loans andworked for soil conservation.

Worked to modernize federal courts.

Member Hometown Legislation and Contributions

Texans and the New Deal

Problem Solving Each electedTexan listed in the chart helped to solve a problem facingAmerica in the 1930s. Consider a present-day problem that Texas or America faces and propose a possible governmentsolution.

TEXASHISTORY

Self-Check Quiz Visitthe texans.glencoe.comWeb site and click onChapter 22—Student

Web Activity to learnmore about the WorksProgress Administration.

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was head of the NYA in Texas. Years later,Johnson became president of the United States.Many of the programs President Johnson beganin the 1960s reminded people of the New Deal.

The Public Works Administration (PWA)built bridges, dams, schools, and other struc-tures of permanent value to the state. In FortWorth alone, the PWA built 13 schools andexpanded 13 more. The Works ProgressAdministration (WPA) hired 600,000 Texansduring the Great Depression. Most of the jobswere in construction. Texans built swimmingpools, recreation centers, stadiums, and parks.New Deal programs also involved the govern-ment in the arts. The WPA employed artists topaint murals in public buildings. Theater andmusical groups were hired to provide entertain-ment in several Texas cities, and historians weregiven jobs writing community histories.

Examining How did the New Deal

help people recover from the Depression?

Rural Texans and the New Deal

Almost 60 percent of Texans lived in rural areasin 1930. The New Deal created programs for farm-ers, ranchers, and other rural residents. Farmersstill relied on kerosene lamps and hand-powered

machines long after city residents enjoyed electriclights and appliances. New Deal legislationhelped rural people form cooperatives, or organ-ized groups, that borrowed money from the gov-ernment to pay for stringing electrical wires.Electricity eased the burden of house and farmwork. Electric water pumps brought water intothe house, and electric lights made reading possi-ble at night. Farm families could now listen, ascity families did, to the latest news broadcasts andradio programs.

Congress passed laws that paid farmers toreduce production by plowing crops underinstead of harvesting them. Farmers cut downpeach trees and poured excess milk into streams.The government paid them to destroy crops inan effort to drive prices up.

Dams were constructed on the Colorado Riverto generate electricity. The dams also providedflood control and water for rice farmers. The lakesthat formed behind the dams created new eco-nomic opportunities in recreation and tourism.

New Deal programs also tried to slow downsoil erosion. Farmers in the Dust Bowl regionsplanted alternating strips of wheat and grainsorghum. The sorghum was taller and protectedthe topsoil from being blown away. Farmers alsoplowed at right angles to the wind so ridgeswould collect the blowing earth. The federal

506 CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

Sam Rayburn was elect-ed 24 times to the U.S.House of Representatives,spanning the terms of eightpresidents. “Mr. Sam,” ashe was known, was raisedon a cotton farm in thesame rural area of Texasthat he represented. Thathelped him understand the

people who elected him andtheir problems, and heworked hard to bring impor-tant projects to the districtto improve life there.

After working his waythrough college, Rayburnwon his first elected posi-tion to the Texas House ofRepresentatives in 1906.

He attended law schoolbetween legislative ses-sions. After his 1912 elec-tion to the U.S. Congress,he never again had aRepublican opponent. Hewas Speaker of the Housefor 17 years. As Speakerhe was third in line for theU.S. presidency.

Sam Rayburn1882–1961

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Checking for Understanding

1. Using Key Terms Define alphabetagencies, murals, cooperatives, andcontour plowing.

2. Reviewing Facts What percentageof Texas votes went to Roosevelt inthe 1932 presidential election?

Reviewing Themes

3. Science and Technology How diddams built in Texas during theGreat Depression contribute to thestate’s economic prosperity?

Organizing to Learn

4. Creating Charts Create a chartlike the one shown here, and fill inthe appropriate information foreach New Deal agency.

Critical Thinking

5. Explaining What had been thefederal government’s main eco-nomic actions before the 1930s?

government provided money to farmers to planttrees as windbreaks. By 1938, the sand dunesthat had formed around Dalhart were gone.

In the cotton fields of Texas, the federal gov-ernment encouraged farmers to fill up gullieswith brush to slow the water as it ran downhill.Farmers plowed around hills in a method calledcontour plowing rather than going straight upand down the hills. Farmers were paid to plantcrops, such as clover, that would enhance the soil.

Texas Centennial

Some construction projects during the GreatDepression celebrated the 100th anniversary ofTexas independence in 1936. The three largestcities in the state—Dallas, Houston, and SanAntonio—competed to determine which onewould host the official celebration. Dallas waschosen because it was able to contribute almost$10 million to help build the facilities. The TexasLegislature and the U.S. Congress each pro-vided another $3 million. The main celebrationwas held at the 185-acre (75-hectare) Fair Parkin Dallas. New buildings were constructed,including the Hall of State and the Hall ofNegro Life. Exhibits highlighted Texas historyand proudly displayed examples of Texas prod-ucts and culture. Other cities joined Dallas inobserving the Texas Centennial. The San JacintoMonument was erected on the battlefield to the

east of Houston. Museums were built at theAlamo grounds in San Antonio, on the campusof the University of Texas, and at Canyon,Huntsville, Goliad, and Gonzales.

Analyzing How did electricity

change life for Texans?

507CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

Supporting Generalizations Someconstruction projects during the GreatDepression were in celebration of the100th anniversary of Texas’s indepen-dence. Find three statements in the textsupporting this fact.

Agencies Full Name Purpose

FERA

CCC

NYA

PWA

WPA

The Texas Centennial in 1936 was a statewide event thatcelebrated Texas’s past and present achievements. The statelegislature provided funds for buildings, exhibitions, andspecial events. What is the message in this poster?

History

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508 CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

Nixon v. Condoncase

James Allredbecomes governor

Politics in the 1930s

Guide to Reading

Main Idea

Politics in the 1930s dealt with avariety of issues.

Key Terms

pardon

strike

arbitration

Reading Strategy

Organizing Information As you read this section, complete a tablelike the one shown here, outlining thesignificant acts of the governors in the 1930s.

Read to Learn

• what Dr. Lawrence Nixon accom-plished for African Americans.

• why LULAC was important forMexican Americans.

Section Theme

Civic Rights and Responsibilities

African Americans and MexicanAmericans fought for their rights in court.

League of United LatinAmerican Citizens is founded

Preview of Events

Pecan shellers’ strike

At age 21, Emma Tenayuca was already a veteran labor organizer when

she led the San Antonio pecan shellers’ strike in 1938. The passion for justice

she had learned from the speakers at La Plaza de Zacate inspired her.

“Garment workers averaged about $3 to $4 per week . . . Sales girls earned

about $6 weekly. The few Mexicans who were fortunate enough to find jobs

in the cement plants and packing houses earned about 25 cents per hour.”

—Emma Tenayuca Brooks, Oral History interview, 1978

1930s Governors

Despite economic problems in his term, Ross Sterling ran for re-electionin 1932. His main opponent was Miriam Ferguson, who had already serveda term as governor. Ferguson defeated Sterling in the Democratic primary

✦1929

Governor Significant Acts

Ferguson

Allred

O’Daniel

Garment worker

✦1932 ✦1935 ✦1938

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election by fewer than 3,800 votes out of morethan 900,000 cast. She then won the general elec-tion and was sworn in shortly before FranklinRoosevelt became president.

Ferguson asked President Roosevelt to lendfarmers money to help make up for lost incomefrom lower cotton prices. She succeeded in gettingthe state constitution amended to allow $20 mil-lion in bread bonds to feed the poor. She also pro-posed a tax on oil. However, the Fergusonadministration also was clouded by controversy.One of her first acts was firing several experiencedTexas Rangers. She used her pardon power torelease many criminals from state prisons. Thegovernor and the legislature struggled unsuccess-fully to meet the needs of the state when there wasnot nearly enough money available.

James Allred was sworn in as governor in1935. He moved to restore confidence in lawenforcement by reorganizing the Texas Rangers.They became part of the Department of PublicSafety and earned high marks for their ability tosolve difficult cases. Allred helped found theBoard of Pardons and Paroles to establish anorderly system to control the release of prisoners.He also helped create retirement systems forteachers and state employees.

The governor’s election of 1938 provided bothpolitics and entertainment. At that time, W. LeeO’Daniel had been sales manager for a FortWorth flour company. As part of his job, hehosted a daily radio show, broadcast on WBAPto several stations around the state. He hadnever been involved in politics, but he decided torun for governor. He campaigned around the

state, promising to raise pensions, abolish capitalpunishment, and veto any sales tax. His themesong, “Beautiful, Beautiful Texas,” became sortof an unofficial state song. Its chorus was:

“Beautiful, Beautiful Texas, where the beautiful

bluebonnets grow,

We’re proud of our forefathers who fought at

the Alamo,

You can live on the plains or the mountains,

Or down where the sea breezes blow,

And you’ll still be in beautiful Texas,

The most beautiful place that I know.”

He won an overwhelming victory. Once inoffice, however, he was unable to deliver on hiscampaign promises.

African American Voting Rights

Even after the creation of the poll tax and otherdevices to keep African Americans from voting,some African Americans continued to vote. In1923 the state legislature tried to reduce AfricanAmerican voting even further. It passed a lawdeclaring that only white persons could vote inthe Democratic Party’s primary election. SinceTexas was overwhelmingly Democratic, a win inthe primary meant victory in the general election.Dr. Lawrence Nixon, an African American

The state song “Texas, Our Texas” was not written by

a native Texan, but by an Englishman, William J.

Marsh, while living in Forth Worth. Gladys Yoakum

helped him write the words, and together they won a

statewide contest, sponsored by the legislature in

1929, to find a state song. The words “Biggest and

grandest” were changed to “Boldest and grandest” in

1959 when Alaska became a state.

T E X A SF A C T

CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression 509

Michael L. Williams was appointed to the Texas

Railroad Commission by former Governor George

W. Bush in 1998 to serve the unexpired term of

Carole Keeton Rylander. His fellow commissioners

elected Williams commission chairman. In 2000,

the people of Texas elected him to the term expir-

ing in 2002. He is the first African American in

Texas history to hold a nonjudicial statewide post

and is the highest ranking African American in

Texas state government.

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physician from El Pasoand a member of theNAACP, presented hispoll tax receipt and triedto vote in the Demo-cratic primary. He wasturned away. Nixonthen filed suit to win theright to vote. He wonthe case of Nixon v.Herndon (1927) in theSupreme Court of theUnited States when the

justices declared that his rights under theFourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution had been violated.

The state continued to try to exclude AfricanAmericans from voting. The legislature said thatthe party, not the legislature, had the power todetermine who voted in the primaries. The lead-ers of the Democratic Party then drew up dis-criminatory rules. Dr. Nixon filed suit again, andin 1932 he won again in the case of Nixon v.Condon. The fight for African Americans’ right tovote did not end, however. The issue would comebefore the Supreme Court again in 1944 when, inthe case of Smith v. Allwright, the Court would rulethat the all-white primary was unconstitutional.Dr. Nixon’s courageous struggle was an inspira-tion to a younger generation who would carry onthe struggle for civil rights in the 1950s and 1960s.

Identifying Which of the discrimi-

natory laws did Dr. Lawrence Nixon challenge in the courts?

Mexican Americans Fight

for Their Rights

The League of United Latin American Citi-zens, or LULAC, was founded at Corpus Christiin 1929 with Ben Garza as the first president.LULAC worked for Mexican American rights inthe court system, in hiring, and in education.

Mexican American children attended segre-gated schools in the border city of Del Rio. In 1930, LULAC supported Jesús Salvatierra in hislawsuit against the Del Rio schools. AlthoughSalvatierra eventually lost his suit, LULAC had

shown that it intended to be a strong voice forMexican American rights. By the 1930s LULAChad branches in many cities and towns, includingBrownsville, McAllen, SanAngelo, and Roma.

Education also was animportant issue for otherorganizations. The SchoolImprovement League (LaLiga Pro-Defensa Escolar)was founded in 1934 inSan Antonio. Eleuterio Escobar, Jr., and María L.de Hernández, the founders, were distressed bythe inadequate school facilities for San Antonio’sMexican American children. The schools wereovercrowded and poorly maintained. The Leagueorganized a rally attended by 10,000 people. Italso prepared documents that proved their claimsof unequal treatment.

The Pecan Shellers’ Strike

San Antonio was also the place where work-ers organized for better working conditions.There, women at the Finck Cigar Companyformed groups in the early 1930s to protestagainst poor sanitation in the company’s factoryand unfair work rules.

Another target of labor activists was the pecanshelling industry. More than 10,000 people,mostly Mexican Americans, were employed in

510 CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

The Great Depression was especially hard onworking women. Popular opinion held thatthe scarce jobs should be reserved for men,the traditional “breadwinners” for families.Accordingly, it was common for schoolboards to release women who married andfor companies to fire women so men couldhave their jobs. On the other hand, PresidentRoosevelt appointed Frances Perkins as thefirst woman cabinet member. Roosevelt wasalso the first president to appoint women asfederal judges and as ambassadorsto foreign nations.

Dr. Lawrence A. Nixon

San Angelo

Roma

McAllenBrownsville

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picking the nut meats out of pecans. Workingconditions were inhumane. People worked incrowded, dirty rooms. They breathed pecan dustall day. In 1938 the company cut their wages.Emma Tenayuca Brooks and other organizers ledmore than 10,000 workers on a strike (a refusal towork) that lasted three months. Police arrestedmore than 700 of the strikers, but eventually bothsides agreed to arbitration (allowing an impartialobserver to solve a dispute). The workers wentback to their jobs for higher pay.

Miners and Farmers

Two other groups of workers saw their livingconditions worsen during the Great Depres-sion. New Deal farm programs that paid farm-ers not to grow crops specified that paymentwould go to the landowners. Many Texas farm-ers were tenants who did not own the land theyfarmed. Payments to the landowner meant evic-tion for the tenants since their labor was nolonger necessary. Coal miners also suffered. Thediscovery of the East Texas Oil Field and lowprices for petroleum meant that the demand forcoal decreased. Coal mines were closed and theminers were laid off.

Explaining What were the main

objectives of the League of United Latin American Citizens?

Checking for Understanding

1. Using Key Terms How are strikeand arbitration related? Use theterm pardon in a sentence thatdefines it in context.

2. Reviewing Facts What groupsupported Dr. Nixon in his lawsuitfor the right to vote?

Reviewing Themes

3. Civic Rights and Responsibilities

Why did LULAC support a lawsuitagainst the Del Rio school systemin 1930?

Organizing to Learn

4. Sequencing Create a chart like the one shown here and add theyear next to each event.

Critical Thinking

5. Evaluating Differences Whatwere Governor Ferguson’s contro-versial actions involving the TexasRangers and criminals? How didGovernor Allred’s actions differfrom those of Governor Ferguson?

Summarizing Summarize the reasonsthat the pecan shellers went on strike inSan Antonio in 1938.

Year Event

Sterling loses bid for reelection.

Allred becomes governor.

Supreme Court rules that the all-white primary is unconstitutional.

LULAC is founded.

School Improvement League is founded.

511CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

Women who worked at the Finck CigarCompany in San Antonio went on strike in 1933 to protestworking conditions and wore sashes bearing their message.Why did the workers use both English and Spanish to gettheir point across?

HistorySan Antonio

San Antonio

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Reviewing Key TermsNumber your paper from 1 to 4. Write the letter of the vocab-ulary term that goes with each supplied definition.

a. law of supply and demand c. unemploymentb. stock d. wildcatter

1. a claim representing investment in a corporation that givesthe buyer a share of ownership

2. an oil operator who drills for wells in an area not knownto have oil

3. having fewer jobs available than the people needing them4. general economic principle that states if supply increases

and demand stays the same or decreases, the price willgo down

Reviewing Key Facts5. Explain how independent oil operators kept producing

oil in the East Texas field after the Texas RailroadCommission issued the order to limit production.

6. Which governor in the 1930s helped create retirementsystems for teachers and state employees?

7. Name the U.S. vice president during the Roosevelt admin-istration who was a former Texas member of Congress.

8. Describe how cooperatives helped Texans living in ruralareas.

9. Explain why farmers destroyed some of their crops duringthe New Deal.

10. What happened when the pecan shellers agreed to arbitration?

11. Why was Governor Ferguson able to release many crimi-nals from state prisons?

Critical Thinking12. Differentiating Create a table like the one below to show

how the Great Depression affected oil workers, cottonfarmers, and Mexican Americans.

13. Making Comparisons How is contour plowing differentfrom other plowing?

14. Identifying What was the result of Jesús Salvatierra’s law-suit against the Del Rio schools?

The Great Depression

512 CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

Group Effect of Great DepressionOil workers

Cotton farmers

Mexican Americans

The GreatDepression

1929• President Hoover takes office.

• The stock market crashes in October, and

the Great Depression begins.• The League of United

Latin American Citizens is founded.

1930• Unemployment spreads.

• Oil is discovered in the East Texas field.

1931• The price of oil, cotton, and

other products decreases.• Governor Sterling declares martial

law in the East Texas Oil Field.

1932• Franklin D. Roosevelt is elected

president.• Miriam Ferguson is elected governor.

• Nixon v. Condon is decided by the U.S. Supreme Court.

• The “Dust Bowl” affects Texas.

1933• Roosevelt starts the New Deal to provide

jobs and creates “alphabet agencies.”

1936• Texas celebrates centennial.

1938• Pecan shellers organize a strike in

San Antonio.

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Geography and History Activity

15. Sketch a blank map of Texas. Put a dot and a symbol orimage on the locations where special Texas Centennialbuildings were constructed or celebrations were held.Label the buildings on the map.

Cooperative Learning Activity

16. Writing a Research Report Organize into groups offour. Choose a topic about the growth and developmentof the oil industry in Texas. Topics could include, but arenot limited to, the beginning of the oil industry in Texas,lives of oil workers, or life in a Texas oil town. Yourschool or public librarian or the public informationdepartment of a large oil company can help you findinformation. After finding your information, write a shortreport. Include artwork, maps, and diagrams.

Practicing Skills

Reading a Bar Graph Study the bar graph and answer thequestions that follow.

17. What does the graph compare?

18. Which two counties have produced the most oil?

19. How much oil has been produced in Chambers County?

Portfolio/TAKS Writing Activity

20. Descriptive Writing Imagine you are a farmer in Texasduring the Hoover and Roosevelt presidencies. Write aone-page paper describing what is happening to your farmand the changes you see during the Great Depression andthe New Deal. Save your work for your portfolio.

Building Technology Skills

21. Using the Internet Visit the American Memory Web site hosted by the Library of Congress or anotherWeb site to find a photograph relating to the GreatDepression. Share this with your class.

513CHAPTER 22 The Great Depression

Self-Check Quiz

Visit the texans.glencoe.com Web site and click onChapter 22—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

TEXAS HISTORY

Use the time line to answer the following question.

Which of the following statements best summarizes theevents on this time line?F African Americans could vote in all elections between

1925 and 1945.G The U.S. Supreme Court did not voice opinions about

voting laws.H Nixon v. Herndon ruled that segregated schools were

illegal.J Some African Americans used the court system to

make sure they could vote in all elections.

Test-Taking Tip:

Read the events on the time line carefully. To summarize

this time line, ask yourself how the events are similar.

Oil Production in

Five Texas Counties

Tota

l pro

duct

ion

to Ja

n. 1

, 199

9(in

mill

ions

of b

arre

ls)

Archer(1911)

Chambers(1916)

Cooke(1926)

Yates(1926)

Wood(1941)

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

0

County (year oil discovered)

U.S. Supreme Court rules inNixon v. Herndon that Texas law maynot prohibit African Americans from

voting in primaries

U.S. Supreme Courtrules in Smith v. Allwright

that the “all-white primary”is unconstitutional

U.S. Supreme Court rules inNixon v. Condon that the Texas

Democratic Party cannot preventAfrican Americans from voting

in primaries

1925 1930 1935 19451940

Selected Legal Events