Chapter 3 The Contexts of

Argument By: Sabrina Morales, Kayla Martinez, Elizabeth

Inequez

Argumentation

• We must do more than examine the topic a construct a sound argument. We must also take into account our audience, specific situation we and they are in, the culture factors that might affect how the audience responds to a particular argument, even the historical moment we are in as we argue.

• ALWAYS ARGUE WITH A CONTEXT!!• There are 3 things you should consider when planning an

argument: 1. The Rhetorical Situation 2. The Cultural Context 3. The Historical Context

The Rhetorical Situation Triangle

This reminds us that when we write an argument, we are engaged in an interaction with a particular audience about a particular subject.

Analyzing Your Audience • It is okay to make assumptions and generalizations about your

audience to try and get a better understanding of how your argument will ignite or flame out. DON’T SOUND DEFINITIVE OR UNIVERSAL!!

• In some situations the audience may be very specific, you may already know that group of people, or what they stand for, thus making it easier to analyze their view points.• Example: If you wrote a letter to the editor of a local newspaper, you would

have a good sense of who the readers would be, since they live in your community. You can draw on such knowledge to identify effective arguments.

Analyzing your Audience cont.• In most cases you know very little about your audience • Example: Writing a letter to a local newspaper (you know the

audience is your community) as opposed to writing a letter to a national publication such as USA Today(a diverse population).

• Begin by assuming an intelligent fair-minded audience, also be ready of their skepticism for unsupported claims and sweeping generalization. ALWAYS BE READY TO BACK UP YOUR STATEMENTS AND ANTICIPATE OPPOSING VIEWS BEFORE YOU PUT AN ARGUMENT OUT THERE!

Imagining Your Audience• Get a general sense of the type of people that may read your work based on experiences as

readers, writers, and as people in general.• Literally imagining your audience influences the specific arguments you will make in

support of your position on an issue.• Example: An essay was written by Allan Sloan, a columnist, criticizing greed and unethical

behavior. A letter was published in Newsweek in response to Sloan's essay: • “Right on Allan Sloan! I have long thought that no economic system, certainly not capitalism, can function

successfully without the moderating effects of virtuous, ethical behavior on the part of the key players… In a free society there will always be loopholes to be identified and exploited by those with selfish, greedy attitudes.”

• Notice that the writer implicitly assumes that his readers are not necessarily those with “selfish-greedy attitudes,” nor are they to be the “key players” in the capitalist system. In other words he assumes that his readers are more “average” people who share his basic values pertaining to ethical behavior.

Imagining Your Audience cont.

• Effective arguments are usually effective only within a specific rhetorical situation. Humans are just simply too complex to try and please everybody.

• Trying to understand your audience takes time a effort, it offers a great reward: knowledge about human nature that can make it easier for you to live and work with others.

Cultural Context• When writers engage a particular audience in argumentation, they never

address generic readers, even when they are addressing the kind of general audience as stated before.

• Instead as writers you should address your readers as human beings, each whom bring a different set of experiences, knowledge, beliefs, and background to the interaction.

• In other words who we are as individuals shapes how we will react to an argument.

• CULTURE WILL ALWAYS BE PART OF ANY RHETORICAL SITUATION AND THUS SHAPE ANY ARGUMENT!!

Understanding Culture

• When I say culture I mean gender, ethnic backgrounds, religious upbringing, if any, membership in a particular social class, and the region where we live.• Example: rural West Virginia versus urban Los Angeles, two

totally different “types” of people which means different audiences.

• As a writer ALWAYS assume that culture will play an important role in argumentation and that you should be sensitive to culture.

Understanding Culture cont.• Hypothetical situation: There is a high school classroom filled with a mix of

cultures(race, sexual orientation, religious views, etc.) and a student wants to touch upon the topic of racial profiling. They state an argument. This could possibly be a sensitive topic to an African American person or perhaps they could be very passionate about it because a controversy about the subject has directly involved African American communities at one point or another. Or say there was a Japanese student or Middle Eastern student, what could possibly happen in that situation?

• YOU HAVE TO UNDERSTAND PEOPLE AND THEIR BACKGROUND TO UNDERSTAND WHERE THEY ARE COMING FROM SO THAT YOU CAN CREATE AN ADEQUATE ARGUMENT.

Considering Culture in Argument

Understanding culture not only influences how individual readers or writers might react to an argument , but it can also affect how people engage in argumentation. Not being considerate of culture can lead to becoming offensive.

Considering Gender• Important aspects of our culture include gender, sexual orientation,

and age.• Many arguments are generalized without regards to gender, sexual

orientation, or age• But, some writers will adjust their claims/arguments according to

the audience’s identities• EXAMPLE: the topic of abortion will mean something different to

women than to men, and different to younger women than older women (gender and age)

Considering Age • The age of an audience can influence how a writer handles an argument• EXAMPLE: An argument in favor of a certain retirement fund may appear in

Modern Maturity (magazine for older people) but not in Seventeen Magazine• EXAMPLE: A writer named Camille Sweeney writes an essay about what goes

on in teen chat rooms.• She is writing for older people, not so much teens since they already know

what goes on in teen chat rooms. She even has to clarify some terms so that the older audience will be able to better understand and connect.

• She refers to teens as “others” to distinguish the teens from the older audience. This way she can connect with her readers on the basis of age.

Considering Sexual Orientation

• It can be problematic for writers to assume that all of their readers are heterosexual.

• Can be challenging to write about sexual orientation since words like “gay” and “queer” carry a lot of emotion with them and may sound stereotypical

• EXAMPLE: reference to the “gay community” makes it sound as if the writer is assuming that all gays (regardless of race, religion, social class) socialize together. And makes it unclear whether it includes women, since some women consider themselves “gay” and some “lesbian,” so then it would be better to writer about “gay and lesbian communities” instead of putting them all into one group.

Historical Context• The time an argument is made has a big effect on the impact of the argument.• EXAMPLE: Harvey Araton made an argument about a Pakistani tennis player. He published it

during intense fighting between Israelis and Palestinians and during the world’s most prestigious tennis tournament. If he published it a year earlier, it wouldn’t have been as powerful or as significant/persuasive.

• WHEN an argument is made can be just as important as HOW it is made.• Historical context can help us understand when to make a particular argument• An appeal can be persuasive at one time but not at another because circumstances change and

that can effect what the writer chooses to write and how their readers respond to that argument• EXAMPLE: after the attack on 9/11, people thought that certain statements were inappropriate. • Comedians stopped making fun of George W. Bush and other politicians, and editorialists and news

anchors did the same.• SUMMARIZE: Make the right argument at the right time

Historical Context cont.• Some arguments/ideas carry different meanings in the past than they do

today.• EXAMPLE: The Declaration of Independence. A state or colony

separating from a monarchy like Great Britain was radical and unthinkable to most people in 1776, but today it does not seem so radical.

• Historical context affects how an argument works/what it means. • SUMMARIZE: The more carefully you consider the issue you’re arguing

about, the moment in time you present it, and what rhetorical situation you use effects how strong your argument will be.

Chapter Quiz• What are the 3 parts of the rhetorical situation triangle?• What is an important thing not to do with your audience?• What will indefinitely shape any argument?• What are some cultural factor that need to be taken into

consideration when creating an argument?• What are a few things that have a big effect on an

argument?

THANK YOU

Works Cited • http://rhetoricity.com/resources/rhetoric/• http://creative-ads.org/vintage-sexist-ads-vs-modern-sexist-ads/madison-avenue-offensive-ad/• http://abortioneers.blogspot.com/2011/03/racist-bill-boards-again.html• http://www.illustrationsof.com/93626-royalty-free-growing-clipart-illustration• http://www.clker.com/clipart-145797.html• http://depositphotos.com/8983174/stock-photo-male-and-female-signs.html• http://homeschool.corecommerce.com/Timelines-Figures-Clip-Art/• http://advindicate.com/articles/2014/4/13/homosexuality-sexual-orientation-or-sexual-preference• http://www.clker.com/clipart-smaller-crowd.html• http://www.clker.com/clipart-78190.html• http://www.clipartpanda.com/categories/cultures-around-the-world-clipart