Chapter 3

Review of Literature

The literature pertinent to different aspects of the present study has been reviewed

and categorized under the following broad headings:

3.1 Inventorization of plant bioresource

3.2 Population structure of higher plants

3.3 Species distribution patterns

3.4 Phytosociological studies

3.5 Traditional knowledge on phytotherapy

3.6 Conservation implications

3.1 Inventorization of plant bioresource

The history of plant explorations in India is quite old. Over the time, a satisfactory

progress has been made across the country as far as inventorying of plant diversity is

concerned. Among the workers who have made significant contribution in exploring and

describing plant diversity in different parts of the country are Hooker (1872-1897) for the

entire Indian sub-continent, Cooke (1901-1906) for Mumbai, Brandis (1921) for Indian

trees, Naithani et al. (1997) for flora of Goa, Pullaiah and Ramamurthy (2001-2001) for

eastern Ghats, Parkinson (1923) for Andaman Islands, Shetty and Singh (1991-1993) for

Rajasthan, Parker (1984) for the Punjab region, Chaudhuri (1993) for eastern India, Hajra

and Verma (1996) for Sikkim, Kanji Lal (1991) for Assam, Duthie (1994) for the Upper

Gangatic Plains, Shiwalik and sub-Himalayan tracts. Nayar (1980) reported about 141

endemic genera in India, distributed over 47 families where Acanthaceae and Graminae

were recorded for the largest number of endemic genera (17 each). There have been

attempts by Jain and Roy (1983), Nayar and Sastry (1987-1990), Ved and Tandon (1998)

to assess floras on the basis of which many of the species found place in the Red Data

Book of Indian plants. Besides these, a few reference publications exclusively on the

medicinal plants are also available such as by Nadkarni (1908), Kirtikar and Basu (1916),

26

Gaur et al. (1983), Jain (1991), Jain and Filipps (1991), Chatterjee and Pakrashi (1997)

etc.

There has been a satisfactory progress towards inventorying plant diversity in

many parts of the Indian Himalayan region (IHR), with geographic distribution of the

plants. Polunin and Stainton (1984) gave an account on the flowers of the Himalaya

covering Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and adjoining areas upto

Nepal and Bhutan.

In central Himalaya, contribution of Aitchison (1864-89) in the study of flora of

Himalaya including Kumaun and Garhwal, Raizada and Saxena (1978) for Mussoorie,

Naithani (1984-85) of Chamoli, Osmaston (1994) for Kumaun, Rana et al. (2003) for

Tons valley and Gaur (2003) for the entire Garhwal Himalaya are significant. Rawal and

Dhar (1997) reported more than 64% of species as native Himalayan taxa out of total 465

species recorded in the timberline flora in a part of Kumaun. Scrophulariaceae (78%),

Ranunculaceae (70%), Asteraceae (69%), Rosaceae (68%), and Saxifragaceae (63%)

were the dominant families showing high percentage of native taxa. Samant and Dhar

(1997) also presented an inventory of over 675 wild edible plant species, representing

384 genera and 149 families. A total of 135 species have been reported from the

Panwalikantha alone which is situated at an elevation 3800 m (Nautiyal et al., 1997).

Joshi et al. (2000) explored Pindari area of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve and reported

224 plant species with their distribution and medicinal uses.

An account of the diversity in vegetation and flora of Tons valley in Garhwal

Himalaya covering 761 species of phanerogams belonging to 480 genera and 132

families has been compiled by Rana et al. (2001), however various life form categories

and biological spectrum of flora of Tons valley has also been reported (Rana et al., 2002).

Samant and Pal (2003) recorded 701 species of medicinal plants of which 138 species

were trees, 135 shrubs, 421 herbs and 7 species were ferns in various forest types of

Uttarakhand. In a floristic study on Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Samant and Joshi

(2005) reported 490 species belonging to 281 genera and 89 families of angiosperms and

gymnosperms and categorized 37 species as critically endangered, endangered,

vulnerable and low risk near threatened using IUCN criteria.

In western Himalaya, Rau (1975) provided the taxonomic and distribution

information on flowering plants. In Jammu and Kashmir, the publications: flora of

27

Ladakh (Kachroo et al., 1977), Upper Liddar Valleys (Sharma and Jamwal, 1988) and

Srinagar (Singh and Kachroo, 1994) are noteworthy. From eastern Ladakh region of

Indian cold desert, Klimes (2003) also recorded a total 404 species of vascular plants.

Similar efforts in Himachal Pradesh started when Collet (1902) covered Shimla

area for the systematic study of its flora and later Chowdhery and Wadhwa (1984)

documented the plant biodiversity of the entire State. Besides these, flora of Bashahr

Himalaya (Nair, 1977) and Great Himalayan National Park (Singh and Rawat, 2000) are

also significant contribution in plant inventorization. In other local floral explorations,

Dhaliwal and Sharma (1999) presented an inventory of 930 plant species for Kullu

district, distributed among 504 genera belonging to 126 families and discussed their

taxonomic features thoroughly. However, many of the species from this district were also

mentioned in the publication of Chauhan (1999) who recorded 700 species of medicinal

and aromatic plants from Himachal Pradesh.

About 898 species of seed plants belonging to 544 genera distributed among 139

families have been reported in the flora of Sirmour district (Kaur and Sharma, 2004).

Singh and Sharma (2006) compiled the flora of Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh and

listed 1005 species of seed plants (545 genera and 133 families) with their

phytogeographical and ethnobotanical notes. Besides these, Subramani et al. (2007)

studied the floristic diversity of Renuka Wildlife Sanctuary in Sirmour and reported 395

species belonging to 316 genera and 115 families of which 228 species were medicinal

and aromatic in nature and 85 species were exotics.

Lahul-Spiti has been extensively explored since 1961, when Rau (1961)

conducted floristic surveys and reported 67 medicinal plants from the Lahaul valley.

Later Uniyal et al. (1973) and Aswal and Mehrotra (1987) highlighted the potential

medicinal plants of the entire Lahul Spiti and Lahul valley respectively. It was followed

by the publication of the flora of Lahaul-Spiti by Aswal and Mehrotra (1994) who

reported a total 985 species belonging to 353 genera and 79 families of angiosperms and

gymnosperms with their detail description. Kala (2006) also reported a total 335

medicinal plant species of which 45 were rare and endangered in high altitude cold desert

areas of Lahaul-Spiti including Ladakh.

28

3.2 Population structure of higher plants

Species diversity is an important indicator for the ecological and environmental

conditions of an ecosystem which provides the fundamentals to frame their management

as well as monitoring mechanisms. Studies on ecological niches and amplitudes of plant

species including identification and documentation of rare, threatened and endemic taxa

are important for the conservation of biodiversity (Varghese and Menon, 1999). In north

eastern region of the country, 98% of Indian species of Rhododendrons are found which

form a major plant group at upper temperate locations having a characteristic of slow

growth rate. Due to human interference, natural population of these species is gradually

diminishing due to deforestation and unsustainable extraction for fuel wood in the Sikkim

Himalaya (Singh et al., 2003). Similarly, Rai et al. (2000) highlighted conservation

threats to some important medicinal plants of this region.

In various efforts to assess the biodiversity in south India, Kadavul and

Parthasarathy (1999) while studying the tropical semi-evergreen forest in the Shervarayan

hills of Eastern Ghats, Ayyappan and Parthasarathy (1999) during biodiversity

inventorization of tropical evergreen forest in Varagalaiar, Anamalais and Kunte et al.

(1999) while studying the patterns of butterfly, bird and tree diversity in Western Ghats,

stressed upon to classify the landscape on the basis of structural vegetation types for

monitoring the status of bioresource and designing biodiversity conservation strategies.

Further, they found that quantitative measurements of abundance of plant species in

different landscape elements (LSE) types under various natural as well as human induced

threats/ pressures need to be carried out as the basis for any meaningful in situ and ex situ

conservation.

While studying the ecological status of reserve forests in Western Ghats, Swamy

et al. (2000) revealed significant variations in plant diversity and population structure in

these forests largely due to anthropogenic and other biotic factors. They reported species

diversity, density and basal area greater in the mid elevation forests than the low

elevation forests. Further, decrease in stem density and species diversity was recorded

with increased size classes of trees showing single species dominance in all the forests.

Substantial amount of work has also been carried out at regional and local levels

in various parts of Indian Himalayan region (IHR), which focuses on plant species

diversity in different ecosystems. However, quantitative information on the micro-habitat

29

preferences and population structure of various commercially important taxa is virtually

lacking from many parts the Himalaya (Kala, 2000; Uniyal et al., 2002).

In the mountainous region, particularly at high altitude areas, there are number of

constraints in the ecological assessment of plants which include toughness and

inaccessibility of the terrain, inhospitable climatic conditions, and limited period for

survey due to the short life cycle of plant species growing at such elevations (Kala,

2004). Despite of these facts, ecological studies on the distribution and population status

of plants in wild, along with population dynamics in various habitats/ landscape elements

(LSEs) are imperative to provide baseline information required for planning of

biodiversity conservation at the species and landscape level of a region.

Dhar et al. (2000) focused on the identified gaps in knowledge and lack of

objective assessment of threats which are considered a major drawback in setting

conservation priorities for Himalayan plant bioresource. Uniyal et al. (2002) believed that

excessive anthropogenic activities are the main cause of the decline in the population and

availability of various species of medicinal plants in nature. Keeping in view the

knowledge gaps and incomplete data, Kala (2004) reported that most of the available

information on various aspects of the plants in Himalayan region is collected from the

easily accessible areas in the mountains which are also accessed by the local people for

the collection of medicinal plants for indigenous use. Therefore, estimated population

density from such areas would definitely differ from the areas that have never or hardly

undergone any collection. Therefore, he reported that quantitative population estimates of

some of the threatened species like Dactylorhiza hatagirea and Picrorhiza kurrooa do

not focus to categorize these species critically endangered and endangered respectively in

IHR.

Significant information on the species diversity, composition and population

status of higher plants from central Himalaya, from the state of Uttarakhand in particular

has provided a number of quantitative estimates covering various characteristics from

species level to the landscape level. Singhal and Soni (1989) conducted a thorough

ecological study in eight different sites of Mossoorie, dominated mainly by Cedrus

deodara, Pinus roxburghii and Quercus leucotrichophora and reported the density of

these species between 1.9 and 6.4 trees per 100 m2. Agni et al. (2000) studied the

regeneration pattern and tree diversity in the forests of Kumaun and observed the absence

30

of young regeneration of all the important dominant species which showed the inability

of these forests to produce progenies due to repeated burning and severe biotic pressure,

by both wild and domestic animals.

Quantitative estimates on population density of Himalayan yew (Taxus baccata

Linn.) have been provided by Rikhari et al. (1998) and Purohit et al. (2001) in central

Himalaya. Former showed that population of seedlings and saplings was found to be

better in the moist and shady micro-sites at undisturbed locations, however later studied

the impact of bark removal on survival of T. baccata which is traditionally used for

preparing beverages locally called namkin chaey (tea), in preparation of local medicines

and wood as timber. They found that population of this species has been reduced to a

large extent due to its excessive collection in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Kharkwal

et al. (2005) gave an account of species composition of oak forests and reported

ecological structure and species composition of Kharsu oak (Quercus semicarpifolia

Smith) forest that was more complex as compared to Banj (Quercus leucotrichophora)

and Tilonj (Quercus floribunda) forests as the total number of species, genera and

families observed in Kharsu oak forest were higher than Bhanj and Tilonj oak forests.

In Kumaun, Airi et al. (1997) studied the population structure of Himalayan May

Apple (Podophyllum hexandrum Royle) in its natural habitats and reported a high total

density (21.80 to 94.73 plants/m2) in Kumaun Himalaya. They found that species

performed best in specific habitats (Quercus-Abies forest floor), at relatively low altitudes

and in acidic soils. Another study was conducted by Haleema et al. (2006) on the

distribution, frequency, abundance and density of P. hexandrum in Anatanag and

Srinagar districts of Kashmir Himalaya who reported low average population density

(1.13 individuals/100m2) and frequency (18.70%).

In upper Gori valley, Uniyal et al. (2002) estimated population status and biomass

availability of 14 threatened medicinal and aromatic plant species which are extracted

and traded from the higher altitudes of Kumaun Himalaya and reported the habitat

preferences of most of the threatened species which were usually found in distinct

landscape units or habitats.

Manjkhola and Dhar (2002) highlighted the fast decreasing population density of

Arnebia benthamii, a highly valuable medicinal plant in Indian Himalaya. Airi et al.

(2000) also reported the population dynamics of Nardostachys jatamansi, a critically

31

endangered taxon which is distributed in specialized habitats in the high altitudes of

Himalaya, ranging from 3000 to 5000 m above mean sea level. According to them,

dripping moss laden rocks (frequency: 40.7%, density: 15.9 individual/m2) and moist

boulders (frequency: 25.9% and density: 16.8 individuals/m2) were the most preferred

habitats of Nardostachys jatamansi in different sites in Kumaun area. Nautiyal et al.

(2003) studied the threat and vulnerable status of Nardostachys in different locations on

the basis of phytosociological analysis, density and relative dominance when compared

with other alpine species of Himalayan region.

During assessment of Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss. in different habitats at alpine

meadows of Kumaun Himalaya, Awasthi et al. (2003) found the highest density (27,215

individuals/ha), frequency (86%) and biomass (1,687 kg/ha) in undulating meadows,

however, the least values were recorded in rocky habitats.

Nautiyal et al. (2002) explored the natural habitats of Aconitum spp. (A. balfourii,

A. heterophyllum and A. violaceum) in Garhwal Himalaya in order to study their

population structure, and found that all three species were restricted to specific pockets

with very low population density. Based on population density and degree of constancy

used to assign threat categories, these plants were classified as endangered.

Bhatt et al. (2005) observed that population status of Dactylorhiza hatagirea in

protected areas was higher as compared to the unprotected sites, perhaps due to high

extraction and increased grazing pressure. Among various threatened plants, an account

on the population density, biomass and ecological features of Swertia chirayita, a

critically rare medicinal plant in central Himalaya has also been provided by Bhatt et al.

(2006).

In moist temperate forests of Himachal Pradesh, Singh and Kaushal (2006) gave

an account of density of Pinus wallichiana, Picea smithiana, Cedrus deodara, Abies

pindrow, Quercus leucotrichophora and Quercus semicarpifolia in Chamba district,

where Pinus wallichiana and Cedrus deodara were found over large areas occupying

majority of space in most of the study sites. During a quantitative assessment of

medicinal plants in Chhota Bhangal area of H.P., Uniyal et al. (2006a) reported the

population density of 8 medicinal plants including Aconitum heterophyllum, Bergenia

stracheyi, Heracleum candicans, Jurinea macrocephala, Picrorhiza kurrooa,

Podophyllum hexandrum, Rheum australe and Selinum tenuifolium.

32

Population structure of 23 rare and endangered medicinal plants in Spiti cold

desert of H.P. was studied by Kala (2000) who reported the highest density

(individuals/m2) for Picrorhiza kurrooa (70.6 ± 43) followed by Saussurea gnaphalodes

(48.0 ± 11). Recently in his significant contribution, Kala (2005c) reported population

status of threatened medicinal plants in different protected areas of Indian Himalaya

including Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary and Pin Valley National Park in Lahaul-Spiti district

of H.P., where density of 8 species in former and 19 species in later was recorded.

Further he found high density and number of threatened and rare medicinal plants in the

moist habitats. Among various species, Arnebia euchroma and Ephedra gerardiana were

found the most common threatened plants.

3.3 Species distribution patterns

Accuracy of floristic surveys and digitization of biodiversity for its documentation

is the prime objective at global, national and regional level. Floristic maps may serve to

understand species distribution pattern along the range of complex environmental

variables and such information will be of significance to predict their geographical

relocation (Vats and Singh, 2002). A number of ecological factors are responsible to

govern the distribution of various components of a forest landscape including trees,

shrubs and herbs. Singh and Singh (1986) reported that single species dominance is very

common in the forests of central Himalaya. The high-altitude Himalaya is characterized

by cold and arid climate with rich and varied biotic potential where vegetation

composition is considered as an appropriate indicator for delineating the high-altitude

zone.

Dhar (2002) observed that distribution patterns of floristic elements of high-

altitude Himalaya change sharply at the upper temperate region all across the Himalaya

and found shifts in compositional pattern in this zone where conifer, mixed, broadleaf

communities (Salix, Aesculus, Abies and Pinus) are replaced by pure conifer stands

(Cedrus, Taxus and Abies) in parts of trans and northwest Himalaya; mixed broadleaf

(Aesculus, Fraxinus, Rhododendron and Quercus) by evergreen oak and conifers

(Quercus semecarpifolia, Pinus and Abies) in the west and mixed broadleaf (Alnus,

Michelia, Castanopsis and Litsea) by oak and conifers (Quercus lamellosa, Abies and

Tsuga) in central and east Himalaya. However, high-altitude Himalaya is reported to

33

show decline in tree-species richness, total tree density, basal area and productivity

(Dhar, 2002).

Significant literature explaining the species distribution patterns in central

Himalayan region is available. Samant et al. (2001) reported that central Himalaya

supports rich plant diversity and they found maximum species diversity (46.22%) in

Kumaun and Garhwal Himalaya in the lower zone and the lowest (5.53%) in the upper

zone of 4001-5000 m elevation. In moist temperate forest of Kedarnath forest division,

species diversity index was invariably higher for herbs than of the shrubs and trees

(Pande et al., 2001).

Drastic change in vegetation due to ecological variables is a fundamental

characteristic of mountain ecosystems. Besides soil properties, altitude is one of the basic

gradients along which life-form change takes place as it creates varied climates and thus

promotes diversification of plant species (Lomolino, 2001). Therefore, in recent years

altitudinal gradient has become rapidly popular for investigating patterns in species

richness for management and conservation of biodiversity (Rahbek, 1995; Vetaas and

Grytnes, 2002). Mountains are steep climate gradients where species richness changes

over relatively short distances due to various specific climatic parameters and by

limitation of resources (Lomolino, 2001; Theurillat et al., 2003). Therefore,

understanding changes in plant species richness along altitudinal gradients is imperative

in the study of global climate change (Körner, 2000; Vats and Singh, 2002).

It has been reviewed by Rahbek (1995) that half of the studies revealed a hump-

shaped pattern with maximum species richness at mid elevation. Monotonic decline in

species richness from low to high elevation has also been supported by many workers

(Austrheim, 2002; Kala and Rawat, 2004). But, there are certain cases where both

monotonic decline and hump-shaped relationships have been described (Grytnes, 2003).

In spite of many studies, so far, no common pattern of species richness in relation to

altitude is clear.

Rawal and Pangtey (1994) attempted to assign an altitudinal sequence for the

existing forest zones and types within a range of 1600-3100 m in Sarju catchment of

Kumaun and recognized three forest zones, viz. low altitude (1600-2000 m), mid altitude

(2000-2500 m) and high altitude (2500-3100 m). The altitudinal sequence of forest

vegetation exhibited a sharp compositional change at the mid-altitude zone (2000-2500

34

m) and was considered as an ecotone. A less sharp transition (ecotone) was also apparent

between 2700 and 2850 m, separating the stunted and open canopy growth of sub-alpine

forest in the upper limits.

Uniyal and Prakash (1999) studied the structure of the forest vegetation along an

altitudinal gradient (2550-3600 m) in the Valley of Flowers National Park (3200-6727 m)

and in 2 sites in its vicinity (Ghangaria at 3000 m and Bhyundar at 2600 m) in the Upper

Bhyundar valley of Chamoli district and identified three major vegetation types, viz.

Himalayan moist upper temperate forest (HMUTF; 2550-3000 m), sub-alpine fir forest

(SFF; 3000-3250 m) and sub-alpine birch forest (SBF; 3300-3600 m) based on

importance value. They found average tree density in increasing pattern with the altitude,

while the average basal area decreased with altitude. The low tree density (338 trees/ha)

and high basal area (49.76 m2/ha) in SFF were attributed to high biotic interference and

dominance of coniferous species. The indices of tree species diversity and richness

decreased with increasing altitude.

Species diversity was also observed in decreasing order with increasing elevation

in protected and unprotected sites according to Kiss et al. (2004) who reported the value

of Sahnnon Wiener Index in between 2.77 in unprotected and 2.93 in protected plant

communities distributed at 3300 - 3700 m elevation in alpine meadows of western

Himalaya.

Kharkwal et al. (2005) assessed plant species richness in relation to the altitudinal

gradient between 200 and 5800 m elevation in the Indian central Himalaya (Kumaun) and

reported a total of 2487 species, of which 276 were trees, 355 shrubs, 112 climbers and

1744 herbs. The total number of species including all growth forms was found to be

maximum near low altitude to mid altitude due to overlapping of climatic conditions but

with further increase in altitude it decreased consistently, which is attributed to the

decrease in atmospheric temperature with the increase in altitude and thus concluded that

distribution and species richness pattern in central Himalaya largely depend on the

altitude and climatic variables.

Negi and Gadgil (2002) found that association and distribution depend upon the

preference of the species and reported a strong correlation of woody plants (shrubs and

trees) and moss species richness in temperate mixed oak and coniferous forests through

sub-alpine to the alpine grasslands in Chamoli district of Uttarakhand. They stratified the

35

landscape into five microhabitat types mainly based on the predominant vegetation cover

along the elevation gradient and reported that average rate of species turnover was the

highest in woody plants (1.34 ± 0.17) where elevation was the strongest environmental

predictor of species turnover in all groups of organisms.

Klimes (2003) studied different life forms and clonality of vascular plants along

an altitudinal gradient ranging between 4180- 6000m asl in Eastern Ladakh, which is

quite similar to Lahaul Spiti region for its ecological features and vegetation composition.

Among 404 recorded species, relative abundance of geophytes and chamaephytes

between 4150-5800 m elevation was found to be constant whereas proportion of clonal

plants gradually declined down to zero at highest elevations.

During the assessment of biological richness in different altitudinal zones in the

Himalayan region of Arunachal Pradesh, Roy and Behera (2005) also found that overall

species richness, number of economically important species, medicinal and endemic

species decrease with altitude, where biological richness showed a hump shaped pattern.

Collective effect of aspect of the slope in relation to elevation governing

distribution of species has also been measured in Indian Himalaya region. Studies on the

Quercus forest suggested the dominance of Q. leucotrichophora and Quercus-

Rhododendron species along a southwest facing altitudinal gradient in a montane forest

of Garhwal (Bhandari et al., 2000) where dissimilarity in terms of species richness

between upper and lower slopes was found due to variation in altitude. Further they

found decreasing diversity indices from seedling to tree strata, reflecting poor

regeneration potential of these forest types in central Himalaya.

In coniferous forests of Chakrata region dominated by Cedrus deodara on north-

east aspect, Cedrus deodara - Quercus leucotrichophora - Pinus wallichiana on northern

aspect and Quercus leucotrichophora - Cedrus deodara - Pinus wallichiana on north-

western, Pande et al. (2002) found increasing tree diversity with altitude. Rawat (2001)

studied the various phytosociological attributes of woody vegetation along an altitudinal

gradient and found maximum number of tree, sapling and seedling of various species in

upper slopes and minimum number on lower slopes.

Pande et al. (2001) divided moist temperate forest of Kedarnath forest division of

Garhwal Himalaya into 8 sub-sites as per the aspect and altitude and found that plant

36

species diversity in the whole area was invariably higher for herbs than of the shrubs and

trees where it increases with decreasing altitude. While studying the woody vegetation

along an altitudinal gradient from 1700 to 2100 m above msl in Garhwal Himalaya,

Rawat (2005) reported maximum total tree density (density of tree, sapling and seedling)

for the upper slopes followed by middle and then lower slopes.

Besides dominant tree species, distribution pattern of various medicinal plants

have also been given by various workers. In a study, Samant and Pal (2003) reported

maximum diversity of medicinal plant species below 1800 m elevation and found gradual

decrease in species diversity with the increasing altitude in Uttarakhand.

Kala and Rawat (2004) studied the floral diversity and species richness in the

Valley of Flowers National Park and reported that diversity and richness of plant species

decrease with the increase in altitude from sub alpine to higher alpine zone. Frequency

and density of Nardostachys jatamansi have been reported for a significant positive

relationship with altitude and west facing slopes (Airi et al., 2000).

Several efforts to study the ecological and biodiversity status in Himachal Pradesh

have also been reported. Badola and Pal (2003) analysed 133 rare, sensitive and

threatened medicinal plant species in Himachal Pradesh for their status with the help of

use pattern and their nativity. Importance of vast genetic resource of lesser known

economic plants distributed in trans-Himalayan region covering Lahaul-Spiti district of

Himachal Pradesh have also been described by Chowdhery and Rao (2000) whereas

Singh et al. (2004) reported the agro biodiversity of cold desert in Lahaul valley.

Highlighting the adverse climatic conditions and geographical factors in cold

deserts of Lahaul-Spiti, Husain and Garg (2002) found the comfortable growth of thorny

herbs only, however, seasonal flowering species like Pedicularis bicornuta

(Scrophulariaceae) were also observed in abundance under the shade of Salix plantation.

In a study, Singh and Dogra (1996) reported the distribution of three species namely

Hippophae salicifolia, H. tibetana and H. rhamnoides which grow vigorously in Bhaga

valley having a high regenerative potential even in dry infertile soil and play an important

role in soil erosion control.

Due to tough terrain and poor accessibility in many parts of Himachal Pradesh

like cold deserts, satellite data is also in use to assess the overall distribution of vegetation

cover. By using remote sensing techniques, Joshi et al. (2001) represented the forest

37

cover of Himachal Pradesh. Mapping of Hippophae rhamnoides in the adjoining areas of

Kaza (Spiti valley) has been given using fine resolution satellite data by Roy et al. (2001)

who observed 0.915 km2 area dominated by H. rhamnoides. Besides this, Porwal et al.

(2003) stratified and mapped the distribution of Ephedra gerardiana in Poh region of

Spiti cold desert in Lahaul-Spiti district by using RS and GIS facilities.

For various mountainous regions of the world, a number of workers have given

various theories regarding the distribution of plant species. Variation in plant species

richness of different life forms along an elevation gradient in east Nepal was studied by

Bhattarai and Veetas (2003) who reported that woody life forms had a significant

relationships with climate. The lowest species richness at the both ends of the elevation

gradient showed a hump-shaped pattern of species richness of flowering plants in relation

to altitude. The widest elevation ranges of species at mid-elevations and narrow at both

ends of the elevation gradient have also been reported from Nepal (Bhattarai and Vetaas,

2006).

Similarly, Grytnes and Vetaas (2002) found that number of species in 100 m

altitudinal bands increases steeply with altitude until 1,500 m above msl. Between 1,500

to 2500 m, little change in the number of species was observed, but above this altitude a

decrease was evident in plant species richness along the altitudinal gradient in Nepal. In

Hubei province of China, Yu and Saprunoff (2005) recorded a hump-shaped structure,

with high species richness at middle elevation range.

A peak in the patterns of endemism rates was observed at mid-elevation by Kluge

and Kessler (2006), but when separated for different life forms and microhabitats, some

deviations from the overall pattern emerged. High humidity was observed as a general

predictor for high endemism rates and for the highest species richness. Most importantly,

endemism rates were fairly low on mountain tops that have the smallest available area in

topographically highly fragmented settings.

A decreasing pattern in vascular plant species richness consistently with

increasing elevation in the Alps was also observed by Theurillat et al. (2003) where

distribution was reported to be governed by temperature related processes alongside a

gradual change in physical environment. Moreover, Odland and Birks (1999) reported

that species numbers decline by 40 for every 100 m increase in elevation in the Alps and

Norway. In another study in Norway, species richness peaked at mid altitudes in five

38

altitudinal transects where in two northern transects, species richness decreased with

altitude and further suggested that monotonic pattern of distribution may result from a

decrease in forest species towards the mountain tops (Grytnes, 2003).

Itow and Mueller-Dombois (1992) related the zonation and species distribution

patterns with altitude in Island Santa Cruz, the Galapagos Islands. Floristic and

phytosociological endemism of woody species was found increasing with higher altitude.

In case of herbaceous species, it was low in high altitudes because of their low

endemism. They found that species turnover rate along the altitudinal gradient is three

times higher on the windward south side than on the leeward north side.

In the Gremyachaya valley of Barguzinskii range, eastern Siberia, Valachovic et

al. (2002) studied the changes of vegetation under different climatic conditions and

reported vertical distribution of plant communities. They observed abrupt replacement of

forests by a mosaic of alpine grasslands and shrub communities in the upper zone

communities of mountain tundra, which showed the clearest dependence of forest

vegetation on altitude, although the relation to the moisture gradient and soil conditions

was also very strong. The middle part of this valley was characterized by transition of

non-forest to forest vegetation with various ecotone situations.

Covering a wide range of landscapes, Wang et al. (2003) explained the

distribution of species diversity and life-form spectra of plant communities along an

altitudinal gradient in the mid-section of the northern slopes of Qilianshan mountains.

Species diversity and species richness of both grasslands and forests peaked at the

intermediate portion of the elevation gradient. Furthermore, both life-form richness and

total species richness in a given altitudinal belt also peaked at intermediate elevations.

Among various reasons of declining species diversity along the increasing

elevations, Körner (2000) suggested that due to steep slopes in mountains, the land area

available for biota declines with increasing elevation. Besides this, season length declines

with latitude and altitude. Moreover, there is an analogous situation to the reduction of

land area with increasing latitude. These factors are responsible for declining species

diversity. In addition to these, Fosaa (2004) reported the effect of grazing on the

altitudinal variation in biodiversity while evaluating the biodiversity patterns of vascular

plant species on the basis of species richness at each altitudinal interval in the Faroe

Island, where maximum species turnover was also reported at mid altitudes.

39

Heegaard (2002) focused on the response of species to time of snowmelt and

altitude in alpine areas and observed the changes in species response to snowmelt as

altitude increases and temperature decreases at Finse, Hardangervidda in western

Norway. Of the total 41 taxa analysed, 22 showed a significant change in expected

occurrence in response to time of snowmelt (when a site becomes free of snow) as

altitude increased. He suggested the changes in response due to both environmental

factors (temperature related) and biological interactions where decreasing expected

occurrence of species was probably due to increased environmental severity as altitude

increases.

Soil-plant interactions have also been studied worldwide to understand the effect

of various soil properties on growth and distribution of vegetation in a landscape. Besides

the impact of aspect, altitude and slope, Dhannai et al. (2000) studied the relationship of

soil properties with the characteristics of Quercus leucotrichophora in Garhwal Himalaya

and reported that optimum soil pH, maximum amount of potassium (800 kg/ha) and

phosphorus (36.84 kg/ha) on northeast and southwest aspects supported the growth of Q.

leucotrichophora forests. Higher pH value of soil in the north aspects reflected less acidic

nature resulting into high density of trees and shrubs in a Chir pine forest as compared to

southern aspect in Garhwal Himalaya (Rawat and Pant, 1999).

Analysis of soil collected from a depth of 0-15 cm revealed the highest values of

soil moisture (50.90%), organic carbon (7.10%) and nitrogen (0.50%) on northwestern

aspect at higher elevation of 2800 m (Pande et al., 2001). Distribution of Taxus baccata

reported by Rikhari et al. (2000) in relation to the soil pH revealed its negative

correlation with the presence of Taxus seedlings.

High nitrogen accumulation in forest stands of Picea smithiana and Abies

pindrow has been reported by Gupta et al. (1989) which govern their distribution under

selection system followed by shelterwood and clearfelled systems. Further, a positive and

significant correlation between available and total nitrogen in all the study sites was

observed. Distribution of various forests in relation to soil properties was studied by

Dimri et al. (2006) who reported increase in soil potassium with increasing altitude and

showed highly significant positive correlation with distribution of vegetation. Potassium

accumulation at different altitudes decreased in order of silver fir-spruce (Abies pindrow -

40

Picea smithiana) > ban- moru oak (Quercus leucotrichophora - Q. floribunda) > deodar-

kail pine (Cedrus deodara - Pinus wallichiana) > chir pine (P. roxburghii) forests.

While doing tree layer vegetation analysis in relation to various aspects of soil in

reserve forests of Kumaun, Bisht and Lodhiyal (2005) reported total density of 42.9 -

170.1 individuals per ha for trees, where soil porosity and pH ranged between 52.8 -

64.2% and 5.5 - 6.5 respectively. Airi et al. (2000) found that density of Nardostachys

jatamansi was in positive correlation with organic carbon, moisture content and nitrogen

content of soil.

Vegetation in relation to various physico-chemical properties of soil in different

localities of Lahaul-Spiti was studied by Singh and Gupta (1990) and reported more

alkalinity in silt-clay loam soils where Calcium (Ca), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na) and

Phosphorus (P) were observed in decreasing order affecting the distribution of plants.

They observed absence of substantial leaching of minerals from the soil in most parts of

region that adds minerals continuously in the soil, effecting soil pH which tend to

increase.

In a central Himalayan oak forest of Nepal, Vetaas (1997) found the soil pH as the

most significant indicator of species richness of vascular plants. During 2000, he also

studied the relationships and effect of environmental factors on the forests of Q.

semecarpifolia and reported that canopy disturbance had a negative effect on the number

of seedlings which was related to soil pH (optimum 6), and total nitrogen (optimum 2-

3%), however no clear relationship between the number of saplings and the soil variables

was recorded (Vetaas, 2000). A strong relationship of herbaceous species with the soil

variables suggested rapid changes over a short spatial extent both for herbaceous species

and for the soil variables (Vetaas and Chaudhary, 1998).

Gaur et al. (2003) reported that snowline in Himalaya is rising ceaselessly due to

regional and global climatic change and upward rising of snowline leads to the formation

of moraines with extreme environmental conditions where existing vegetation of such

moraines is scanty, rigorous and possesses different ecological adaptation. Anaphalis

triplinervis was observed to have highest importance value in such areas.

Effect of change in climate has also been studied in distribution patterns of

Himalayan pine (Pinus wallichiana) on north and south slopes by Dubey et al. (2003) to

find its upper elevational limit and estimated that rate of upward shift of saplings was

41

higher on south in comparison to north facing slopes, which mainly was governed by

higher solar insulation favoring growth on relatively warmer south facing slopes.

Nautiyal et al. (2004) also studied the effect of changing climate on vegetation

composition of alpine pasture at Tungnath, Garhwal Himalaya and indicated the

migration of species towards upper slopes of alpine regions.

The effect of latitude on species diversity in different landscapes has also been

reported by various workers. Crow (1993) studied plant diversity on a latitudinal basis

and also revealed a higher level of diversity at warm temperate latitudes. Partel (2002)

described local-scale relationships between plant species richness and soil pH in relation

to latitude and found that the relationship between richness and pH was positive at high

latitudes and negative at low latitudes.

Availability of micro-habitats and habitat specificity of medicinal plants have

been observed an important reason for their localized distribution in concentrated patches

in various habitats like marshy and moist areas, moist rocks, boulder, undulating

meadows, river beds, steep slopes etc. (Kalakoti et al., 1986; Airi et al., 2000; Kala,

2000, 2005c, 2006; Srivastava et al., 2000; Badola and Pal, 2002, 2003; Dhar, 2002;

Dhar et al., 2002; Husain and Garg, 2002; Manjkhola and Dhar, 2002; Uniyal et al.,

2002; Awasthi et al., 2003; Chauhan, 2003; Klimes, 2003, Samant and Pal, 2003; Dhyani

and Kala, 2005; Ghimire et al., 2005; Bhatt et al., 2006; Bisht et al., 2006; Haleema et

al., 2006 and Uniyal et al., 2006a) in Himalayan region.

Bhatt et al. (2005) focused on assessment of quantum of Dactylorhiza hatagirea

(D. Don) Soo in its natural habitats and observed the localized distribution of species that

was not uniform. Kala and Mathur (2002) studied the vegetation distribution in eight

landscape types distinguished along an altitudinal gradient in the trans-Himalayan region

of Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, where the highest species diversity was recorded in

stable landscape types followed by undulating areas and river beds. They found most of

the plant species restricted to one landscape type.

In alpine zones of Chhota Bhangal area of Himachal Pradesh, Uniyal et al.

(2006a) provided the information on highly traded and locally used medicinal plants and

reported steep slopes with the highest species richness and diversity. Maximum similarity

in terms of species distribution was observed between steep slopes and undulating

meadows. In high altitude cold desert of Indian trans-Himalaya, Kala (2006) found that

42

distribution pattern of medicinal plants was generally localized because most (27%) were

restricted to marshy and moist areas followed by dry scrub (13%), rocks (12%), boulder

(10%) and undulating land or alpine meadows (9%).

3.4 Phytosociological studies

A number of ecologists have given phytosociological traits of various species in

different ecosystems (Upreti et al., 1985; Bankoti et al., 1992; Agni et al., 2000; Negi

and Gadgil, 2002; Kala and Rawat, 2004) of central Himalaya. In a quantitative analysis

of vegetation along the elevation ranging between 2000-4000 m in Kumaum Himalaya,

Kalakoti et al. (1986) reported 2597 to 18012 cm2/100m2 tree basal cover from different

forest sites. It was observed that tree layer composition differed markedly among the

forests and the vegetation on grassland site was reported more species rich.

Behera et al. (2002) compared the structure of coniferous forests and recorded

subtropical forests less complex in terms of the ecological structure and composition

point of view in comparison to the temperate/ sub-alpine coniferous forests. The total

number of species, genera and families observed for temperate/ sub-alpine coniferous

forests was found to be higher than that for subtropical pine forest. As per Agni et al.

(2000) total tree density varied from 4.3 trees/100 m2 to 11.2 trees/100 m2 and the tree

diversity from 0 to 2.18 in the Tarai-Bhabhar belt of Kumaun central Himalaya located

between 29o25' to 29o40' N and 78o45' to 79o5' E longitude. Absence of young

regeneration of all the important dominant species showed the inability of these forests to

produce progenies due to repeated burning and severe biotic pressure, by both wild and

domestic animals.

In the natural stands of Taxus baccata, Rikhari et al. (1998) found that canopy

volume of the species increased with the increasing circumference at breast height while

studying the stand structure and regeneration in relation to the disturbance levels and

crown cover. The quantitative estimates of regeneration revealed better potential of the

species to regenerate in the moist and shady micro-sites at undisturbed locations.

Among various coniferous tree species, Adhikari et al. (1996) reported density-

diameter distribution curves for Cedrus deodara and Cupressus torulosa. It was

curvilinear for Cypress (C. torulosa), whereas bell-shaped in case of Cedar (C. deodara)

which showed lower representation of smaller and larger trees for Cedar forest and poor

43

conversion of saplings into trees for Cypress forest. Besides this, Rikhari and Adhikari

(1998) have also reported the density-diameter (d-d) curves, diameter class distribution of

dominant species and protective value of temperate forests between 2000 and 3300 m in

Pinder catchment of the central Himalaya where curves for burans (Rhododendron

arboreum), kharsu oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) and alder (Alnus nepalensis) mixed

patch and silver fir (Abies pindrow), maple (Acer cappadocicum) and birch (Betula utilis)

forests were slightly convex, bell shaped, curvilinear, straight line and linear,

respectively. Further it was reported that development of seedlings into trees was not

satisfactory for A. pindrow.

In Kumaun region, Saxena and Singh (1982) described the quantitative profile of

forest structures and reported that all forests indicated a total of four strata; two upper

represented by trees, third stratum by shrubs, and the fourth of herbs. The tree height of

top most stratum decreased with the increase in altitude and crown were more deep than

wide in all forests. Further, the cooler aspects developed a greater canopy index as

compared to the warmer aspects. They found more stable trees on the warmer aspects,

while the cooler aspects showed lower tree stability.

In a phytosociological analysis of forest communities distributed along an

altitudinal gradient (1190-2610 m) in Kumaun Himalaya, dominated by Pinus roxburghii

(chir pine), Quercus leucotrichophora (banj oak) and Q. semecarpefolia (kharsu oak) at

altitudes of 1190-1600 m, 1800-2200 m and 2400-2610 m, Rikhari et al. (1991) reported

total basal area and species diversity across the forest types between 23.1 to 60.7 m2/ha

and 0.22 to 2.76, respectively. Along an altitudinal gradient of 2000-3300 m in the Pindar

catchment, Rikhari et al. (1997) identified 8 forest types on the basis of the importance

value of the dominant species and reported total basal area and biomass for trees in the

range of 10.5-81.5 m2/ha and 49.3-630.7 t/ha, respectively. Tree species diversity and

beta diversity across the forest types were higher for the tree layer as compared to the

shrub layer.

A mountain flank of Jakhni in Tehri Garhwal studied by Bhandari et al. (1998)

revealed total basal area among the forest stands between 23.05 to 63.00 m2ha-1 and the

total density between 660 and 880 plants ha-1. Community diversity was the highest

(2.52) in the middle of the gradient. Dominance of concentration, in general, followed the

44

opposite trend to diversity. Further they reported low value of beta-diversity which

indicated that species composition does not differ significantly across the stands.

Growing stock under various diameter classes in five distinct natural forests of

Cedrus deodara in Garhwal Himalaya were estimated by Bhatt et al. (2002) and reported

the highest total growing stock value (761.70 ±58.73 m3/ha) and total basal area (60.542

± 4.6362 m2/ha) among all the diameter classes at the highest altitude of 2300 m whereas

the lowest values of growing stock (298.54 ± 99.65 m3/ha) and total basal area (34.2763

± 9.9157 m2/ha) were recorded at the lowest altitude of 1900 m.

Effect of various aspects was analyzed by Pathak et al. (1993) while studying the

phytosociological attributes of woody vegetation in 12 stands at South, West, North and

South-East aspects and in 3 positions (hill base, slope and top) in an altitudinal range of

2100-2700 m in Almora. They recorded total tree basal area between 3898-5733

cm2/100m2.

Phytosociological studies of moist temperate forest of Quercus leucotrichophora

in Garhwal Himalaya on North-East, North-West, South-East and South-West aspects

with varying altitudes, highlighted the highest total basal cover (1727.19 cm2/100m2) on

the North-East facing slope (Dhannai et al., 2000).

Nautiyal and Bhatt (1999) presented data on niche width/ location, species

diversity, beta-diversity, equitability, P×F (presence × frequency) index and CI

(continuum index) for important herbs and graminoids in 5 sample stands in an alpine

grazing land in Panwali Kantha region of Garhwal Himalaya at different aspects (SW, SE

and E.) and altitude between 3400-3600 m. Among the graminoids, they reported

Phleum alpinum with maximum niche width, and Bupleurum lanceolatum and

Taraxacum officinale showed maximum niche location. Higher beta-diversity and

equitability values indicated rapid change in species composition and community

heterogeneity according to species adaptability and growth requirements.

Effect of various aspects mainly Northeast, Northwest, Southeast and Southwest

in district Pauri Garhwal was studied by Mishra et al. (2000) to evaluate the growth

behaviour of Sal (Shorea robusta) individuals which reflected regular and random

distribution patterns. The highest total basal cover value of Sal was recorded on the NE

facing slope (5009.04 cm2/100m2), and the highest concentration of dominance (CD)

45

value (dominance index, 0.4321) on the SW facing slope, where species diversity was

minimum. On the other hand, the lowest CD value (0.3115) was observed on the SE

aspect where there was maximum diversity of species.

Khera et al. (2001) reported comparatively higher number of trees and shrubs on

the western aspect. Total tree basal area was recorded from 4.5 m2/ha at hill base to 11.9

m2/ ha at hilltop on the eastern aspect and from 9.3 m2/ ha at hilltop to 16.8 m2/ ha at hill

base on the western aspect. They found lower density of sapling and seedling on western

aspect because of higher anthropogenic disturbances which lead the removal of seedlings

of most of the tree species. Diversity of shrub and herb was higher on both the aspects as

compared to tree diversity because opening of canopy provides greater opportunity for

the recruitment of shrubs and herbs. Further it was concluded that forest was regenerating

because of the presence of few individuals of important species in older girth classes and

higher numbers in younger girths.

Bhandari (2003) reported the composition, population structure and diversity of

blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) forest stands of Garhwal Himalaya with reference to

altitude and aspect. Berberis aristata, Cotoneaster affinis, Pyracantha crenulata and

Pyrus pashia were found the dominant shrub species. Tree layers had a similarity of

43.30 to 82.92%. The higher degree of dissimilarity between the lower gradients of

opposite aspects indicated a significant change in the community structure due to

variation in aspect. Species diversity (H/) ranged from 0.73 to 1.60, 1.71 to 2.53, 1.83 to

2.47 and 1.87 to 2.33 for tree, sapling, seedling and shrub layers, respectively.

Structure of a temperate mixed coniferous forest in the area of Lata was studied

by Kumar et al. (1997) in relation to geo-ecological environment. They found that Pinus

wallichiana constitutes 41% of the total basal area, followed by Cedrus deodara (35%),

Cupressus torulosa (12%), Taxus baccata (9%) and Betula utilis (only 3% on upper

inaccessible terrain) in the tree layer. Total tree density ranges from 33 to 366 trees ha-1,

whereas total basal area was recorded between 1.75 and 24.52 m2 ha-1. Soil of the forest

was reported to be loam (predominantly sandy), with high average levels of organic

carbon (1.2%), low phosphorus (11.28 kg ha-1) and high potash (322.17 kg ha-1) contents.

46

3.5 Traditional knowledge on phytotherapy

India has a rich heritage of having a number of indigenous systems of medicines

such as Ayurveda, Sidha, Unani and Amchi (Nadkarni, 1908; Kirtikar and Basu, 1916;

Shah, 1977). Several ethnic communities including over 400 tribal groups across the

country use more than 7000 species of plants from their surrounding ecosystems to cure

various ailments and diseases (Jain, 1991). The folk knowledge linked with modern

biomedical researches has facilitated discovery of a number of plant based medicines

(Fransworth and Soejarto, 1991). In recent past, a number of ethnobotanists have

published information on folk knowledge associated with plants used in the indigenous

health care systems from different parts of the country.

Exploring the hidden treasures of traditional knowledge in Rajasthan, Tripathi

(1999) reported a wide range of medicinally important plant species used by the villagers

and tribal communities, whereas around 243 genera belonging to 76 families have also

been reported by Jain et al. (2005) which are used by the tribes of about 50 villages

around the Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary of Chittorgarh and Udaipur districts as means of

primary health care to cure various ailments. They revealed new ethnobotanical uses of

24 plant species belonging to 20 genera. In a floristic survey, a total 61 ethnomedicinal

plants belonging to 38 families were recorded by Katewa et al. (2004) used traditionally

by tribal communities inhabited in the Aravalli hills of Mewar region. In case of birth

control and to cure various sexual diseases by the tribals in southern Rajasthan, Jain et al.

(2004) reported 53 species belonging to 33 families through interviews with local

medicine men and women, birth attendants and other knowledgeable persons to check

birth control, including abortion at initial stages, preventing conception or by making

either member of the couple sterile and to cure problems of leucorrhoea, gonorrhoea,

menorrhagia, to regularize menses and syphilis in both the sexes.

A total 27 plant species used in the treatment of genito-urinary diseases by the

Kandhas of Orissa have been reported by Behera and Misra (2005). In Madhya Pradesh,

Samvatsar and Diwanji (2000) reported the use of 13 plants for the treatment of jaundice

among tribal communities.

Traditional knowledge among the Korku tribe in the Chikhaldara, Achalpur and

parts of Morshi in Amravati district of Maharashtra was compiled by Jagtap et al. (2006)

and reported the traditional uses of 66 plant species belonging to 40 families. The

47

documented ethnomedicinal plants were mostly used to cure skin disorders, diarrhea,

jaundice, tuberculosis, migraine, menstrual problems, fertility problems, urinary

problems, piles, wounds and poison bites.

Traditional phytotherapical use of 54 plant species belonging to 26 families has

been described by Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2005) among the Kani tribals in Kouthalai

of Tirunelveli hills of Tamil Nadu to cure skin diseases, poison bites, wounds and

rheumatism.

Bhandary et al. (1995) reported 98 medicinal preparations from 69 plant species,

used by the Siddis of Uttara Kannada in the state of Karnataka and found 40 hitherto

unknown medicinal uses of known medicinal plants. Information on the use of stem sap

of Calamus thwaitesii as an antifertility drug, and the use of the flowers of Ichnocarpus

frutescens and rhizomes of Hedychium coronarium in the treatment of diabetes were

novel information. About 52 herbal preparations from 31 plants belonging to 21 families

as herbal remedies to cure skin diseases from the same area have also been reported by

Harsha et al. (2003). In other studies, Hebbar et al. (2004) revealed that 35 plants

belonging to 26 families are being used to treat different types of oral ailments like

toothache, plaque and caries, pyorrhea and aphthae in Dharwad district. 18 plant species

belonging to 13 families and 18 genera used as traditional herbal remedies for

gynecological disorders in women of Bidar district of Karnataka have been documented

by Vidyasagar and Prashantkumar (2007).

While highlighting the traditional utilization of medicinal plants of North-Eastern

states, Jamir (1997) reported 14 major tribes of Nagaland for their traditional use of

native plants as medicines. He found that Panax pseudo-ginseng was used as tonic and to

dissolve tumours, Viscum articulata for rheumatism, Clerodendrum colebrookianum for

reducing high blood pressure, Bambusa tulda for abortion, Laggera alata for stomach

ulcer and tumor. Traditional phytotherapy practiced among different ethnic communities

of Mizoram have been documented by Lalramnghinglova and Jha (1997) whereas Kala

(2005b) also investigated the wealth of medicinal plants used by the Apatani tribe of

Arunachal Pradesh and documented the medico-ethnobotany of 158 medicinal plants.

In different areas of Uttar Pradesh, Singh et al. (2002) collected the information

on folk medicinal uses of 125 plants which are used against cough, cold, dysentery,

diarrhoea, ulcers, diabetes, male and female weakness, snake-bite and skin disorders. To

48

cure gastro-intestinal problems in Sonbhadra district, Narain et al. (2007) documented

ethnobotanical remedies of 19 species in traditional practices.

Previous literature on ethnomedical knowledge, particularly from the western

Himalayan region include Shah and Joshi (1971), Uniyal and Chauhan (1973),

Maheshwari et al. (1980), Gupta et al. (1980, 1981), Srivastava et al. (1981), Nautiyal

(1981), Gaur et al. (1983), Maheshwari and Singh (1984), Dar et al. (1984), Brij Lal and

Dube (1984), Purohit et al. (1985), Sundriyal et al. (1987), Singh (1988), Shah and Jain

(1988), Kaul (1994), Upreti and Negi (1996), Samant et al. (1996), Maikhuri et al.

(1998b) and many others.

Mamgain and Rao (1990) presented a list of 41 medicinal plants with their

medicinal uses and mode of application of Pauri Garhwal Himalaya. About 25 plants

used for medicinal purposes within Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve have been reported by

Samant et al. (1994). After these efforts, Kaul (1994) brought to light many plants with

dual properties, i.e. as supplementary food and also as folk remedies. Information on

ethnomedicinal and ethnonutritional properties of 7 native Himalayan herbs, Allium

victoralis, Caralluma tuberculata, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Dipsacus inermis, Phytolacca

acinosa, Polygonum alpinum and Pueraria tuberosa were described in detail.

Gaur and Bhatt (1994) discussed the folk utilization of ferns by the inhabitants of

Deoprayag tehsil in Garhwal Himalaya and reported 41fern species with their traditional

uses. Ethnobotanical information of Jaunsari tribe of Chakrata (Rana, 1997) and

Dehradun (Singh, 1997) has also been discussed in detail. Dobriyal et al. (1997) reported

29 plant species used in folk medicine of which 11 species were used for disorders

related to digestive system, 6 species for skin infections and 3 for joint or muscular pain.

Chantia (2003) also studied ethnomedicines of Jaunsar-Bawar area. Bhatt and Negi

(2006) evaluated 66 plant species belonging to 52 genera and 41 families by the tribal

people of Jaunsar and reported 17 species for their new medicinal uses from the region.

Kala et al. (2004) reported a total 300 plant species used in curing 114 ailments

prevailing in various ethnic and non-ethnic communities of Uttarakhand and reported

Vitex negundo as the most important species used for the treatment of more than 48

ailments.

Samal et al. (2004) covered 19 settlements between 800-2000 m and consulted as

many as 500 respondents to document more than 50 indigenous healthcare practices in

49

central Himalaya. Traditional information among 60 traditional ‘Vaidyas’ in Uttarakhand

regarding the types of ailments treated with plants and the preparation of herbal medical

formulations was compiled by Kala (2005a) and reported 243 herbal medical

formulations prepared by ‘Vaidyas’ for the treatment of 73 different ailments. A total of

138 species (35 species of trees, 22 shrubs and 81 herbs) belonging to 98 genera for the

treatment of liver diseases have been reported by Samant and Pant (2006). Recently

Garbyal et al. (2007) in their ethnomedicinal survey documented various traditional

phytomedicines used by Bhotias of Dharchula sub-division in Kumaun.

Herbal remedies from Jammu and Kashmir have been documented by Koul

(1990), Kumar and Naqshi (1990), Kaul et al. (1989), Khan et al. (2004) and others.

Besides these, Ballabh and Chaurasia (2007) in their significant contribution reported that

health care of tribal population in Leh-Ladakh region is mainly dependent on traditional

system of medicine which is popularly known as Amchi system of medicine. To cure

cold, cough and fever, they identified and documented 56 valuable plant species

belonging to 21 families with all the relevant information among Boto (the Buddhists)

tribal community of Leh-Ladakh.

Considerable information on traditional knowledge has been compiled by various

ethnobotanists in Himachal Pradesh. Kapur (1993) documented a total 136 plant species

of medicinal importance used by Kangiris and local physicians in Kangra valley.

Similarly, Sharma (1999) conducted ethnobotanical studies on ‘Gaddis’, a tribal

community in district Kangra of Himachal Pradesh and reported 67 plants species of

ethnobotanical importance.

Tribal communities of Chhota Bhangal were explored ethnobotanically by Uniyal

et al. (2006b) compiling the importance of medicinal plants in traditional healthcare

practices. They found 35 plant species commonly used by local people for curing various

diseases where medicinal uses of Ranunculus hirtellus and Anemone rupicola reported

from the area were new to the ethnobotany of western Himalaya. Similarly, preparation

of ‘sik’, a traditional recipe served as a nutritious diet to pregnant women in the area was

new and has not been documented elsewhere.

In Kullu district, Singh (1999) highlighted 109 plant species belonging to 41

families and 86 genera from the Chhakinal watershed for their traditional importance, of

which 73 species were used to cure variety of diseases by the local people. In Banjar

50

taluka of Kullu district, Natarajan et al. (2000) recorded ethnobotanical uses of 34 plant

species by the local women. Similarly, Uniyal (2003) also focused on the indigenous

knowledge of women in utilization of a total 25 medicinal plants for curing various

diseases from three villages of Tirthan valley. In Parbati valley, Jain and Puri (1994)

gathered the information on 37 local plant species used for medicinal purpose. However,

Sharma et al. (2004) also reported medicinal importance of 50 plant species belonging to

45 genera and 28 families used by the inhabitants of the same area. Sharma and Brij Lal

(2005) recorded indigenous therapeutic application of 9 plants in Kullu valley. While

studying the ‘Malanis’, a tribal community in Kullu district and other inhabitants of

Parvati valley, Sharma et al. (2005) have also reported first hand information on 35 plant

species used in traditional phytotherapy.

A considerable amount of information on traditional medicines of plant resources

of Lahaul-Spiti reported by earlier workers (Koelz, 1979; Aswal and Mehrotra, 1987;

Kapahi, 1990; Kala and Manjrekar, 1999; Brij Lal et al., 2001, 2004; Sood et al., 2001;

Srivastava and Chandrasekar, 2004; Chandrasekar and Srivastava, 2005; Singh and

Chauhan, 2005; Sharma et al., 2006 and Kanwar et al., 2007) is also available.

Gurmet (2004) described ‘Sowa-Rigpa’, commonly known as Tibetan or Amchi

medicine, among the oldest surviving well-documented medical traditions of the world

which has been popularly practiced throughout central Asian Himalayan region including

Ladakh and entire Lahaul-Spiti in Himachal Pradesh.

Kapahi (1990) collected 50 folk-lore claims from local inhabitants of Lahaul

valley. Kala and Manjrekar (1999) studied the ethno-medicinal uses of 62 plant species

occurring in Spiti sub-division. An account on the traditional use of Hippophae

rhamnoides was compiled by Brij Lal et al. (2001). Chaurasia et al. (2001) reported

traditional use of 39 plant species. Indigenous therapeutic uses of Dactylorhiza hatagirea

to cure general weakness, cough, bone fracture, spermatorrhoea, stomachache and wound

healing has also been reported by Brij Lal et al. (2004).

Srivastava and Chandrasekar (2004) described ethno medicinal applications of 10

plant species used by the tribals of Pin Valley National Park in treating dysentery, however

Chandrasekar and Srivastava (2005) also provided the information on traditional uses of

plants with the dosages and combination with other plants in curing jaundice by the local

community residing in and around Pin Valley National Park. A total 26 plant species in

51

traditional phytotherapy practiced by the inhabitants of Spiti valley have been reported by

Sharma et al. (2006).

In Lahaul valley, Singh and Chauhan (2005) documented traditional practices of

herbal medicines in different villages and reported 43 plant species, belonging to 25

families in traditional use. Recently, Kanwar et al. (2007) described some traditional

fermented foods consumed by people of Lahaul-Spiti area.

Based on ethnobotanical studies, Valsaraj et al. (1997) selected 78 plants used in

the treatment of infectious diseases among the Indian traditional medicines for

antimicrobial screening. For antibacterial activity, Samy et al. (1998) selected 34 plant

species belonging to 18 different families on the basis of folklore medicinal reports

practiced by the tribal people of Western Ghats. Aqueous residues of 16 different

ethnomedicinal plants have also been studied for this purpose by Samy et al. (1999).

Similarly, Samy and Ignacimuthu (2000) screened 30 Indian folklore medicinal

plants for antibacterial properties. Based on the information of various Indian traditional

systems of medicines, Grover et al. (2002) reviewed 45 plants that have been mentioned

for anti-diabetic activity. Chhetr et al. (2005) have also found 37 species of plants used as

antidiabetic agents. Recently, Gautam et al. (2007) highlighted that of 17,500 higher

plant species occurring in India, only about 365 species have been evaluated so far for

antimycobacterial activity and described 255 (70% of 365) plant species from a wide

range of families that have shown antimycobacterial activity. They also screened certain

plants for antimycobacterial activity and highlighted the promising plant species for

further investigation as leads for drug development.

3.6 Conservation implications

Several biodiversity conservation programmes have been started in the country

based on the findings and recommendations of various workers. Zobel and Singh (1997)

discussed various approaches to solve the problem of insufficient data regarding the

status of forest vegetation and suggested the collection of basic ecological data

throughout the Himalayan region for the effective conservation of bioresource.

In a different study on the conservation of valuable plants in south India,

Srinivasamurthy et al. (2003) described the important Medicinal Plants Conservation

Areas (MPCA) for in-situ conservation involving local people in conservation efforts.

52

They reported under this programme about 45% of flowering and medicinal plants

diversity in gene banks in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and

Maharashtra. They further suggested that germplasm conserved in the MPCA network

can be used to provide authenticated quality planting material for commercial cultivation

to meet rising demands of the herbal industry and to reduce the pressure of over-

exploitation on natural populations of these plants.

Kala (2000) recorded the lack of any kind of studies on the ecological and

population characteristics of plant species in many regions of Indian Himalaya including

Lahaul-Spiti, and, therefore, Uniyal et al. (2002) stressed that these studies are required

for designing conservation plans and to develop appropriate strategies for long term

monitoring of plant species. Highlighting the status of medicinal plants, Dhyani and Kala

(2005) observed that majority of current research programmes on medicinal plant

conservation have been focused on species level instead of ecosystem one. Although,

there are many protected areas (PAs) across the Himalayan region but not a single PA is

basically known for conservation of medicinal plants.

Shrestha and Dhillion (2003) suggested sustainable harvesting methods and

domestication of potential commercial species which require attention in the local forest

operational plans due to haphazard harvesting and over-exploitation. Singh (2004)

suggested the appropriate changes required in the marketing pattern, extraction procedure

of medicinal plants, improvement in traditional knowledge, empowerment of local

communities and innovative government policies and programmes. He stressed that in

management plans, government-owned forestland and other uncultivated lands should be

used to grow medicinal plants as constituents of natural vegetation.

Dhar et al. (2000) believed that excessive anthropogenic activities if controlled

can check the declining population and availability of medicinal plants in the Himalayan

region. They suggested an urgent need for identification and notification of areas for

conservation of medicinal plants on a priority basis. An approach for prioritizing

strategies for action was proposed by Dhar (2002) which is based on three important

attributes viz. geographical range, ecological amplitude and anthropogenic pressure.

Besides, the approach highlights the importance of involving indigenous communities,

traditional institutions, and NGOs to complement efforts of academics, scientists, and

government departments to ensure conservation and utilization of plant bioresource.

53

Joshi and Rawat (1997) suggested ex-situ and in-situ cultivation of valuable and

threatened species of alpine and sub-alpine areas of Northwest Himalaya by establishing

high altitude nurseries in their natural habitat, so that regular supply to pharmaceutical

industries and users could be maintained and germplasm will also be conserved. In Nanda

Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR), cultivation of medicinal plants has become a major

activity with conservation-oriented land use changes. Maikhuri et al. (1998a) described

the agronomic practices and uses of eight medicinal and aromatic plants cultivated in the

NDBR buffer zone villages of Garhwal Himalaya. These conservation efforts have not

only the potential for economic betterment of people but also help bioresource

conservation of biosphere reserve.

Srivastava et al. (2000) identified certain areas within the Northwestern

Himalayan range extending from Jammu and Kashmir to western borders of Nepal,

which can be declared reserves to protect the germplasm and declining population of

medicinal plants particularly threatened species. Besides notification of the areas for

protection, Pascal et al. (1996) is of the opinion that preparation of database of rare and

threatened taxa is of immense importance based on intensive surveys.

For the conservation of rare and endangered medicinal plants of Spiti cold desert

of Himachal Pradesh, Kala (2000) proposed protection of habitats of commercially viable

taxa. He suggested that areas rich in these species should be given special care and

priority in management plans. He proposed the establishment of Medicinal Plant

Conservation Areas (MPCA) for the conservation and production of selected economic

and indigenous species that may be grown commercially for the benefit of local

communities.

With reference to the conservation programmes of Arnebia benthamii, a high

value Himalayan medicinal plant, Manjkhola and Dhar (2002) suggested establishment of

herbal gardens in the vicinity of its natural population, which will not only reduce

pressure on the natural population, but will also generate a new source of rural economy.

Based on the status and extraction patterns of Jurinea dolomiaea in alpine meadows of

Kumaun Himalaya, Awasthi et al. (2003) suggested its large scale cultivation in suitable

habitats. Cultivation of valuable herbs is one of the important alternate to reduce the

pressure on their wild populations. Therefore, these efforts have already been started for

species such as Carum carvi and Allium stracheyi in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve

54

(Maikhuri et al., 1998a). Bisht et al. (2006) supported the need for conservation

initiatives for Himalayan medicinal plants in general and Angelica glauca in particular.

They suggested that utilization pattern, traditional knowledge base and trade of medicinal

plants show trends that are not ideal for sustainability in the Indian Himalaya and

suggested ways to overcome the problem.

To conserve the rare and precious medicinal plants of cold arid zones of Himachal

Pradesh, Singh and Chaurasia (2000) suggested establishment of nature reserves and

botanical gardens along with the development of package of practices to popularize their

commercial cultivation. Community based ex-situ cultivation of such plants was

emphasized to reduce in-situ harvesting pressure by Badola and Pal (2002). Guan et al.

(2000) highlighted that adverse impact of tourism and environmental pollution on plant

species diversity can’t be ignored which is needed to be checked to control habitat

degradation of natural populations of various plant species. Similarly, Samant et al.

(2007) reported developmental activities, particularly the construction of hydroelectric

projects which are also causing a great loss of biodiversity in the Indian Himalayan

region.

Taking into account rapid degradation and loss of natural habitats, Shankar and

Ved (2003) suggested in situ conservation of wild population by establishing taluka-level

herbal gardens. Chandola (2005) reported that wild populations of Gentiana kurroo has

been rediscovered after a lapse of 50 years and suggested serious Species Recovery

Programmes to be initiated for the highly threatened plants to relocate their distribution and

habitat specificity.

While highlighting the importance of collaborative efforts, Biswas (1988)

suggested the establishment of conservation plots in representative forest types, landslide

control measures, the setting up of high-altitude botanic gardens, tissue culture studies,

inclusion of species in the Red Data Book, and education of the public for the

conservation of flora. People's participation is needed to be strengthened for productive

outcomes in conservation programmes (Negi, 2000) and therefore incentives are also

required to promote meaningful participation in biodiversity conservation (Badola and

Hussain, 2003).

Besides conserving the plant bioresource, the traditional knowledge regarding the

use of plant species as medicine is also vanishing rapidly due to several reasons.

55

Traditional health-care system, which used to be the lifeline of the people of remote,

high-altitude areas, is on the verge of extinction. The wealth of information, which is

preserved as an unwritten materia medica of the tribal folk is slowly fading, and oral

tradition of passing on knowledge from generation to generation is also decreasing.

Therefore, several studies suggest rapid documentation of this valuable information

before it is lost forever. Ethnic groups inhabiting north-west and trans-Himalayan region

have been living in isolation for thousands of years and their knowledge of indigenous

uses of native plants needs to be studied before it gets extinct (Kaul et al., 1990).

Therefore, Dhar et al. (2002) suggested collaborative work plan involving all the

functional groups to preserve the traditional knowledge system and practices, for the

conservation of plants and upliftment of the rural economy of hilly region.