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8/18/2019 Chapter 3_Minerals in the Crust
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Chapter 3
Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics
BASIC GEOLOGY
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Chapter Overview
Rocks and Minerals ofthe Earth’s Crust
Major Relief Features of
the Earth’s Surface
late !ectonics
Continents of the ast
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Rocks and Minerals of the Earth’s Crust
!he Earth’s Interior
"Core# s$herical central %ass of the
Earth co%$osed lar&el' of iron( consists
of an outer li)uid *one and an inner
solid *one
"Mantle# rock la'er of the Earth +eneath
the crust and surroundin& the core,
co%$osed of ultra%afic i&neous rock of
silicate %inerals"Crust # outer%ost solid la'er of the
Earth, co%$osed lar&el' of silicate
%inerals
" Oceanic crust# %afic rocks
" Continental crust# lo-er *one %afic
rock, u$$er *one felsic" Continental crust thicker than
oceanic
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Rocks and Minerals of the Earth’s Crust
!he Earth’s Interior " Most a+undant ele%ents in crust#
" O.'&en, silicon, alu%inu%, iron, calciu%, sodiu%, $otassiu%,
%a&nesiu%
" Minerals# naturall' occurrin& inor&anic cr'stalline che%ical
co%$ounds
" Rocks#" /suall' co%$osed of 0 or %ore %inerals
" Rock classes# i&neous, sedi%entar', %eta%or$hic
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Rocks and Minerals of the Earth’s Crust
I&neous Rocks
Igneous rock # rock for%ed fro% the
coolin& of %a&%a
" Intrusive Igneous rock # rock for%ed
fro% %a&%a that solidifies +elo- the
Earth’s surface
"1isi+le %ineral cr'stals
" Extrusive igneous rock # rock for%ed
fro% %a&%a that cooled ra$idl' at the
surface or under the ocean
"Mineral cr'stals %icrosco$ic
Magma# %o+ile, hi&h2te%$erature
%olten state of rock
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Rocks and Minerals of the Earth’s Crust
I&neous Rocks
Most co%$osed of
silicate %inerals#contain silicon and
o.'&en" Felsic rock#
"Felsic %inerals
"Li&ht2colored
"Less dense
" Mafic rock#"Mafic %inerals
"3ark2colored
"More dense
" /ltra%afic rock#"4ea5' %afic %inerals
"1er' dense
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Rocks and Minerals of the Earth’s Crust
Sedi%ents and Sedi%entar' RocksSedimentary Rock # rock for%ed fro% the accu%ulation of sedi%ent
"Clastic 6for%ed fro% rock and %ineral fra&%ents"Chemically precipitated # for%ed +' che%ical $reci$itation fro%
sea-ater or salt' inland lakes
"Organic # for%ed fro% or&anic %aterial
Insert fi&ure 789
here
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Rocks and Minerals of the Earth’s Crust
Sedi%ents and Sedi%entar' Rocks
Sandstone,
de$osited in
la'ers
Con&lo%erate
Shale
Chalk, a for% of li%estone
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Rocks and Minerals of the Earth’s Crust
Sedi%ents and Sedi%entar' RocksCoal, a fossil fuel, is an or&anic sedi%entar' rock
Fossil Fuels# naturall'
occurrin& h'drocar+on
co%$ounds $roduced
fro% re%ains of or&anic
%atter enclosed in
rock( e.a%$les are
coal, $etroleu% :crude
oil;, and natural &as
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Rocks and Minerals of the Earth’s Crust
Meta%or$hic Rocks
Metamorphic Rock # rock altered in $h'sical or che%ical co%$osition +' heat,
$ressure, or other $rocesses takin& $lace at a su+stantial de$th +elo- thesurface
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Rocks and Minerals of the Earth’s Crust
!he C'cle of Rock Chan&e
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Major Relief Features of the Earth’s Surface
!he Geolo&ic !i%escale
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Major Relief Features of the Earth’s Surface
!he Lithos$here and Asthenos$here
Lithosphere# ri&id outer shell of Earth, includes crust and u$$er %antle
Asthenosphere# $lastic la'er +elo- the lithos$here
Lithospheric late# se&%ent of lithos$here %o5in& as a unit, in
contact -ith adjacent lithos$heric $lates alon& $late +oundaries
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Major Relief Features of the Earth’s Surface
Relief Features of the Continents
Acti5e %ountain2%akin& re&ions#" Mountains result fro% 5olcanis% or tectonic acti5it'8" Acti5e %ountain2%akin& +elts for% alpine chains# narro- *ones alon& the %ar&ins
of lithos$heric $lates
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Major Relief Features of the Earth’s Surface
Relief Features of the ContinentsContinental crust includes#
" Acti5e %ountain2%akin& +elts
" Re&ions of sta+le, older rock"Continental shields# 5er' old, lo-2l'in& i&neous and %eta%or$hic rocks
"Mountain roots# re%ains of older %ountain +elts, lon&, narro- rid&es
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Major Relief Features of the Earth’s Surface
Relief Features of the Ocean Basins" Oceanic crust >9? %illion 'ears old( continental crust @ +illion 'ears old
" Ocean +asins ha5e#
"Midoceanic rid&e
" A.ial rift
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Major Relief Features of the Earth’s Surface
Relief Features of the Ocean Basins
assi5e continental %ar&ins#
no stron& tectonic acti5it'-ithin =? %illion 'ears
Acti5e continental %ar&ins#
dee$ offshore trenches,5olcanic acti5it'
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Plate Tectonics
Motion of lithos$heric $lates dri5es for%ation of Earth’s
%ountains and other surface features8" E.tensional tectonic acti5it'
"S$readin& +oundar'
"lates $ulled a$art
"Faults created
" Co%$ressional tectonic acti5it'"Con5er&in& +oundar'
"lates $ushed toðer "Creates folds and o5erthrust faults
" lates %o5e $ast each other "!ransfor% +oundar'
"!ransfor% faults
Pl t T t i
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Visualizing Physical Geography
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Plate Tectonics
late !ectonics# theor' of
tectonic acti5it' dealin& -ith
lithos$heric $lates and their
acti5it'
Su"duction# descent of the ed&e
of a lithos$heric $late under an
adjoinin& $late and into the
asthenos$here
late Boundaries" S$readin& +oundar'
" Con5er&in& +oundar'
" !ransfor% +oundar'
Pl t T t i
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Plate Tectonics
Su"duction# descent of the ed&e of a lithos$heric $lateunder an adjoinin& $late and into the asthenos$here
Su+duction !ectonics
lates under&oin& su+duction are associated
-ith acti5e continental %ar&ins" Sedi%ents accu%ulate in dee$ trench
"3ee$ ocean sedi%ents
"!errestrial sedi%ents
" 3efor%ed, scra$ed off su+ductin& $late
" ed&e for%s at the $late +oundar'
" Sedi%ents transfor%ed into %eta%or$hic
rock
Pl t T t i
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Plate Tectonics
Oro&ens and Collisions
Continental suture# Lon&, narro- *one of crustal defor%ation $roduced +' a
continental collision( e.a%$les# 4i%ala'an Ran&e, Euro$ean Al$s8
Continental lithos$heric $lates con5er&e#" Both +uo'antneither su+ducts
" Orogeny # %ajor e$isode of tectonic acti5it' resultin& in strata +ein& defor%ed +' foldin&
and faultin&
" #appe# o5erturned recu%+ent fold of strata, usuall' associated -ith thrust sheets in a
collision oro&en
Pl t T t i
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Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Plate Tectonics
!he Lithos$heric lates and !heir Motions
!he Glo+al S'ste% of Lithos$heric lates
Pl t T t i
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Plate Tectonics
Continental Ru$ture and e- Ocean Basins
assi5e continental %ar&ins are created +'
continental ru$ture and s$readin&
" Crust u$lifted and stretched
" Ma&%a rises to for% ne- rock
" Rift 5alle' for%s
" Rift -idens and narro- ocean is for%ed
" Ocean +asin -idens
Pl t T t i
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Visualizing Physical Geography
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Plate Tectonics
!he o-er Source for late Mo5e%entsRadiogenic heat # heat &enerated +' the deca' of radioacti5e isoto$es
" 4eat &enerated +' deca' of isoto$es of uraniu%, thoriu%, $otassiu%
" Inde$endent of surface conditions
" 4eat kee$s rock +elo- crust close to %eltin& $oint
" Radio&enic heat $o-er source for $late %otions
"E.act %echanis% unkno-n
"ossi+l' con5ection currents in %antle"ossi+l' &ra5it'
C ti t f th P t
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Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc
Continents of the Past
Alfred e&ener $ro$osed first full2
scale scientific theor' of the+reaku$ of one su$ercontinent
into %ulti$le driftin& continents" angaea# su$ercontinent
" Intact a+out D?? %illion 'ears a&o
" Outlines of continents fit across ocean
" !ectonic structures %atch across
continents
Continents of the Past
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Continents of the Past
Mo5e%ents of
the continents
fro% 9??
%illion 'ears
a&o to D??
%illion 'ears
a&o
Mo5e%ents of
the continents
fro% 0?? %illion
'ears a&o to
$resent
$ilson Cycle# the continents ha5e united
and +roken u$ re$eatedl' throu&h Earth’s
histor'
Continents of the Past
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Continents of the Past
Satellite data sho- ratesof $late %o5e%ent fro%
a+out = to ? c% :02<
inches; $er 'ear