Chapter 4.1: Lüpke, T.: Fundamental Principles of Mechanical Behaviour. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich

Chapter 4.1: Lüpke, T.: Fundamental Principles of Mechanical Behaviour. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich (2013) 2. Edition

Fig.: 4.1

L

F

F

L 0

L

F

F

A0

a bL 0

z

x

y

zz

yz

xz

A

C

D

B


Fig.: 4.2

y

zz

xzyz

yy

zy

xy

xx

zx

yx

x

z


Fig.: 4.3


Fig.: 4.4

Maxwell Voigt-Kelvin

E1

1

E2

2

E 3

3

E∞

1 2 3

E i

i

i


Fig.: 4.5

0

0

(t)

1

time tt t

(t)

(t)

2

(t)1

(t)2

(t) = (t) + (t)

1 2

21

stra

in

stre

ss


Fig.: 4.6

Tlo

g E

effective range

master curve

log (t) log tlog (t )0

0

T3

T1

T2

log aT


Fig.: 4.7

S

1

2

b)strain

F

a)

a b

strain

stre

ss

stre

ss


Fig.: 4.8

1 – nominal (engineering) stress – strain curve

2 – true stress – strain curve

time ttime t

stre

ss

stra

in

0 = const.

time t

stre

ss

(t)

(t)

stra

in

0 = const.

time t

Chapter 4.2: Lüpke, T.: Mechanical Spectroscopy. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich (2013) 2. Edition

Fig.: 4.9

0

(t)

stra

in

time t

stre

ss

1/f

(t)

0

Fig.: 4.10


E’’ E*

E’

i

j

Fig.: 4.11


a b

2

1

3

2

1

3

4

Fig.: 4.12

1 – prismatic specimen2 – clamping device3 – oscillating weight4 – counterweight


time t

1/f

l0

0

An

An

+1

defle

ctio

n l

Fig.: 4.13


frequency f

f i

0

1

0.707

f i

ampl

itude

A/A

max

Fig.: 4.14


fromgenerator

toamplifier

specimen

clamp

method A method B

specimen

to ampl

ifier

from

gen

erat

or

textilefilaments

Fig.: 4.15


glas

str

ansi

tion

1010

108

106

104

102

log t

glassy state

E‘‘

(Pa

)

10-1

100

101

rubb

er-e

last

icpl

atea

u

flow

re

gion

tan

E‘ (

Pa)

Fig.: 4.16


1010

108

106

104

E‘‘

(Pa

)

-1

0

1

tan

E‘ (

Pa)

T (°C)

10

10

10

10-2

-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150

T Tg

Fig.: 4.17


10

8

7

E‘ (

Pa)

1/T (1000/K)

10 10 10 10 10 10 10-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

10

10

10

10

10

f (Hz)

effectiverange

0.1 ... 50 Hz

T = 0 °C

T = 50 °C

master curveT = 25 °C0

ln (

a ) T

9

6

3.1

-5

5

15Arrhenius-plot

H = 430 kJ mol

3.3 3.5 3.7-15

Fig.: 4.18


-1

log

E‘

T

increasingmolecular weight

increasingcrystallinity

increasing crosslinkdensity

Fig.: 4.19


10

E‘ (

Pa)

10

0

1

2

3

T (°C)

PBPSSBRSBS

-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250

tan

910

810

710

610

510

Fig.: 4.20


Fig.: 4.21

t

0

a

t

0

b

0

c

0

Chapter 4.3: Bierögel, C.: Quasi-Static Test Methods. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich (2013) 2. Edition

without influence of timepure retardation pure relaxation

with influence of time

b a c

d

Fig.: 4.22


t (s)

PS

E

(M

Pa)

102

103

10101010101010 10103210-1-2-3 4-4

PVC

PS-HI

PE-HD

PE-LD

102

103

T (°C)40200-20-40 60

PS

PVCPS-HI

PE-HD

PE-LD

t

a b

E

(M

Pa)

t

104104

Fig.: 4.23


A0

(t)

t = 0 t

x

F

cross-head

x

z

y

cross-section

h

b

L

L1

L (t)

L

L

L0

1

0L

traverse path

L0

2

vT

F

L0

0L

L2 L

3 L4

L(t)= L + L + L + L1 2 3 4

L (x)

Fig.: 4.24


F

(s )-1

normative strain rate of dumb-bell specimen

normative = nominal strainrate of prismatic specimen

average nominal strain rate ofdumbbell specimen

L

L L0

Fig.: 4.25


1A 1B 1BA 5A 2 5 4

1BB 5B

b

r

d

b1

l l 2 l 1 L03 L

2

Fig.: 4.26


a b0 b2

(M

Pa)

F2

F1

Fv

L

0

b1

q

q2b

2

12

1

0

F (

N)

F

= f()

L – L0102

Lv 01 L02L (mm)0

12

(%)

= f()

12

(%)

L01 L02L (mm)0

L – L0102

b =

b -

b

b (m

m)q1

(

%)

q

Fig.: 4.27


(%)

=

(M

Pa)

=

a

b

c

d

B

y

B

Bx

t

tB

tB tM

= B M

y

M= B M

= y M

= B M

(%)

e

= y M

x = B M

tB

Fig.: 4.28


(M

Pa)

= y M

B

or (%)

= y M

t t

By

M

y

t

Fig.: 4.29


(%)

(MP

a)

b125

100

75

50

25

00 50 100 150 200

(M

Pa)

increasing

a125

100

75

50

25

00 50 100 150 200

(%)

T decreasing

Fig.: 4.30


71 2 3 4 5 6

elongationwithoutnecking

elongation with necking

(

MP

a)

(%)

linear-viscoelastic regionlinear-elastic region

non-linear viscoelastic regionnecking regionsteady-state plastic yieldingstrain-hardening regionultimative failure ─ fracture

1234567

= f ()

defe

ct d

ensi

ty Q

D

(%

/min

) = f ()

Q = f ()

t

D

(%)

a

b

Fig.: 4.31


b1

b m

b2

lel2

1

lred

L

r

lm

l

Fig.: 4.32


(%)

(M

Pa)

b100

80

60

40

20

0 0 3 6 9 10 12

(%

/min

)

a1.5

1.2

0.9

0.6

0.3

0 0 2 4 6 8 10

(%)

(%

/min

)

1.5

1.2

0.9

0.6

0.3

0

t

= f ()

= f () = f ()

= f ()

Fig.: 4.33


2525

25

120

50

15°75°

notch

clamp mark

notch

100

90°

R19

R25

.4

2728.4

R12.7

b

a

Fig.: 4.34


a b

v

F

F

F (

N)

Fmax

l (mm)

T

Fig.: 4.35


0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0 10 20 30 40

parallelperpendicularto the processing direction

x

z

y

A0

(t)cross-section

d

b

L

L0

1

L0

2

F

upper pressure plate

traverse path

F

A = b d0

Flower pressure plate

L0

L= L − L 02 01

Fig.: 4.36


x

y

prism cylinder tube

I = yb d3

12

A = b d0

I = y d4

64

A = 0 d

2

4

l = d3.46

l = 4

l l l

d d ib d

z

da

d

I = y 64

(d − d )a4 4

A = 04

l = 4

i

(d − d )a2 2

i

(d − d )a4 4

i

(d − d )a2 2

i

Fig.: 4.37


10

10

50

50

10

80

4

10 4

b

a

c

Fig.: 4.38


c (%)

(M

Pa)

M=B

x

y

M = B y

a

b

c

d

x

M=B

M = B

cM = cBcy

(%)

M

B

M

cM

B

cB

Fig.: 4.39


(M

Pa)

y

M = B

M

PStensile test

shear bands

crazes

(%)y

Fig.: 4.40

PScompression test


specimen

traverse

bending jaw

ll l

F

a ab

Q = 0

M

Q

b

support

specimenFvariable radii

positioning slide

traverse

v

anvil

L

T

Mb

Q

L/3

Mmax

Mmax

vT

b a

M = F L4maxM =

F l2max

a

F2Q =

F2

Q = +

transverse force QF2Q =

bending moment Mb

F2

Q = +

Fig.: 4.41


x

zy

-

+

x

y

z

h

-

+

x

y

zh

max

maxmax

max

h

b

zy

F EI

L/2

y

max

b

a

c

f

Fig.: 4.42


deflection sensoranvil

F

traverse

vT

a

F

traverse

vT

fork sensor

anvil

b

support

support

ff

Fig.: 4.43


a

b10

80

4

B

DA C

hb

hb

h

h

b

b

width direction of the product

length direction of the product

(processing direction)

Fig.: 4.44


a

b

c

f (mm)

(

MP

a)

x

fM=fB

fM

f (%)x fB

fB

fC

f

fM fB

fB fM fB fC

Fig.: 4.45


(

MP

a)

f (%)

f

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.00

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

0 wt.-%

10 wt.-%

20 wt.-%

30 wt.-%

50 wt.-%

PP/GF

40 wt.-%

Fig.: 4.46


CHARPY arrangement IZOD arrangement

anvil

support span

support

F

impact direction

F impact direction anvil

specimen

specimensupport

Fig.: 4.47

Chapter 4.4: Impact Loading. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich (2013) 2. Edition

(mm)

A

DB

C

PVC Nylon

POM

ABS

PMMA

40

30

20

10

010 100

1.6

1.2

0.8

0.4

0.010 10 10

-2 -1

a

b

1

(mm)

0

a

(kJ

m

)cN

-2

a

(kJ

m

)iN

-2

Fig.: 4.48


F (

N)

500

400

300

200

100

0

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

acN

acN

f (mm)

a acN cN

Fig.: 4.49

11 2

2


Fig.: 4.50


0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8120

160

200

240

280

320

compatibilizer content (wt.-%)

E (

kJ m

)

MAHphenol

-2

Fig.: 4.51


guiding device for the drop weight

arrest and trigger device

drop weight

striker

support

frame

base plate

specimenclamp

D2D3D4

R

HH

Fig.: 4.52


a b

c

Fig.: 4.53


t (ms)

3.6

3.8

4.0

4.2

F (

N)

H

test speed

energy

loaddeformation

100

80

60

40

20

0

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4.4

E (

J)

s (m

m)

v

(ms

)

-1

Fig.: 4.54


pipe specimen

support

straingauge

drop weight

F

= 0° = 45° = 90°

test arrangement

0 10 20 30

0

200

400

600

800

F (

N)

t (ms)

weld joints

= 0°

= 0°

a

b

Fig.: 4.55


t

1 stress cycle

m

a a

u

Fig.: 4.56

Chapter 4.5: Höninger, H.: Fatigue Behavior. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich (2013) 2. Edition

>

ma

+ te

nsio

n range for pulsating range for pulsatingcompressive stresses tensile stresses

1 2 3 4 5 6 7co

mpr

essi

on

=

ma

<

ma

<

ma

=

ma

>

ma

=

0m

range for pulsating stresses

Fig.: 4.57


f

measurementmotion link

rotating axis

specimendirectingspring

drive motion link

zero position

eccentric hub

eccentric drive

supporting bracketof rotating axis

load cell

Fig.: 4.58


failure by fracture

S–N curve

temperature

damage line

10 10 10 104 5 6 7

N

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

010 10 10 104 5 6

7N

80

60

40

20

0

T (

°C)

f = 11.2 Hz

T

ba

T (

°C)

Fig.: 4.59


(M

Pa)

a1

(M

Pa)

a1

a1

aspecimen

load cell

strain-controlledtest device

clamp b

controller

Fig.: 4.60


Fig.: 4.61


Fig.: 4.62


10 10 10 10 10 10 100 1 2 3 4 5 6

1000900800700

600

500

400

300

200

average curve

Pc = 90 % - curve

N

s = -1

(

MP

a)a

(

MP

a)pu

l

PA/GFP

c10

Pc90

Pc90

Pc10

CFK

260

210

160

110

60

1010 10 10 10 10 102 3 4 5 6

7

N

s = 0.1

Fig.: 4.63


log

alternatingfatigue strength

fatigue strength

N K K log ND

I

II

D

x

Fig.: 4.64


arctan k

N K log ND

arctan k

D

T

P = 90 %c

50 %10 %

TN

i

a

log

b

D

iN K log ND i

alo

gi

log

Fig.: 4.65


a

a

a

1

2

3

material:

fiber reinforcing: CF, GF, AFmatrix material: thermoplastic resin, thermosetreinforcement : UD, fabric, matfiber orientation, positioningfiber content, filler contentmaterial treatment: post-curing, conditioning

loading:

tensile, compression, bending, load ratioloading type: sine, rectangle, triangletest frequencyenvironment: temperature, humidity, medium

S–N curvefollowing fractureor failure criteria

thermal failure

fatigue stress failure

stress cycle number N

Fig.: 4.66


load

leve

l

(MP

a)a

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

3010 10 10 103 4 5

6

perpendicular toflow direction

flow direction

N

Fig.: 4.67


(MP

a)a

60

40

20

010 10 10 10 103 4 5 6

7

N

compression cyclic loading

tensile cyclic loading

tension – compression loading

Fig.: 4.68


0 = const.

t = const.

= const.

= f ( ,t)0

log t

0

Fig.: 4.69

Chapter 4.6: Höninger, H.: Long-Term Static Behavior. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich (2013) 2. Edition

specimen

clamping device

base frame

loading device

optical deformationmeasurement sensor

mass

Fig.: 4.70


t t t t1 2 3 4t t t t1 2 3 4

log t

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

(%

)

1

2

3

4

log t

t1

t1 < t 2< t 3< t4

(%)

12

3

4

log t

a b

dc

(M

Pa)

(M

Pa)

E

(MP

a)c

1 < 2 < 3 < 4

1 < 2 < 3 < 4

t2

t3

t4

1 < 2 < 3 < 4

2 3 4

Fig.: 4.71


1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

010 10 10 10 10 10-1 0 1 2 3

4

0 (MPa)

2 4 5

6 8 10

t (h) 2

101

86

4

2

100

2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 0 1

100

10110

2

103

104

10-1b

5

4

3

2

1

0

10 MPa

8 MPa

6 MPa

2 MPa

4 MPa

5 MPa

10

8

6

4

2

0

3.0 %

2.5 %2.0 %

1.5 %

1.0 %

0.5 %

(%

)

t (h)

(%)

a

dc

(MP

a)E

c (

MP

a)

(MP

a)

t (h)

t (h)

10 10 10 10 10 10-1 0 1 2 3 4

10 10 10 10 10 10-1 0 1 2 3 4

Fig.: 4.72


10 10 10 10 10 10-1 0 1 2 3 4

b14

12

8

6

4

0

t (h)

a

t (h)

10 10 10 10 10 10-1 0 1 2 3 4

(%

)

0(MPa)water 20 °C

23 20 18

15

12

963

tensile creep strength

wash lye 20 °C

12963

1518

19

2021

(%)

10

2

14

12

8

6

4

0

10

2

0(MPa)

Fig.: 4.73


(M

Pa)

10 10 10 10 10 10

1 2 3 4 5 6

t (h)B

< < 1 2 3

3

2

1

Fig.: 4.74


clamping jig

frame

elongationmeasurement device

specimen

load cell

Fig.: 4.75


10 10 10 10 10-1 0 1 2 3

1000

= 1 %

600

400

200

100

t (h)

= 2 %

= 3 %

E

(M

Pa)

r

Fig.: 4.76


ba

d4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.010 10 10 10 10 10-1

t (h)

10 MPa20 MPa

30 MPa40 MPa

50 MPa

60 MPa

0 1 2 3 4

t (h)

101

8060

40

20

102

10 2 4 6 8 10r (%)

100

101 102

103

104

10-1

2 4

86

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0

60 MPa50 MPa

40 MPa

10 MPa

20 MPa

30 MPa

10 10 10 10 10 10

-1

t (h)

0 1 2 3 4

60

48

36

24

12

0

1.50 %

0.25 %

1.00 %

1.25 %

0.75 %

0.50 %

c

10 10 10 10 10 10

-1

t (h)

0 1 2 3 4

(%

)

(MP

a)E

(G

Pa)

c0

(MP

a)0

-1 0

Fig.: 4.77


ba

d1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

010 10 10 10 10 10-1

t (h)

0 1 2 3 4

20

108

4

2

1

6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 r (%)

2

10

12.5

10.0

7.5

5.0

2.5

010 10 10 10 10 10

-1

t (h)

0 1 2 3 4

12.5

10.0

7.5

5.0

2.5

0

c

10 10 10 10 10 10

-1

t (h)

0 1 2 3 4

(%

)

(MP

a)E

(G

Pa)

c0

(MP

a)0

0 1

10 MPa8 MPa

6 MPa5 MPa

4 MPa2 MPa

t (h)

100

10 110 2

10 310 -1

5.0 %4.0 %

3.0 %

2.0 %

1.0 %

0.5 %

0 (MPa)

2 4 5

6 8 10

6

Fig.: 4.78


Fig.: 4.79

materialbehaviourrelated todeformationand time

indentationsafterunloading

mostlyplastic

viscoelastic-plastic

rubber-elastic

timet t1

defo

rmat

ion

2 t t1 2 t t

1 2

Chapter 4.7: Hardness Test Methods. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich (2013) 2. Edition

orientation

Vickers

Knoop

Fig.: 4.80


123

4

specimen

support

steel ball

dial gauge

load step

frameF

h h(t)0

F0 F0 + F

D

Fig.: 4.81


Shore A

a

lh

F F

Shore D

a

lh

Fig.: 4.82


Sho

re A

120

80

40

0 100 200 300 400

HB (Nmm )-2

100

80

60

40

200 10 20 30 40 50

Shore D

ba

HR

Fig.: 4.83


100

10-1

10-2

10-3

10-4

10-5

10-6

100

101

102

103

104

HM (MPa)

h (m

m)

10 N-6

0.02 N

30 kN

polymersnon-ferrousmetals steels

hard metalsceramicsrubber

2 N > F and h > 200 nm

h < 200 nm

2 N

2 N < F < 30 kN

macrohardness

microhardness

nanohardness

load

F

Fig.: 4.84


indenter

specimen

load cell adapter

distancemeasurement

traverse adapter

specimen

frame

load cell

indentersocket

support

Fig.: 4.85


Fig.: 4.86


hr

hmaxhp

S

h

F

Fmax

Wplast

a

b

hc

Welast

Fig.: 4.87


0 100 200 3000

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

h (nm)

F (

mN

)

100 µm

Fig.: 4.88


H

(M

Pa)

0 50 100 150100 1500

2000

2500

3000

T (°C)a

5 10 15 20 25

initial state

140 °C

150 °C

I (nm)theo

E

H IT

120

140

160

180

200

IT

b

a

E

(M

Pa)

IT

IT

Fig.: 4.89


(MPa)y

HV

(M

Pa

)

PVC + 35 % DOPPE-LD

PTFEPE-HD

PPCA

ABS

ABS

PVCPC

PPOPOM

PSPOM-Co

SANPMMA

250

200

150

100

50

00 20 40 60 80 100

HV 2.33 y

PV

C+

25 %

DO

P

PA

6;

9 %

H

O2

PA

6;

3 %

H

O2

PA6; 0.4 % H O2

Fig.: 4.90


(MPa)y

H

(M

Pa)

60

40

20

00 20 40 60 80 100

60

40

20

00 10 20 30

150

100

50

00 20 40 60

(%)

H = 3.05 y

H = 1.75 y

tensile

compression

0 mol.-% ethylene4 mol.-% ethylene6 mol.-% ethylene8 mol.-% ethylene

(

MP

a)

(

MP

a)

IT(%)

a b

c

0 mol.-% ethylene4 mol.-% ethylene6 mol.-% ethylene8 mol.-% ethylene

Fig.: 4.91


a0.050

0.045

0.0400 2 4 6 8

ethylene content (mol.-%) H / EIT

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.00.044 0.046 0.048 0.050

b

IT

H

/ E

ITIT

J

(N

mm

)

IdST

-1

incr

ease

of

plas

ticity

Fig.: 4.92


(MPa)y

HV

(M

Pa

)

00 20 40 60 80

PE-HD

PP PVC

PMMA

200

150

100

50

PS

Fig.: 4.93


Chapter 4.8: Friedrich, K.: Friction and Wear. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich (2013) 2. Edition

Fig.: 4.94

FN

specimen

counter part

continuous

rotation

test principle: block-on-ring test principle: pin-on-disc

F

specimen

counter partcontinuous

rotation

wear track

wear track

a b

N

v

v

FN

specimen

test principle: cyclic wear

counter part oscillation

wear track

dot contact

line contact

area contact


Fig.: 4.95

Wl : linear wear value wear area AV

WV = Wl ·AV

volumetric wear value

WV = Wq ·l

l

Wq: planimetric wear value


Fig.: 4.96

volumetric wear value

static load limit

p-v line at defined

stationary wear rate

p-v limit

thermal limit

log v

linear wear

rate p v

log

p


Fig.: 4.97

0 0.5 1.0 1.50

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

µ

R (µm)

1E-7

1E-6

1E-

1E-4

1E-310-3

10-4

10-5

10-6

10-7

friction coefficient

specific wear rate

p = 1.4 MPa

v = 1 m/s

R (µm)a

0.1

W

(mm

/N

m)

s3


Fig.: 4.98

high-

performance

polymer

internal

lubricants

(PTFE,

graphite, ...)

reinforcements

(glass-fibers,

carbon-fibers)


Fig.: 4.99

0 1000

0.8

R (µm)

10-3

PTFE (vol.-%)

W

(mm

/N

m)

s3


specific wear rate

p = 1 MPa

v = 1 m/s

optimal region

10-4

10-5

10-6

µ0.6

0.4

0.2

20 40 60 80


Fig.: 4.100

0 25

R (µm)

10-4

(vol.-%)

W

(mm

/N

m)

s3

matrixglass-fibercarbon-fiber

p v = 1.7 MPa m/s

10-5

10-6

10-7

5 10 15 20

v


Fig.: 4.101

0 250

R (µm)

0.3

W

(mm

/N

m)

s3

50 100 150 200


specific wear rate

T (°C)

0

µ

0

2

4

6

8

10

0.2

0.1


Fig.: 4.102

0

0.1

0.2

µ

10 10 10 10-1 -3 -5 6.2

3.1

0.62

v (m min )

T1

T2

p (N

mm

)-2


Fig.: 4.103

-1


Fig.: 4.104

W

(m

m

/Nm

)s

3

10

10

10

10

010

510

15 8 6 4 2 0

TiO (vol.-%) 2

SCF (vol.-%)

-3

-4

-5

-6

-7

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

00.0

510

15 8 6 4 2 0

TiO (vol.-%) 2

SCF (vol.-%)

µ

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

00.0

510

15 8 6 4 2 0

TiO (vol.-%) 2

SCF (vol.-%)

µ

10

10

10

10

010

510

15 8 6 4 2 0

TiO (vol.-

%) 2

SCF (vol.-%)

-3

-4

-5

-6

-7W

(m

m

/Nm

)s

3

Documents

Chapter 4.1: Lüpke, T.: Fundamental Principles of Mechanical Behaviour. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich