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A Long, Long Time Ago…• Greek Philosophers 4 elements are Earth, Water, Fire, and Air
• Aristotle- first recorded atomic thoughtsMatter is continuous (no atoms)
• Democritus (400 B.C.) - first recorded atomic theoryAtoms are smallest part of matter, each type of matter has different atoms
A Long Time Ago…
• Antoine Lavoisier (1782)Used experiments in closed containers to develop the Law of Conservation of Matter
• Joseph Proust (1799)Analyzed water to develop the Law of Definite
Proportions
• John Dalton (1803)Compiled past research to develop the first useful atomic theory
John Dalton
Dalton’s theory had 4 major tenets
1. All matter is composed of atoms
2. Atoms are indivisible
3. Atoms of 1 element are alike, but different from those of other elements
4. Atoms combine in small, whole number ratios to form compounds
A Little While Ago…
J.J. Thomson (1897) discovers the electron using a cathode ray tube
Proposes the “Plum Pudding” Model of the atom
The Nucleus Exists!
Ernest Rutherford (1911)
uses the gold foil experiment to “discover” the nucleus
Results of Gold Foil Experiment…Over 98% of the particles went straight through
About 2% of the particles went through but were deflected by large angles
About 0.01% of the particles bounced off the gold foil
About that 0.01% of particles…..
…" It was quite the most incredible event that ever happened to me in my life. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you." E. Rutheford
Rutherford's Nuclear Model
1. The atom contains a tiny dense center called the nucleus the volume is about 1/10 trillionth the volume of the atom
2. The nucleus is essentially the entire mass of the atom
3. The nucleus is positively chargedthe amount of positive charge of the nucleus balances the negative charge of the electrons
4. The electrons move around in the empty space of the atom surrounding the nucleus
Coworker James Chadwick later adds neutrons
Properties of Subatomic Particles
Particle Symbol LocationRelativeElectricalCharge
Relative Mass
ActualMass (g)
Electron e- Space surrounding the nucleus
1- 1_ 1840
9.11 x 10-28
Protonp+
Nucleus1+ 1 1.637 x 10-24
Neutronn0
Nucleus0 1 1.675 x 10-24
Understanding Periodic Blocks• Atomic Number
• # of protons• # of electrons
• Element Symbol
• Atomic MassThe weighted average
atomic mass of isotopes of an atom
Mass Number #protons + # neutrons
Can 20.0983 Neutrons Exist???
No, 39.0983 is an average mass of all natural K atoms
• All K atoms MUST have 19 protons• Some have 20 neutrons, some 19, some 21…• Average is 20.0983 neutrons• Individual isotopes are identified by the number of neutrons
Identifying Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
• Chlorine-35 (element-mass number)• # of protons = 17• # electrons = # protons• # neutrons = mass number – protons
• 35-17 = 18
• Why no electrons in atomic mass?• Electron has mass 1/1837 of Proton and Neutron
IsotopesNuclear Notation or Isotope Notation
# protons = ______
# neutrons = ______
# electrons = ______
Problems that can arise..
Charges and Ions – Only changes the number of electrons
Finding the mass number – use symbol, p+ and no or periodic table in that order!
Atomic Mass Units• Carbon-12
• 6 protons• 6 neutrons
atomic mass unit is equal to one-twelfth of the mass of the nucleus of a carbon-12 atom
Atomic Mass Problems
Boron has two naturally occurring isotopes: boron-10 (19.8%, 10.013 amu) and boron 11 (80.2%, 11.009 amu). What is the atomic mass of boron?
Find the Abundance x Mass for each isotope and then add products together.
0.198 x 10.013 = 1.98
0.802 x 11.009 = 8.83
1.000 10.81 amu
Chemical vs. Nuclear Change• Chemical Change- produces new kinds of matter with new
properties
• Involves breaking and forming BONDS• Accomplished by rearrangement of
ELECTRONS• Nuclear Change- produces a new nucleus that contains less
energy
• Involves emission or capture of nuclear particles
• Accomplished by changing PROTONS and NEUTRONS in nucleus
HighHighMedMedLowLowActual Actual HazardHazard
Low-MedLow-MedMedMedHighHighBiological Biological HazardHazard
LowLowMedMedHighHighEnergyEnergy
Hard (2 cm Hard (2 cm lead)lead)
Medium Medium (aluminum (aluminum
foil)foil)
Easy Easy
(skin/(skin/clothes)clothes)
ShieldingShielding
0000γγ00
-1-1ee4422HeHeSymbolSymbol
GAMMA (GAMMA (γγ))BETA (BETA (ββ))ALPHA (ALPHA (αα))
Other Radiation
• Ionizing Radiation- has significant energy to change atoms and molecules into ions
• Types: alpha, beta, gamma, x-rays
• Effects to living organisms: changes in, DNA (cell death/cancer)
• Nonionizing radiation- does not have significant energy to ionize atoms or molecules (types: microwaves, visible light, radiowaves)
Nuclear Stability(Electrostatic Force vs. Nuclear Force)
Electrostatic force arises from the interaction between two protons (repulsive force)
Nuclear force arises between protons and neutrons due to their close proximity to one another
Neutron to Proton Ration and the Band of Stability
As the atomic numberincreases, more and more neutrons are needed to create a strong nuclearforce to oppose and increasing electrostatic force
1:1
1.5:1
Radioactive Decay Half-lives
• Half-life is the time taken for half of the atoms of a radio-active substance to decay.
Number of half-lives TE/t1/2
5 variables to consider1.Initial quantity2.Final quantity3.# of half-lives4.Value of a half life5.Time Elapsed
Sample Problem
A sample of radioactive iridium has a half life of 12 years. In 60 years, how much iridium would remain from a 50g sample?
32
1
50
Final
nFinal
2
1
50
Initial=
Final=
Time Elapsed=
# of half lives=
Value of 1 half life=
50g
12 years
60 years
?
n
Initial
Final
2
1
60/12 = 5
5
2
1
50
Finalgx
x
6.132/50
5032
Radioactive Dating• Uses carbon-14 to tell age of fossils
• C-14 is present constantly in atmosphere• 15.3 decays/min in living organism• decays/min decreases by ½ every 5370 years an organism is
dead.• Only useful to 60,000 yrs ago
Transmutation• All nuclear reactions are:
transmutation reactionsoSome transmutation reactions are inducedoAll transuranium elements
(atomic #93 and greater) have
been produced through induced
transmutation.
Conversion of an element into anatom of another
element
Writing Induced Transmutation Reactions
Write the balanced nuclear equation for the induced transmutation of aluminum-27 into sodium-24 by neutron bombardment. An alpha particle is released in the reaction.
HeNanAl 42
2411
10
2713
nCmHePu 10
24296
42
23994
Write the balanced nuclear equation for the alpha particle bombardment of Pu-239. One of the reaction products is a neutron.
Nuclear Reactions for Energy
• Fission- nucleus broken into 2 smaller nuclei
• Fusion- smaller nuclei join to form a larger, more stable nuclei
Nuclear Power- generated by a controlled fission chain reaction
Control rods- absorb neutrons to slow the chain reaction
• Made of cadmium• Inserted or withdrawn
to keep temp of reaction steady
Moderators- slow neutrons down so they DO hit uranium fuel rods
• Made of water, beryllium, or graphite
• Intended to allow neutrons to be absorbed by uranium
Cooling and Shielding
• Water- acts as a coolant and transfers heat between reactor and turbines that produce electricity
• Steel & concrete- surround core and protect personnel by absorbing radiation