Chapter 5. Future Projection of Hydrology Change and ... · Chapter 5. Future Projection of Hydrology Change and Adaptation of Land Use and Houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

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Chapter5.FutureProjectionofHydrologyChangeandAdaptationofLandUseandHousesintheupperMekongDelta’sdeepfloodingarea

Chapter 2 examined current challenges in the studied area, including

seasonal floods, sea level rise, salinity intrusion, soil acidification, seasonal tropical

storms, pollution, and reduction of fishery resources. There have been signs of

change that would make these threats more severe in the future. Analysis in Section

2.2.1.1.d reveals the trends of change in seasonal flooding. This chapter reviews and

analyzes the literature on future predictions of change relating to hydrology in the

studied area and postulates the future scenarios up to 2050 (Section 5.1).

Then, this chapter explores limitations of current adaptation of land use and

houses in the future context and suggests the approach for land use planning and

adaptation of houses to floods in the studied area. Adaptation of land use and houses

should be considered in its relationships with livelihoods as it may become no

longer relevant if livelihood activities change. Therefore, Section 5.2 examines

limitations of adaptation of land use and houses, and Section 5.3 studies limitations

of livelihood activities in the future context. Based on analysis of limitations of land

use, houses and livelihoods, Section 5.4 suggests an approach for land use planning

and adaptation of houses in the studied area.

5.1.Futureprojectioninrelationtohydrologychange

This section studies future projections of hydrology change and postulates

the scenarios most likely to happen in the studied area up to 2050. Challenges in the


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future include irregular seasonal floods, sea level rise, more frequent and intense

typhoons, degradation of soil quality, lack of fresh water and degradation of water

quality, and reduction of fishery resources. These challenges may happen in parallel

and produce more threats to adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong

Delta’s deep flooding area.

5.1.1.Irregularseasonalfloods

It is predicted that seasonal floods would be irregular in timing and duration,

and flood peak levels fluctuate by a larger extent in the future.

5.1.1.1.Irregulartiminganddurationofseasonalfloods

Climate change and upstream development of dam construction and

agriculture would make the timing and duration of floods irregular. Due to climate

change, rainfall tends to decrease in the dry season (July and August) and increase in

the flooding season (September, October and November). In addition, temperature is

increasing, and this may make the dry season last longer and affect precipitation

(Nguyen 2007b; MoNRE 2003). The sea level rise also makes it more difficult for

flood water to drain, prolonging flood duration.

5.1.1.2.Largeramplitudeoffloodfluctuation

Floods may become more extreme with exceptionally low and high peaks. In

the next decades, the general trend is that flood intensity may decrease, but

exceptionally high floods may occur occasionally.

a. Decreaseoffloodlevel

Dam construction and agricultural development of upstream countries

decrease the mean water level in the flooding season in the Mekong Delta. This


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change is in the range of 0.2 to 0.3 meters for the High Development scenario15 in

2020 (Blackmore, Perry and Stein 2004) (Figure 132). Le and Nguyen et al. (2007)

predicted that dam construction upstream the Mekong River would first reduce

flooding in the Mekong Delta in the next 30 years. After that, dams would cause

siltation and flood levels may increase to higher levels than the current ones.

Figure 132. Change in mean monthly simulated water level at Tan Chau

Source: Blackmore, Perry and Stein (2004)

The threat of drought

There are high possibilities of serious drought in the Mekong Delta as a

result of the decrease in flood intensity, increase of temperature (2.5oC by 2070),

and reduction of rainfall in the dry season (Roberts 2001; Nguyen 2007b).

Typically, dams transfer water from flooding season to dry season, which

may be expected to decrease flood damage and supply more water for irrigation and

15 Blackmore, Perry and Stein (2004) evaluated the impacts of six scenarios of development on the Mekong River Basin, including the Baseline in 2000, China Dams, Low Development, Embankments, Agriculture, and High Development. The High Development scenario represents the highest likely level of development by 2020. It includes the maximum likely hydropower and water use development of agriculture and embankments (Blackmore, Perry and Stein, 2004).


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navigation in the dry season. However, in the Mekong Delta, although there may be

some changes to flood peak levels, severe floods would not be considerably

mitigated (Blackmore, Perry and Stein 2004). In this sense, upstream dam

construction is not beneficial to the Mekong Delta, because normal floods which are

necessary are decreased while severe floods which are damaging cannot be

mitigated. In addition, when filling the reservoirs, dams may cause lower dry season

flow. This happened in Northern Thailand and Laos when the small reservoirs of

Manwan Dam were filled from 1993 to 1996. Filling much larger reservoirs such as

Xiaowan and Nuozhadu and loss of evaporation due to water retention may cause

serious drought downstream (Roberts 2001). The threat of drought in dry seasons is

exacerbated and becomes a great concern for the Mekong Delta.

b. Exceptionallyhighfloods

Floods in the Mekong Delta may be exceptionally high on occasion. Due to

climate change, increase of rainfall in flooding season and sea level rise may

intensify the floods. In addition, more frequent and intense typhoons may cause a

backwater effect and make floods more severe. Storm surges and a 0.5 meter sea

level rise may increase the area inundated by a severe flood to 4300 km2 at a depth

at least 2.5 meters (Le and Nguyen et al. 2007).

Upstream dams also add more risks to disastrous floods in the Mekong

Delta. Although dams typically reduce flooding, in cases of severe floods, they may

release stored water for the safety of dams, making large floods even more severe. If

dams with large storage such as Xiaowan and Nuozhadu release water in a severe

flood, it would become an unpredictable disaster (Roberts 2001). Moreover, the risk

of extreme events in the lifetime of dams increases with climate change. This may


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cause dam breakage and failure of key hydraulic components such as spill way gates

(ICEM 2010), resulting in severe damage to the Mekong Delta.

In short, seasonal floods would not be as predictable as before in timing,

duration and intensity. In the next decades, generally flood intensity is expected to

decrease. However, there can be disastrous floods happening when large floods are

enhanced by climate change and operation of dams. Around 2040, due to siltation

caused by construction and operation of dams, the flood level may increase to higher

than current levels. Even then, it is uncertain whether floods in the Mekong Delta

will increase as it is also affected by other factors such as upstream dams and

agriculture development.

5.1.2.Sealevelrise

According to the medium emission scenario, which is currently

recommended for sea level rise predictions in Vietnam, the sea level would rise 30

cm in 2050, 46 cm in 2070, and 75 cm in 2100. In the high emission scenario, it is

predicted that sea level would rise 33 cm in 2050 and 1 meter in 2100 (MoNRE

2009) (Table 8).

Table 8. Sea level rise (cm) relatively to the period of 1980‐1999

Scenarios Decades in the 21th century

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100

Low emission scenario (B1) 11 17 23 28 35 42 50 57 65

Medium emission scenario (B2) 12 17 23 30 37 46 54 64 75

High emission scenario (A1F1) 12 17 24 33 44 57 71 86 100

Source: MoNRE (2009)

If the sea level rises 1 meter, it is estimated that 1.5 to 2 million hectares of

the Mekong Delta would be flooded, affecting about 3.5 to 5.0 million of people (Le

2010). Figure 133 shows that a 1 meter sea level rise would inundate a small part of


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the studied area. Figure 134 illustrates that communes displaced by a one meter sea

level rise are along Tien and Hau rivers.

Figure 135 shows the extent and inundation depth of floods in 2000 (the map

on the left) and the same event in the condition of one meter sea level rise (the map

on the right) in the Mekong Delta. The noticeable increase in flood extent and depth

is caused by sea level rise, backwater and tidal impacts (MRC 2010).

Figure 133. One meter sea level rise inundation

Source: ICEM (2007)

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5.1.3.Moreregularandintensetyphoons

Although typhoons have not been a critical problem in the Mekong Delta

compared with the Central and Northern parts of Vietnam, the area may suffer an

increase in the frequency, magnitude, and duration of typhoon occurrences. Due to

climate change, the temperature of the sea surface in higher latitude regions of the

Pacific Ocean would increase, leading to more typhoons affecting Vietnam. It also

causes higher wind velocity and longer duration of typhoons, especially in El Ninõ

years. Recently, typhoons have moved southward, making it a more serious problem

in the Mekong Delta (Nguyen 2007b).

In the Mekong Delta, typhoons usually happen in the flooding season,

making floods more disastrous. An experimental model of Le and Nguyen et al.

(2007), which combined the flood in 2000 and typhoon Linda in 1997, indicated that

the typhoon Linda might have increased the area flooded over 2.5 meters by flood in

2000 by 700 km2 to reach 3200 km2.

5.1.4.Degradationofsoilquality

Degradation of soil quality would be a critical problem of the studied area in

the future. In the Mekong Delta, agricultural land occupies more than 65% of the

land area. There is little opportunity to expand agricultural land due to salinity

intrusion (ICEM 2010). Therefore, degradation of soil quality would substantially

affect agricultural yield.

Lossofsedimentsandnutrients

Dam construction on the Mekong River and dyke systems in the Mekong

Delta would cause substantial loss of sediments and nutrients, and hence


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considerably affect the soil quality. In year 2030 scenario, with the construction of

all dams in China, Lower Mekong Basin and Mekong’s tributaries, it is estimated

that sediments in the Mekong Delta would decrease 73 percent, from 26 to 7 million

tons per year (Table 9). Reduction of suspended sediment results in reduction of

nutrients fertilizing the Mekong Delta from about 4,000 to 1,000 tonnes per year

(Table 9) (ICEM 2010). Sediment reduction also de-stabilizes and erodes the river

banks and floodplains, including fertile in-channel islands with dense population.

Table 9. Approximate annual average estimates of Mekong sediment and nutrients deposition

Source: ICEM (2010)

Increaseofsalinityintrusionandsoilacidification

Salinity intrusion and soil acidification, due to sea level rise, flood intensity

decrease, drier and longer dry season and drought, would contribute to degradation

of soil quality. As flood water is necessary to push salty water back to the sea and

filter acid sulfate soil, decrease in flood extent would contribute to increase of

salinity intrusion and acidification in the Mekong Delta. The area needs flooding in

30,000 square kilometers of farmland to a depth of about 20 centimeter, which uses

roughly 6 billion cubic meters of water (about 1.5 percent of discharge of Mekong


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River in flooding season) (Le and Nguyen et al. 2007). In addition, pollution would

add more challenges to soil quality degradation.

5.1.5.Lackoffreshwateranddegradationofwaterquality

Drought, sea level rise, decrease in flood intensity, increase of temperature

and change of precipitation are the concerns affecting water quality. They would

result in saline water intrusion and acidification, and lack of fresh water for

irrigation and domestic use. Moreover, pollution from industry, agricultural

activities, and human settlement would contribute to degradation of water quality.

5.1.6.Reductionoffisheryresources

There would be a significant reduction of fishery resources in the studied

area. Dam construction destroys the majority of aquatic habitats and changes the

hydrological regime. It also cuts sediment transportation hence causes fish feeding

opportunities to decline, and interrupts floodplain connectivity and fish migration. If

all the 77 dams on the Lower Mekong Basin tributaries and China dams were built,

loss of fishery resources would be 10to26 percent (210 to 540 thousand tonnes) of

the baseline figure in 2000. Besides these dams, if 11 mainstream dams in the Lower

Mekong Basin were built, the total loss of fishery resources would be 26 to 42

percent (550 to 880 thousand tonnes) compared to the 2000 baseline (Figure 136).


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Figure 136. Potential incremental impact of LMB mainstream dams on fish production basin‐wide

Source: ICEM (2010)

In summary, the literature on hydrology change reveals that the studied area

is encountering six major issues, including (1) irregular seasonal floods, (2) sea level

rise, (3) more regular and intense typhoons, (4) degradation of soil quality, (5) lack

of fresh water and degradation of water quality, and (6) reduction of fishery

resources. Adaptation of houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

will be examined in this context. Adaptation strategies have to consider seasonal

floods generally becoming irregular and less intense, while unpredictably and

occasionally, there may be disastrous floods. Adaptation also has to deal with more

frequent and intense typhoons, sea level rise, soil quality degradation, lack of fresh


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water, and reduction of fishery resources. These factors not only affect houses but

may also have critical impacts on livelihood activities and food security.

5.2.Limitationsofadaptationoflanduseandhouses

5.2.1.Landuse

At the land use scale, the master plan for 2020 in the Mekong Delta is

examined to see the area’s level of preparation for floods in the future context. This

section also examines the limitations of flood control infrastructure which has a

critical role in regulating the floods in the studied area in the next decades.

5.2.1.1.TheMekongDeltamasterplanfor2020

The master plan for 2020 has not considered potential change of hydrology

in the Mekong Delta. In 2050, with the sea level rise estimated at 30 cm, the

Mekong Delta would be affected by salinity intrusion and more severe flooding.

To further investigate the high emission scenario to 2100, the combination of sea

level rise map (ICEM 2007) and the Mekong Delta master plan (SIUP-South 2008)

reveals that several urban centers and centralized industrial zones would be affected

by a one meter sea level rise. In the studied area, the area along the Mekong River

would be affected most significantly (Figure 137). A large amount of people would

be affected, as the area along the river has been developed and has high population

density (Figure 138). In addition, the issue of pollution mentioned in Section 3.2.1

may be exaggerated with industrial and agricultural development and population

increase. This may lead to a shortage of clean water for domestic use and

agricultural activities.


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Figure 137. Combination of 1 meter sea level rise map (ICEM 2007) and urban center planning (SIUP‐South 2008) Source: Combined by the Author

Figure 138. Combination of people displacement by 1 meter sea level rise map (ICEM 2007) and urban center planning (SIUP‐South 2008) Source: Combined by the Author


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5.2.1.2.Drawbacksoffloodcontrolinfrastructure

The severity of current problems caused by flood control infrastructure may

be exacerbated in the future context. First, difficulties of drainage may make

duration of large floods longer. There would be an increase of inundation in areas

not surrounded by dykes and in downstream areas. Second, in years of low flood,

dykes may decrease sediment siltation to a greater extent, affecting rice production

more substantially. Third, there would be severe damage in case there is a dyke

failure. Uncertainties of floods and typhoons would increase possibilities of dyke

damage, and people living inside the protected areas would be more vulnerable

compared to non-protected areas due to lack of flood preparedness.

In short, change of hydrology may have considerable impacts on land use but

it has not been considered in the current master plan for 2020. Hydrology change

should be considered in the land use planning process. In addition, increasing risks

would intensify drawbacks of flood control infrastructure. Therefore, it is necessary

to examine other approaches rather than merely an engineering-centric one.

5.2.2.Houses

This part examines limitations of current adaptation of houses in the future

context. First, irregular seasonal flooding would bring several threats to houses and

infrastructure. Due to unpredictable flood timing, flood control infrastructure, roads

and houses may not be well-prepared for floods. Figure 139 and Figure 140

illustrate that houses and roads may be inundated by exceptionally high floods.

Second, sea level rise causes salinity intrusion, which would damage the structure

and materials of houses and infrastructure, even concrete. Third, more regular and


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intense typhoons would be a critical challenge, especially when majority of houses

in the studied area are of inadequate and poor quality construction. Last, degradation

of soil and water quality and reduction of fishery resources may cause significant

impact on houses through change of livelihoods. Though not directly, houses,

settlement patterns and land use may be affected heavily due to change in livelihood

activities. Section 5.3 will study limitations of livelihoods in the future context.


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Figure 139. Peak flood levels in history and exceptionally high and low floods in future scenarios

Source: Author

Figure 140. A house in Phu Tho Village, Tam Nong District with peak flood peak levels in history and exceptionally high and low floods in future scenarios

Source: Author


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5.3.Challengestolivelihoods

The future context brings about critical challenges to people’s livelihoods in

the Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area. First, irregular seasonal floods would create

numerous problems in the studied area. Unpredictability in timing and intensity of

floods makes it difficult to determine crop calendar and adjust their lifestyles, as

early floods may destroy crops, and floods with longer duration may affect the

subsequent crops. Exceptionally high floods may cause damage to crops, livestock,

livelihood properties, especially if floods come suddenly and happen in parallel with

typhoons. Meanwhile, less intense floods and droughts would also substantially

affect agriculture production. Compared to flood, drought is a more serious problem,

because it may last for a longer time and cause devastating consequences including

food insecurity (Roberts 2001). Second, sea level rise causes salinity intrusion,

contributing to decrease of species and number of crops in a year, including fruit

trees and rice. Because rice crops are predominant in the studied area, farmers would

be affected substantially. Third, reduction of fishery resources makes people whose

livelihoods depend on them more vulnerable. Finally, agricultural productivity

would be affected considerably by soil and water quality degradation.

Figure 141 and Figure 142 illustrate a house in exceptionally high and low

floods in the future. They illustrate the complete inundation of houses, roads and

farms, threatening livelihoods in the Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area.


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Figure 141. A house in Phu Cuong Village, Tam Nong District in exceptionally high flood in future

scenario Source: Author

Figure 142. A house in Phu Cuong Village, Tam Nong District in exceptionally low flood in future

scenario Source: Author

Due to the above limitations, traditional farming may not be sustained well

in the future context. This would result in a substantial decrease of agricultural

productivity, which may cause serious social-economic consequences in the Mekong

Delta and Vietnam, and the loss of a portion of global food supply (Refer to Section

2.1.1 for the agriculture production and export data of the Mekong Delta).

Sustaining livelihoods would be a prerequisite to sustaining human life in the area.

Therefore, consideration of livelihoods should be integrated in housing design and

land use planning.


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5.4.Anapproachforlanduseplanningandadaptationofhouses

Previous sections have shown the uncertainties of the future context and

limitations of current adaptation of land use, houses and livelihoods. This section

suggests a potential approach for land use planning and adaptation of houses to

floods.

5.4.1.Anapproachforlanduseplanning

As discussed in the previous sections, there are close relationships and

interactions between hydrology, livelihoods and land use in the studied area.

Therefore, land use planning should be examined in its relation to hydrology and

livelihoods (Figure 143).

Figure 143. Inter‐relationships of critical elements in the studied area

Source: Author

From this viewpoint, land use planning and housing design should satisfy

three criteria. First, they should ensure the role of shelters and connectivity of

houses to farms, infrastructure and services. Second, land use and houses should


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adapt to changes in hydrology. Third, they should adapt to livelihood activities

which may be changed.

Figure 144 and Figure 145 suggest that rethinking about the built

environment in its relation to critical elements such as hydrology and livelihoods

may lead to critical changes in land use planning and houses. In this design, to deal

with water pollution, an ecological water filtration system and organic farming are

proposed. Due to change of hydrology and livelihood practices, the settlement is

rearranged16.

Figure 144. Current landscape in Au Island, Can Tho, Mekong Delta

Source: Zakaria (2010)

Figure 145. Proposal of prototype eco‐village in Au Island, Can Tho, Mekong Delta

Design credit: Zakaria (2010)

16 This is an example of the idea of integrating hydrology and livelihoods into land use planning. It gives the idea of how more domains of knowledge come together, but not a design solution recommended for the studied area.


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The following sections suggest an approach to land use planning by

considering its relation to hydrology and livelihoods.

5.4.1.1.Landuseplanningandlivelihoods

Before examining the relationship between land use planning and

livelihoods, it is necessary to study the relationship between livelihoods and

hydrology.

Livelihoodsandhydrology

The success of rice intensification in the studied area has resulted in several

side effects and the production cost has been higher to cope with emerging problems

(Section 4.1). Kakonen (2008) raised the need for a sustainable approach that is

more about adaptation than control. It is suggested that more environmentally

friendly alternatives for agricultural practice should be considered, and water use

should adapt to the complex ecology and hydrology regime for sustainable

development. To sustain livelihoods in the future context, it is important to study

adaptation of livelihoods to hydrology change.

Landuseplanningandlivelihoods

Based on the previous analysis, land use planning should be considered in its

relation to livelihoods. As current livelihood activities are confronted by critical

challenges and may not be sustained well, the followings attempt to raise the

questions which need to be concerned in the studied area. The following discussion

suggests a way of thinking about the problems, but does not aim to give solutions to

the problems.


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First, in the flooding season, fishing would be less productive and more

dangerous, so it is necessary to develop alternative livelihood activities in the upper

Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area. In Bangladesh, which shares some similarities

with the studied area in terms of seasonal flooding and livelihoods relying mainly on

agriculture, people have a practice of cultivating floating gardens. Materials for

forming floating gardens include bamboo, water hyacinth, cow dung, dirt, and

compost, which are available or easily produced locally in the studied area (Figure

146 and Figure 147). The know-how to make floating gardens is also simple. People

can utilize flood water for cultivating vegetables to supply food and enhance income

in the flooding season. Another possibility may be fish farming in the flooded rice

fields. It is necessary to study the extent of farmers’ acceptance and water quality in

the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area to determine whether floating gardens

and fish farming in the flooded fields can be applied.

Figure 146. Layers of floating gardens in Bangladesh

Source: Rahman (2011)

Figure 147. Floating vegetable bed cultivation

Source: Rahman (2011)

Second, in the dry season, it is necessary to find answers to the questions of

improving the quality of the soil and water, providing enough amount of fresh water

for farming, as well as choosing crops, species and agricultural practice that are

tolerant of more disadvantageous conditions.


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To improve soil quality, if floating gardens are possible in the studied area in

the flooding season, they can be utilized as compost. Conservation agriculture may

also be helpful with reduced- or no-tillage, crop rotation, or parallel crops. In

addition, organic agriculture and integrated farming-fishing system may be

potential. It is necessary to conduct more research about species and crops that are

more tolerant to salinity, acid sulfate soil, and drought, as well as crops that are

suitable for crop rotation and parallel crops in the studied area. This would help

sustain and enhance the soil quality, leading to less dependence on flooding and

climate.

To deal with shortage of fresh water, it is necessary to harvest and store rain

water and flood water in the flooding season for domestic use and irrigation in the

dry season. Structures for harvesting, storing, filtering and supplying water may

affect the settlement. The water may be filtered by biological methods to be used for

irrigation.

Figure 148 presents the rice-Melaleuca farming system which has been

experimented in Hoa An, Mekong Delta, and was also taking place at Tram Chim

National Reserve in the Plain of Reeds. The Melaleuca is planted in a 6 ha reservoir

of flood water on severe acid soils and connected to a 9 ha rice field. The system is

planned with enough water so that it remains close in the rice growing season.

Filtered flood water is led to rice paddies and the rice fields drain acidified water to

the Melaleuca flood water reservoir, rather than canals or rivers.

Farmers can benefit from rice production and products from Melaleuca water

reservoir such as fish, honey, wood, fuel and wild vegetables (Duong, Safford and

Maltby 2001). The experiment in Hoa An has brought about positive results in terms


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of enhancing quality of water and socio-economic benefits to the people. This rice-

Melaleuca system is potential in solving the problems of water quality and storing

water for farming in the studied area. It is necessary to examine this system and

evaluate its impacts if it is to be implemented at a large scale.

Figure 148. Demonstration with experimental plot of the new rice‐Melaleuca farming system

Source: Duong, Safford and Maltby (2001)

Other options for livelihoods include raising livestock, making handicraft

products, producing brick and pottery to diversify people’s source of income and

lessen people’s dependence on the natural resources. In addition, education and

vocational training need to be developed to enhance labor’s capacity and skills for

higher productivity of production and employment in other industry and service

sectors.

In short, to adapt to change of hydrology, there may be change of livelihood

activities which may critically affect settlement and cropping patterns. It is

necessary to study potential change in livelihoods to sustain life in the studied area

and provide a base for land use planning and housing design.


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5.4.1.2.Landuseplanningandhydrology

This sub-section examines land use planning in its relation to hydrology. It is

recommended that the approach for land use planning should be living with the

floods and reserving spaces for water. Land use planning and flood risk planning

should be integrated.

The approach of living with floods and reserving spaces for water

The current strategy to cope with floods in the Mekong Delta is a

combination of “living with floods” and flood control. However, the flood control

infrastructure has numerous drawbacks as analysed in Section 6.1.1.2 and Section

4.1. Nguyen and Delgado et al. (2012) identified the strong human interference by

flood control, cropping patterns and communal water management in the studied

area. The hydraulic linkage of the canals and floodplains is weakened by the dyke

system, especially full dykes, in which the hydraulic linkage is governed by the

capacity of the sluice gates (Nguyen and Delgado et al. 2012).

White (2008) reviewed the history of flood management and categorized it

into three stages. The first stage is self-protection with individual response to floods.

The second stage - engineered defence - happened in the mid 20th century with

systematic construction of hard defence. The third stage - natural management - is

the current one, emerging with realisation of limitations of hard defence. There is a

need to control development, give back land to restore floodplains and reserve

spaces for the water.

White (2008)’s chronology of three stages of water management is illustrated

by the recent trend in countries with a long and successful history of coping with

floods such as Netherlands and England. In these countries, climate change has


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made floods become more severe and unpredictable, hence current coping measures

of building dykes, polders and canals are reaching their limitations. There are more

threats of dyke failure and uncontrollable costs of building higher dykes. The

Netherlands has reformed its flood management, with programmes such as “living

with water” and “room for the river” (Thompson 2008; Barker 2008). In the UK,

BACA Architects proposed the LifE’s ecological approach to flood risk mitigation

(Figure 149). It considers increasing flood risk, development and environmental

change to suggest the approach of living with water, reserving space for water and

zero carbon. Figure 150, Figure 151, and Figure 152 illustrate diagrams of a master

plan on a site in River Wandle at Hackbridge, South London, UK, which has high

risk of flood. Figure 150 shows that space for water, sustainable drainage and

rainwater harvesting are considered in the planning process. Figure 151 shows

specific spaces for water such as rain gardens, green roofs, flood gardens, canal

paths, and village’s blue and green spaces. Flood water is allowed to pass through

these spaces which are designed to minimize risk of life and properties. These

spaces can be combined to be public amenities such as pools, parks, and gardens.

Figure 152 illustrates the site in normal condition, and how it is affected in a flood

and a severe flood.


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Figure 149. LifE's approach

Source: LifE project

Figure 150. Spatial requirement for water for site at River Wandle at Hackbridge, South London, UK; LifE's approach applied


Figure 151. Land use planning, LifE approach applied Source: LifE project

Figure 152. Space for water in different extent of flood



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Flood risk management in these developed countries is rather relevant and

similar to the Mekong Delta in terms of dealing with floods. However, it is different

to the Mekong Delta in terms of development level and livelihood activities. In the

Mekong Delta, people work in agriculture, hence land use planning and housing

design need to consider issues concerning not only the provision of shelter and

connectivity to infrastructure and services but also the sustenance of agricultural

practice. To deal with the unpredictable future of the studied area, an approach

based on understanding the natural systems, living with the floods and reserving

spaces for flood, would be more effective compared to controlling the floods.

Integration of flood risk planning into land use planning

In the studied area, land use planning and flood control planning are almost

independent, leading to a lack of comprehensive understanding of the problems and

short-sighted solutions (Section and 3.2 and Section 5.2.1). Anticipation of

consequences of land use planning can reduce uncertainty of the future and increase

the legitimacy of planning decisions, especially development in hazardous areas

(ARMONIA 2007). It is necessary to consider spatially relevant hazards of the

studied area in the land use planning process, in which flooding is the most critical

one. Integrating flood risk management into land use planning helps minimize flood

damage in the studied area.

With reflection on the lack of consideration of flood risks in the land use

planning process, it is recommended building a base of understanding about flood

risks in the present and future context. Land use planning would need input of risk

assessment from institutions concerning hydrology, meteorology and geology such


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as SIWRP, SIWRR17, MONRE, SIHYMETTE, and NCHMF18 and other partners

with rich resources of data about the Mekong Delta such as MRC and DRAGON19.

According to White (2008), layers of necessary information include the flood risk

map, the network of green infrastructure that conserves the natural ecosystem and

benefits the population, and the nature of the existing fabric. Figure 153 summarises

the theoretical layers of necessary information in land use planning process to adapt

to flood risks. As this summary is for the city in general, it is recommended adding

the layer of farmland for the case of the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

due to its critical role. In the studied area, farmland is important to people’s

livelihoods - it accounts for roughly 85 percent of land and has great capacity to

absorb flood water.

17 Southern Institute of Water Resources Research 18 National Centre for Hydro-meteorological Forecasting 19 Delta Research and Global Observation


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Figure 153. The different layers of knowledge needed to move towards an "absorbent city"

Source: White (2008)

The mapping of flood risks would help determine and manage the scale and

location of development in the floodplain. It provides information about areas of

high flood risk for floodplain restoration. These spaces can be a combination of blue

and green spaces, to reserve the natural ecology, and spaces to store and absorb the

water and spaces for recreation (White, 2008). As the studied area is mainly a rural


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area where urban centres have not been highly developed, it is an advantage to

implement this approach.

In a wider perspective, the whole Mekong Delta and even the trans-boundary

area in the Mekong River Basin should be examined for more effective and

comprehensive flood risk management. Flood risks in the studied area are affected

by development in other area in the Mekong Delta such as Long Xuyen Quadrangle

and upstream catchment such as Tonlé Sap Lake in Cambodia. Collaboration in a

wider area to enhance adaptation would be necessary but difficult to achieve due to

the separate management authorities. However, at least, understanding the

connections of the studied areas in a larger catchment area may result in better risk

management.

Specific suggestions

Analyzing the limitations of current adaptation in the studied area reveals an

emerging need to plan spaces for water. Spaces for water would regulate flood water

and decrease impacts of more intense floods. This is particularly beneficial to deal

with the unpredictable intensity, timing and duration of floods in the future. In

addition, the studied area is a part of the Plain of Reeds, which regulates the Mekong

Delta’s floods through absorbing and moderating the rate of floods. Therefore,

planning spaces for water to improve the capacity of absorbing flood water in the

studied area not only benefits the studied area itself but the whole Mekong Delta.

The challenge would be to determine locations, scales, connections and additional

functions of spaces for flood water storage. This may be determined based on the

foundation of necessary layers of knowledge mentioned above, including the flood

risk map, network of green and blue spaces and farmland, current drainage and


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sewer system, social-economic and infrastructure development, soil composition,

and water flow path.

Major types of network for water in the studied area may be blue network

(ponds, lakes), green network and farmland. Blue and green network reserved for

water may be multifunctional. They may support livelihood activities such as storing

water for irrigation, cultivating floating farms and drying husks. They may be public

spaces for community activities, recreation and sports activities. They may also be

natural reserves like the Tram Chim National Park.

Ponds reserved for water storing may supply water for domestic use and

irrigation, especially in the dry season of dry years. Rainwater may also be

harvested, and there can be a system to filter water, especially using biological

methods such as Melaleuca trees. The soil from digging ponds may be used to

elevate the platforms of houses or local roads.

Currently, the majority of farms in the studied area absorb flood water in the

flooding season, which is important in regulating the floods. However, strong

human interference caused by the flood control system has decreased the absorbing

capacity. This study suggests that the full dyke system should not be developed in

the studied area. In case the full dykes are critical, for example when they are

combined with roads, there should be adjustment to the capacity of the sluice gates

to maximize linkage of the floodplain, or combining of full dykes with semi dykes

to avoid a closed ring of full dyke.

In terms of land transportation, houses need to be connected to roads and

services without being influenced by floods. The level of houses, roads and public

services such as schools, markets and clinics need to be higher than flood level.


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Houses should have access to canals for livelihood activities and transporting heavy

things in both dry and wet seasons. Scattered houses in the fields should be resettled.

This is what the resettlement project has been doing, but it needs to consider the

good connection to farms and spaces in the house plots for livelihood activities. In

addition, it is necessary to improve the management of pollution. Land use planning

may help to manage water supply and wastes from industry and agriculture, and

develop a sustainable sewage and drainage system to protect water quality.

In short, this sub-section suggests necessary areas for research to form a base

of understanding about critical issues of hydrology and livelihoods to support the

land use planning process. It recommends the approach of living with the floods and

reserving spaces for floods, and potential possibilities for land use planning, which

would need insightful analysis for feasibility and implementation.

5.4.2.Adaptationofhousesinthestudiedarea

In the future, more intense floods, more frequent and intense typhoons,

increase of salinity intrusion, and possible changes of livelihood activities are the

critical factors affecting adaptation of houses. Besides dealing with floods, it is

suggested to study the issue of durability of houses to deal with typhoons and

salinity intrusion, and develop water harvest and storage, and domestic sewage

systems of houses to deal with the shortage of fresh water and pollution.


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5.4.2.1.Adaptationofthefloorleveltomoreintensefloods

This sub-section discusses the issue of elevation of houses in detail, which is

critical to enhancing the current adaptation capacity of houses and communities to

deal with more intense floods.

As mentioned in Section 4.3.2.2, to deal with floods, there should be floor(s)

in the houses that are safe from the peak flood levels. In the future with more intense

floods, this can be possible by raising the house’s floor level or constructing at least

one floor level in the house that is higher than peak flood levels. In addition, people

can build floor levels that can be adjusted to adapt flexibly to different levels of

floods.

Figure 154 illustrate a house with an attic floor and a buoy that can float on

flood water. When floods come, people, properties and livestock can stay on the

attic floor or floating object. Figure 155 illustrates a house with adjustable floor

level along a core. This floor can float on flood water and allow activities inside

houses in the flooding season. These are examples illustrating the ideas of more

flexibility in adaptation of floor levels. Based on the framework to examine the

problem which this study provides, it is necessary to conduct further research to find

viable design solutions.


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Figure 154. Flood‐resistant house with attic floor and floating object

Design credit: Pham (2011)

Figure 155. Flood‐resistant house with adjustable floor

Design credit: Ta, Le, P. Nguyen and L. Nguyen (2011)

The followings examine the current adaptation measures concerning the

issue of elevation of houses in the future context, which can also be potential

measures to enhance adaptation capacity of houses in the studied area to more

intense floods in the future.

Housesonstilts

Building houses on stilts has been the most popular and critical adaptation

measure in the studied area. In the future context, their adaptive capacity can be

enhanced by increasing the level of the fixed floor, constructing an adjustable floor,

or building an extra floor at high level, such as an attic floor which can be used in an

exceptionally intense floods.

Floatinghouses‐Amphibioushouses

There have been floating houses in the studied area, mainly built on the

rivers for the purposes of sustaining livelihoods. In the future, to deal with irregular

floods, people may build floating houses to enhance their adaptation to floods. As

the houses’ level is raised flexibly with water level, people’s activities inside the

houses are not affected. Currently, the main constraints of floating houses are the


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high cost of construction, inconvenient access to land transportation, facilities and

services, and difficulties for maintenance. Amphibious houses which float in

flooding season and stay on the ground in dry season can solve the problem of

maintenance and connectivity to infrastructure, services and farms.

Figure 156 and Figure 157 illustrate the Dordrecht flood-roof pilot of

floating home and amphibious homes for Brownfield site in Dordrecht, Netherlands.

Figure 158 and Figure 159 are illustrations of recent projects in Netherlands with

floating houses and amphibious houses.

Figure 156. Flood‐resistant homes in Dordrecht, the Netherlands, designed by BACA Architects Source: AJ 07.02.08

Figure 157. Flood‐resistant homes in Dordrecht, the Netherlands, designed by BACA Architects; Sections showing normal conditions (A) and one‐in‐1,000‐year flooding (B) Source: AJ 07.02.08


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Figure 158. Art Zaaijer’s floating homes for the IJburg development in Amsterdam20

Figure 159. Flood homes by Factor Architecten, Maas River, stay on earth when water recedes and float when water rises21

Figure 160 shows the design of an amphibious house with two layers of

cladding that can deal with both flood and typhoons. The house floats as water rises

and the outer cladding keeps the house stable in strong wind and storm surges. This

is another example to suggest the flexibility in adaptation of floor level to more

intense floods.

Figure 160. An amphibious house with two layers of cladding resistant to flood and typhoons

Design credit: Dao, Dang, and Nguyen (2011)

Housesonelevatedground

As mentioned in Section 5.4.1.1, soil from digging ponds may be used to

elevate the platform of houses. However, in the studied area, fully elevated ground

at higher than peak flood levels should be compact to reserve spaces for the water.

Partially elevated ground that is lower than peak flood levels may be used for the

20http://sviluppo.floornature.eu/itinerario.php?id=5035&sez=34&page=3&action=forgot, accessed April 16, 2012 21http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2005/10/26/garden/20051027_BOAT_SLIDESHOW_2.html, accessed April 16, 2012


171

platform of houses on stilts and amphibious houses for better connectivity to

infrastructure and decrease of the height of stilts.

In short, elevated areas should be compact to limit their impact on nature.

Houses on stilts have been the most popular type in the studied area and may

continue to be developed by raising floors or constructing extra floors higher than

the peak flood levels. It can also be combined with partial elevation of the ground.

Floating houses and amphibious houses may be effective in response to

unpredictable extreme floods in the future, but with more cost spent on the floating

structures. Therefore, houses on stilts, with certain improvements, can continue to be

the most viable, practical and efficient solution for the studied area.

5.4.2.2.Initialobservationsandsuggestionsofadaptivemeasurestoimprovedurabilityofhouses

Adaptingtomorefrequentandintensetyphoons

To deal with more frequent and intense typhoons in the future context, it is

necessary to set more requirements for durability of houses. Durability of houses to

typhoons is determined by construction technology, structure, joints and

connections, materials, topography and landscape, as well as shapes of houses and

roofs. Table 10 presents characteristics of houses that are vulnerable to typhoons,

and initial suggestions of improvement to enhance adaptation of houses in the

studied area. Further research is necessary for more thorough and specific solutions.


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Table 10. Vulnerability of houses in the studied area to typhoon and suggestions of solutions

Characteristics and Vulnerability

Improvements

Location Houses along canals, rivers, and in the field expose to strong winds.

- Choose location to avoid strong winds - Plant trees such as Melaleuca and bamboos around houses to avoid strong winds - Decrease the height of houses

Structure - Wooden or concrete columns are buried into the soil without foundation - Columns are based on stone or concrete base which are put on the ground - Foundation and concrete columns for the ground floor are without beams to form a strong grid

- Build stable foundation anchored to the ground - Reinforce the frame with beams, ties and bracings22

22 Bracings enhance durability of structure

Stilt brace in both principal directions

Source: Agarwal (2007)

Ceiling brace Source: Agarwal (2007)


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Connections Weak connections of columns to the ground or foundation, connections of foundation to the ground, connections of cladding to the house’s frame, connections of roof structure to the house, connections of roofs to roof structure

- Reinforce connections - Develop ties and bracings

Materials - Materials are not durable: low quality wood, thatch, steel - Structure, especially wood columns buried into the soil may be destroyed or damaged by flood water

Use durable materials (concrete, good quality wood) for structure components such as foundation, columns and beams, especially these exposed to floods

Light-weight materials can be easily flown away

- Enhance connections - Stable foundation - Add bracings - Enhance the roof with ties, nets, ropes, and heavy objects such as sand bags23

23 References on enhancing roofs’ durability with ties, nets, ropes, and sand bags (IBST 2007)

Vertical strips Source: IBST 2007

Connection of concrete strips to rafter to enhance the roof durability Source: Agarwal (2007)


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Horizontal elements (IBST 2007)

Details of horizontal elements of fibre-cement and metal sheet roofs

A-bracings (IBST 2007)

Rope tie-backs (IBST 2007)

Using ties to prevent the roofs from being flown away

Sand bags can be used to prevent metal sheet or fibre cement roofs from being flown away Source: IBST 2007


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Roof Lightweight low pitch roofs24 may create negative pressure, causing roofs easily flown away

- Construct roof with angle over 220 25 - Ensure roof attached to roof structure and roof structure to the house to avoid being blown up26

24 Metal sheet low pitch roofs have become more popular in the Mekong Delta as they are more affordable than tiled roofs and more durable than thatched roofs. 25 Wind causes uplifting forces on low pitch roofs, especially those with slope angle 00-100 (Giang, 2007). To lessen the effect of the uplifting forces on the roof, the roof pitch should not be less than 22º (Agarwal 2007). Hip roofs get lower uplift than gable roof, and pyramidal roofs get lowest uplift (GSDMA 2001).

Effects of roof slope on uplift forces Source: Giang (2007)

Effects of roof architecture on uplift forces Source: GSDMA (2001)

26 Roof connections

Tiled roof connections Source: Cao et al. (2007)


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- Strengthen connections at roof ridge and edges

Openings - Doors and windows may not be closed perfectly. There are open spaces between houses and outside (temporary cladding or partition). These factors increase wind pressure in the houses.

- Size of openings of opposite wall should be similar - Doors and windows should be close properly in time of typhoon, with latches

Verandah - Large verandah

- Separate verandah with the main house - Construct the ceiling to decrease wind pressure

Strengthen connections at roof ridge and edges Source: Agarwal (2007)

Metal sheet roof connections: Fixing of corrugated sheeting to purlins with bolts Source: Agarwal (2007)

Metal sheet roof connections


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House shape Recently there has been a trend to build houses in long rectangle shape, which is not good to resist high wind.

Construct houses with simple, compact and symmetrical shape to enhance performance of houses in typhoons27.

Source: Author (Photos taken in Tam Nong and Hong Ngu District, November and December 2009)

27 “A symmetrical building with a compact plan-form is more stable than an asymmetrical building with a zig-zag plan, having empty pockets, as the latter is more prone to wind/cyclone related damage” (GSDMA 2001). The best shape to resist high wind is the circular and polygonal plan shape. As rectangular shape plan is common among buildings, the best one among rectangular plan shapes is the square. The length of rectangular plan should be less than three times of the width (GSDMA 2001, Agarwal 2007).

Desirable orientation and plan form to reduce wind damage

Source: GSDMA 2001

The square and rectangle shapes resist strong winds better than the long rectangle and L‐Shape

Source: Agarwal 2007


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For cost reduction and sustainability, it is recommended that local and

available materials and construction technology should continue to be used.

However, it is necessary to conduct research to utilize and combine these materials

more efficiently. Creating new materials from local available materials is also a

potential.

In case measures of durability cannot be applied for each house, at least each

community should have houses that ensure safety for people in disastrous flood and

typhoons. Public buildings such as schools and community centers should be

durable and can be used to secure people’s life in disasters.

Adaptingtoincreaseofsalinityintrusion

As salinity in soil and water damages structure and materials of houses and

infrastructure, this factor should be considered when dealing with structure,

materials and connections of houses in the studied area, especially in the long term.

Materials of these components exposed to saline soil and water needs to be resistant

to salt and water. In the studied area, with the majority is houses on stilts, the

components that exposed to the soil and water are mainly the foundation and stilts,

majority of which is made of concrete, stone and brick. To pour concrete, it is

recommended using quality certified cement, ensuring the ratio of water to cement

and curing procedures and duration, being vibrated well to remove entrapped air,

increasing the cover of concrete over steel reinforcement, and minimizing cracks

and ponding of water on or next to concrete. Concrete with higher strength or

sulphate resistant and less permeable may be chosen. Brick that is resistant to water

and salinity should be used. In addition, damp-proof course and membrane may be


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used to prevent salt and water moving into the building. Under the slab there may be

a layer of sand and a damp proof membrane on top of the sand to improve drainage

and minimise water rise from the soil. On the building site, it is necessary to

maintain good drainage (DIPN 2003). In terms of houses on elevated ground, damp

proof course may be used under the brickwork to minimise water permeate into the

houses.

5.4.2.3.Initialsuggestionsofwaterharvestandstorage,anddomesticsewagesystemsforhouses

To deal with the challenge of shortage of fresh water in the future context, it

is suggested that the house has a rain water harvest and a system to store rain water.

This helps increase fresh water supply and avoid using polluted water from flood,

canals and rivers, ensuring sanitation of drinking water and domestic use. Figure

161 illustrates typical components of a rainwater harvesting system in the house.

Figure 162 illustrate rainwater harvesting practice of houses in the studied area, but

currently there are few houses harvesting and storing rainwater. This may be a result

of people’s lack of awareness and resources for developing and maintaining

rainwater harvesting and storing system. In the studied area, water can be stored in

pottery containers and tanks, which need to be higher than the flood level. Figure

164 illustrate a rain-water storage tank system under the roof.


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Figure 161. Typical components of a whole‐house rainwater harvesting system28

Source: Chelsea Green Publishing Website (2011)

Figure 162. Water harvest in the studied area

Source: Author (Long Khanh Disctrict, Hong Ngu District, December 05, 2009)

In addition, there should be efficient sewage systems in houses in the studied

area, to avoid polluting water by discarding wastes directly to the water. It is critical

to build toilets with septic tanks and minimize fish-pond toilets, especially in the

flooding area. In case fish-pond toilets are used, it is necessary to develop a natural

filtering system as described in Figure 163. Figure 165 illustrate a solution for

domestic sewage system in amphibious houses.

28 http://www.chelseagreen.com/content/free-your-water-fundamentals-of-a-rainwater-harvesting-system/, accessed April 16, 2012

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experts, local stakeholders, government, and practitioners concerning development

and disaster risk-reduction. Community-based adaptation approach may be useful in

this process of combining local wisdom and expertise.

Community‐basedadaptation–combininglocalwisdomandexpertise

Community-based adaptation (CBA) may empower vulnerable communities

to enhance their own adaptive capacity and resilience to cope with change of

hydrology and climate. CBA approach starts with the study of impacts of climate

change on communities and livelihoods. Then it carries out programs to raise

people’s awareness of climate change and adaptation. Planning processes at the

village, community and district levels with people’s participation are initiated and

implemented. Afterwards, the implementation process is monitored and

development of the adaptation model is studied (Ayers and Forsyth 2010).

CBA is a potential approach in the studied area because the people have

good relationships and the tradition of supporting each other (Section 4.2). In

addition, people are open-minded and receptive to new practices. If they are

supported with expertise and resources, it is expected that they would be willing to

participate and cooperate.

An example is a CBA project at district of Noakhali, South Bangladesh,

which aims at making homesteads more resilient to flood and cyclones. A design

team consisting of local specialists, architects, planners, an engineer, a geographer,

architecture students, builders, carpenters and users was formed to develop a

homestead design. The first house was built for a family selected by the team. Then,

new local design and construction teams were formed from the experienced

members of the first team to build others houses in the community. Design of houses


183

was based on traditional preferences incorporating modest technology to strengthen

or improve weak and vulnerable parts of the houses, including raising foundations,

reinforcing structures, raising platforms and planting trees along edges of houses

(Ayers and Forsyth 2010).

Community-based adaptation projects have brought benefits to local people

by figuring out people’s problems and coordinating people to solve these problems.

However, this approach’s limitation maybe considering some pieces of the problems

only and may miss the overall view. Therefore, it may lose sight of long-term and

large scale adaptation. Not all solutions to community-level problems can be found

at the local level, but may depend on social and economic realities or government

policies (Ayers and Forsyth 2010). There are many cases when such bottom-up

approach cannot solve critical problems and need some other kind of more holistic

and systematic approach of top-down land use planning and policy.

In addition, this approach’s nature is contextual and place-based. There

should be thorough analysis of the case study and initiated application at a small

scale before applying at a larger scale. The process of adaptation, including

analysing community’s development needs and cultural preference, should be

applied, not the specific technologies and assumptions of livelihoods in other

communities achieved from previous projects. Therefore, the monitoring and

evaluation system plays a significant role in community-based adaptation to

determine what measures work and can be applied in other places (Ayers and

Forsyth 2010).

In short, the CBA approach helps utilize local people’s knowledge and

experience to cope with climate change, and support them with expertise and


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funding. Advantages of this approach are its flexibility and implementation

possibility, as well as utilization of available resources and local wisdom. However,

as CBA may lose sight of long-term and large scale adaptation, such a bottom-up

approach needs to be integrated with a top down approach. It is also necessary to

consider the context of the place carefully before implementing adaptation models

and to develop an effective monitoring and evaluation system, because the nature of

this approach is contextual and place-based.

5.5.Chaptersummary

This chapter studies the future projection concerning hydrology change in

the studied area to 2050 and examines limitations of current adaptation of houses

and livelihoods in the future context. It also suggests a potential approach for land

use planning and adaptation of houses. This study suggests land use planning should

be integrated with hydrology and livelihoods, which are the critical elements in the

studied area. This can be possible by building a base of understanding of hydrology

and livelihoods, collaboration of relating institutions, reserving spaces for water,

control of development and full dyke construction, ensuring connectivity of houses

and waste management.

In addition, this chapter raises important issues for housing adaptation and

initial discussions of adaptation to each issue. For the community, it is critical to

enhance people’s awareness about challenges they are confronted with. Community-

based adaptation may potentially help combine local wisdom with expertise to

enhance the people’s resilience.


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Chapter6.Conclusion

As stated in Chapter 1, the research question of this thesis is: “How do land

use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area adapt to flooding in

the present context, and how will they adapt in the future context?” This question

consists of specific questions as stated below.

What are current adaptation strategies of land use and houses in the

upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area?

Is the hydrology in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

changing? How is it changing? What is the future context?

What are the limitations of current adaptation of land use and houses in

the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area in the current and future

context?

What should be the approach for land use planning and adaptation of

houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area?

Chapters 2 and 3 have presented the current challenges, literature, and

methods of this research, and Chapters 4 and 5 have answered the research

questions. This chapter summarizes the findings (Section 6.1), evaluates the

contributions of this thesis (Section 6.2), and suggests prospects for future research

(Section 6.3).


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6.1.Findingsofthethesis

6.1.1.Challengesofthestudiedareainpresentandfuturecontexts

The upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area is confronted by numerous

challenges including seasonal flooding, sea level rise, salinity intrusion, seasonal

tropical storms, climate change, pollution and reduction of fishery resources, and of

these, seasonal flooding has the most significant impact. Severe seasonal floods

cause loss of life and detrimental damages, but this annual inundation plays a critical

role in sustaining livelihoods of the inhabitants (Figure 166).

This thesis has studied changes relating to hydrology till 2050, including

irregular seasonal flooding, sea level rise, typhoons, degradation of soil and water

quality, lack of fresh water, and reduction of fishery resources. Seasonal floods

would be unpredictable in timing and duration, and flood peak levels would

fluctuate in a larger range. Floods may be less intense in general, but there would be

exceptionally high and low floods. Sea level is predicted to rise 30 cm in 2050 in the

medium emission scenario (MoNRE 2009), aggravating flood risks and making

salinity intrusion in the studied area more severe. Typhoons would be more frequent

and intense due to climate change. The soil quality would be severely degraded as a

result of sediment loss and increase of salinity and soil acidification. In addition,

water acidification, pollution and salinity intrusion would lead to shortage of fresh

water and degradation of water quality. Moreover, there would be significant

reduction of fishery resources caused by upstream dam construction. These

exacerbated risks may cause numerous difficulties to adaptation of land use, houses,

and livelihoods in the studied area (Figure 166).


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Figure 166. Challenges of the studied area in present and future contexts

Source: Author


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6.1.2.Adaptationatlandusescale

Currentadaptation

The master plan for the Mekong Delta, which was developed by SIUP-South

(2008), has not integrated flood control planning as a critical component. Current

adaptation measures to floods at land use scale are developed by SIWRP (1998b)

with the strategy “living with the flood” combined with flood control. However,

measures to deal with the flood mainly focused on flood control infrastructure and

strong human interference has been identified. The main measures to deal with

floods in the studied area are the construction of semi-dyke systems to control early

floods and canals to drain flood water quickly. In addition, construction of high

elevated roads improves connectivity of houses to infrastructure and services in the

flooding season (Figure 167).

Limitationsofadaptation

The current flood control infrastructure has several drawbacks. It obstructs

drainage, leading to longer flood duration, and decreases sedimentation. While it

decreases flooding in protected areas, it increases flooding in non-protected areas.

The risk of dyke failures, which may bring about devastating consequences, is also a

concern. In addition, due to the co-location of pollutive sources in industrial,

residential and agricultural land and the lack of sewage treatment system, pollution

is a serious problem.

In the future context, current adaptation at land use scale would have three

main limitations. First, drawbacks of flood control infrastructure mentioned above

would be exacerbated, hence the flood control planning approach needs to be more


189

adaptive. Second, pollution may become more severe due to low floods, population

increase, and agricultural and industrial development. Fresh water would become a

more important and scarce resource due to less intense floods and degraded water

quality. Third, as changes of hydrology and livelihoods may significantly affect land

use planning and houses, the lack of integration of hydrology and livelihoods into

land use planning may cause inadequate adaptation to uncertainties in the future

(Figure 167).


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Figure 167. Current adaptation at the land use scale and its limitation in present and future contexts

Source: Author


191

Anapproachforlanduseplanning

Critical elements in the area including hydrology and livelihoods should be

integrated in land use planning. It is recommended building a base of understanding

about hydrology with layers of necessary information including flood risk map,

network of green and blue spaces, existing fabric, and farmland in the studied area.

Research on possible changes to livelihoods and solutions for adapting to changes of

hydrology is also necessary to provide input for the land use planning process. In

addition, collaboration among institutions relating to hydrology, livelihoods and

land use planning needs to be promoted.

It is suggested that land use planning should aim towards living with floods

and reserving spaces for water. Mapping of flood risks and other layers of

information of the network of blue and green spaces, current fabric and farmland

would help determine and manage the locations and scales of development and

spaces for water in the studied area. These spaces not only store water and regulate

the floods but may also have other functions. Water may be filtered by biological

methods to be supplied to households and farms. This helps the studied area to cope

with shortage of fresh water and water quality degradation. The soil from digging

ponds may be used to elevate the platforms of houses or local roads. The network of

blue and green spaces can also be public amenities, natural reservoirs or spaces to

support livelihood activities.

It is also suggested that construction of full dyke systems should be limited

to maximize the linkage of floodplains. In terms of settlement, connectivity of

houses to roads and services should not be influenced by floods. Houses should have

access to canals to support livelihood activities and sustain people’s lifestyles. In

addition, it is necessary to plan the locations and scales of the industrial zones in


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consideration of their relationship with agricultural land in sharing waterways.

Pollution management and sustainable sewage and drainage system also need to be

developed.

6.1.3.Adaptationathousingscale

Currentadaptation

The main adaptations of houses in the studied area are with regard to

location and settlement patterns, elevation of houses, durability and construction,

flexibility and landscape. First, in terms of location and settlement patterns, areas

near river and canals are preferred for settlement due to the high elevation of

ground, fertile soil, fresh water, and convenient transportation. The relative location

of houses to roads and dykes and settlement patterns determine the extent of impact

of floods on connectivity of houses to transportation system, public services, and

farms. These factors also affect people’s daily activities and livelihoods. Meanwhile,

land forms affect cropping patterns, location of houses, which then affects

settlement patterns and impacts of floods on houses and livelihoods. These analyses

show the rationale of settlement arrangement in the studied area. They also reveal

that choosing housing location is a critical measure of adaptation to floods.

The second critical issue is elevation of houses. People change the

topography or raise floor levels by building houses on stilts and houses on elevated

ground. Building houses on stilts is a predominant adaptive measure in the studied

area because this can deal with the floods, match with people’s lifestyle and

livelihood activities, and is possible with a wide range of budgets. The third issue is

durability and choice of materials and construction technology. Light, local,

available, and affordable materials and available construction technology are used.


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Due to limited resources, more durable materials are prioritized for the structure of

houses. The fourth strategy is flexibility. Houses built by high quality wood can be

uninstalled and moved to other places, or raised to a higher level. People flexibly

utilize spaces of their houses for livelihood activities. Damaged houses can be

quickly repaired or rebuilt, using local construction methods and available materials.

The last strategy is adaptation of landscape. To avoid strong winds, people build low

houses and plant Melaleuca trees and bamboos surrounding the houses. Majority of

houses have a small jetty to connect to the canals.

Limitationsofcurrentadaptation

Objectives of adaptation of houses in the studied area include sheltering,

ensuring connectivity of houses to infrastructure and services, and supporting

livelihoods. These objectives are used as criteria to evaluate the adaptation of houses

in the studied area.

In the current context, in terms of sheltering, the majority of houses are built

with inadequate construction materials, so they are vulnerable to typhoons and

strong winds. In terms of connectivity, houses in the infield area have difficult

access to infrastructure and services, especially in the flooding season. Connectivity

of houses along low elevation roads may also be affected by floods. In terms of

supporting livelihoods, houses in resettlement residential dykes and clusters have

difficulties sustaining livelihoods.

There have been houses adapting well to floods and storms in current

conditions such as the traditional houses on stilts built by high quality wood. The

main challenge for implementing these adaptation strategies effectively is poverty

and lack of resources.


194

In the future context, in exceptionally intense floods, houses and

infrastructure can be severely damaged, and the floor levels of houses may be lower

than the peak flood levels. In addition, majority of houses in the studied area will be

even more vulnerable to more frequent and intense typhoons and salinity intrusion.

In terms of connectivity, the level of roads may be lower than the peak levels of

more intense floods, causing inconvenience for connecting houses to the roads and

services. Exceptionally high floods may damage roads and lead to disruption of

connectivity of houses.

Anapproachforadaptationofhouses

In the future context, besides dealing with floods, houses in the studied area

need to consider the issue of durability to deal with more intense and frequent

typhoons and increasing salinity intrusion, and develop water harvest and storage

systems and domestic sewage systems to deal with the shortage of fresh water and

pollution.This study also examines adaptation of houses to more intense floods in

more details based on a current strategy concerning the issue of elevation. In terms

of the community, enhancing people’s awareness about change of hydrology and

livelihoods is critical, as it enables people to be more proactive in adapting to

change. Community-based adaptation is a potential solution as it combines local

wisdom and expertise to foster resilience of the community.

6.2.Contributionsofthethesis

This thesis has three main contributions. First, the study enriches the

literature about adaptation of houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding

area. Houses in the Mekong Delta have been a result of resourceful adaptation of

natural and available materials and the environment to support the lifestyle and


195

livelihoods of the inhabitants. They serve as a rich source of ideas and inspirations

for planners and designers looking for alternatives for renewing settlement

environment in sustainable ways.

Second, the thesis examines land use and houses in the larger context, by

framing different domains of knowledge relating to houses and their connections.

Currently, houses may have been considered in relation to one or some aspects such

as flooding, master plan, and livelihoods activities, but have not been examined in

all critical connections. Resettlement houses built by the government have ensured

the safety and connectivity of houses in floods, but have been unable to sustain rural

activities and livelihoods. While houses built by the people can be improved to be

safe from floods, the problem in the future would be sustaining economic

livelihoods of farming and the quality of the environment. At the land use scale, the

lack of collaboration between the master plan and flood control planning, the

construction of hard defence infrastructure, and the contradiction of land and water

use for industry, agriculture and urban areas are some consequences of lacking a

thorough framework to examine the problems. Therefore, this study frames land use

and houses in in relation to hydrology and livelihoods, in the present and future

contexts, which help understand the complexity of critical problems. It brings

together primary data from site visits with secondary data of houses, the master plan,

flood control planning, the government’s resettlement programs, agricultural

development, hydrology change, climate change and vulnerability to form an insight

into and a new perspective to examine the problem.

Third, this thesis raises the need of integrating hydrology and livelihoods

into land use planning and housing design. The approach of land use planning to


196

deal with the floods should be one of living with the floods and reserving spaces for

water. In addition, the study suggests how the questions to be asked and what factors

to be considered to design better houses in the future context.

6.3.Prospectsforfutureresearch

As land use and houses in the studied area are affected significantly by

hydrology and livelihoods, it is important to conduct research about these issues to

support land use planning and housing design in the studied area. First, the current

predictions of the future context are mainly general and qualitative, hence

suggestions of an approach for land use planning and adaptation measures for

houses are also general and qualitative. It is necessary to study future projections

relating to hydrology to provide more elaborate predictions. It is important to

investigate specific information about flood regime and cumulative impacts of

factors affecting the studied area such as flooding, sea level rise, climate change, and

pollution, to provide the background for studying adaptation strategies. To postulate

specific adaptive measures, details about the inundation depth, duration, the extent

and frequency of typhoons, and the extent of salinity and drought, etc. would be

needed.

Second, research on changes to and solutions for livelihoods in the future

context is critical to sustain livelihoods. It is crucial to integrate understanding about

changes of hydrology and livelihoods into land use planning to find sustainable

solutions for land use planning and houses. Necessary input knowledge relating to

hydrology for land use planning, as suggested above, includes flood risk map,

network of green and blue space, existing fabric, and farmland in the studied area.


197

Third, more detailed and applicable solutions to improve adaptation capacity

of houses to floods, typhoons, salinity, lack of fresh water and pollution are

necessary. It is important to study about low-cost houses which are resistant to

floods, typhoons and salinity. Methods to install and combine local and available

materials more efficiently, or create new materials from local available materials

may help in enhancing durability of houses at an effective cost. How to make it

feasible to implement rain water harvest and storage systems, as well as domestic

drainage and sewage systems on a large scale in the studied area is also an important

question. In addition, studies on possibilities of implementing community-based

adaptation are necessary, as they may support the local people with the expertise to

solve the above problems.


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Appendices

Appendix1.Photosillustratingseverefloodin2011

Since 2000, flood in 2011 is the most severe one, with water level close to peak

level in 2000. This proves the trend of less intense flood in general and occasional

severe flood.

Housesandschools

Figure 168. Houses in Tan Hong District are inundated by flood in 2011

Source: Thanh Dung (2011a)


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Figure 169. Households in Binh Thanh Village, Hong Ngu District moved to temporary shelters on

the roads

Source: Thanh Dung (2011b)

Figure 170. A house in the flooded field



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Figure 171. Brick houses in Tan Hoi Village surrounded by flood in 2011


Figure 172. Floating houses on Tien River in Dong Thap Province

Source: Huu Nguyen (2011)


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Figure 173. A school in Binh Thanh Village has to be closed due to flooding


Transportation

Figure 174. Rural roads elevated roughly 4 meters were inundated, causing difficulties for

transportation



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Figure 175. People is banking inundated roads in An Binh B Village to prevent the flood

Thanh Dung (2007a)


214

Figure 176. Children in An Giang Province go to school by boats

Source: Huynh Hai (2011)


215

Livelihoodactivities

Figure 177. People in Bung Ram Hamlet, Hung Dien B Village, Tan Hung District, Long An Province

are harvesting the rice in flood

Source: Q.K. and V.T. (2011)

Figure 178. Flood in the Plain of Reeds

Source: Luc Tung (2011)


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Dykes

Figure 179. Flood water may make dykes in the Mekong Delta breached

Source: Hai Thanh (2011)

Figure 180. People and local authority are protecting the dykes

Source: Luc Tung (2011)


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Figure 181. Dykes are damaged. Soldiers and young people stay awake all night to strengthen the

dykes to protect the rice fields


Figure 182. Strengthening dykes to protect rice fields in Tu Thuong Canal, Hong Ngu Town

Source: Thanh Dung (2011b)


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Appendix2A.HydropowerdamsontheMekongRiver’smainstream

Mainstream Status Installed Dam Active Completion

Projects Capacity Height Storage

(MW) (m) (mcm)

Upper Mekong Basin 15,550

China Manwan Existing 1,500 126 258 1996

Dazhaoshan Existing 1,350 110 240 2003

Jinghong Existing 1,500 118 230 2010

Xiaowan Under construction 4,200 300 9,800 2012

Nuozhadu Under construction 5,500 254 12,400 2017

Gongouquiao Planned 750 130 120

Ganlanba Planned 150

Mengsong Planned 600

Lower Mekong Basin 14697

Laos PDR Pak Beng Planned 1,230 76 442

Luang Prabang Planned 1,410 68 734

Xayaburi Planned 1,260 32 225

Pak Lay Planned 1,320 35 384

Sanakham Planned 700 38 106

Pak Chom Planned 1,079 55 12

Ban Koum Planned 1,872 53 0

Latsua Planned 686 27 0

Don Sahong Planned 240 8.2 115

Cambodia Stung Treng Planned 980 22 70

Sambor Planned 2,600 56 465

Source: World Bank (2004), ICEM (2010), International River Network (2002)


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Appendix2B.StatisticsofmainhydraulicinfrastructureintheMekongDelta Structure Whole Delta Plain of Reeds Long Xuyen

Quadrangle Ca Mau

Peninsula Trans Bassac

Project L (km)

Project L (km)

Project L (km)

Project L (km)

Project L (km)

Main Canal

133 3,190 45 1,068 64 1,056 36 633 32 1,039

Canal ‐ Level I

1,015 10,961 343 3,116 428 5,294 200 1,945

Canal ‐ Level II

7,656 26,894 2, 187 6,742 2,313 7,374 3,297 13,689 1,072 3,363

Canal ‐ Level III

36,853 50,019 3,400 7,200 7,467 16,692 24,773 21,853

Large Sluice

984 169 38 322 455

Small Sluice

20,517 2,491 1,915 6,000 10,111

Flood Control

13,332 7,099 4,485 1,748

River Dyke

281 281

Sea Dyke

253 21 63 306 133

Pumping Station

1,151 338 319 494

Source: Marchand, Dam and Bucx (2011)


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Appendix3.Ananalysisofthestudiedhouses

The contexts of studied houses

The selected site is part of the most heavily flooded area in the Mekong

Delta, with a flood depth of over 3 meters in 2000, and flood duration over 3 months

annually. The studied area comprises of Tam Nong, Tan Hong and Hong Ngu

districts, and a small area of Thanh Binh, Thap Muoi, Cao Lanh districts, with an

area of around 1, 400 km2 (Figure 8). Most of the population live in rural areas and

rely on agricultural production, in which rice cultivation is the most important.

Criteria to choose the studied houses

The houses were selected for studies based on the diversity of location

(infield area or area along rivers), flood levels, patterns of settlement, housing

typology (houses on stilts, traditional houses, floating houses, old houses, etc.),

durability (houses built of durable and temporary materials), and livelihoods

activities (farming, fishing, day-to-day hired labor, raising fish, etc.). The diversity

of the houses helps understand the factors affecting adaptation. Besides the 34

houses in the studied area, 13 houses in the nearby area with special typology such

as floating houses and Champa houses were studied to provide an understanding of

possibilities of adaptation in the area.


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Table 11. A summary report of the studied houses

Location of 47 houses studied

Context Characteristics

The studied area: 34 houses (Refer to Figure 43 and Figure 44 for the illustration of locations)

Flood depth of over 3 meters in 2000, and flood duration over 3 months annually

Rural area Rely on agricultural

production

A. The Plain of Reeds (typical infield deep flooding area): 20 houses

3 – 3.5 meters of inundation in 2000

Flood duration in this area is longer than area along the rivers due to more difficult drainage.

Livelihoods: Agricultural production (especially rice production) in the dry season, and going fishing in the flooding season

Majority of people do farming in the dry season and go fishing in the flooding season. There are also hired labours working on a day-to-day basis

Rural area Poverty is a critical

problem

Houses on stilts, including traditional houses on stilts and temporary houses on stilts, are the most popular. There are also several houses on elevated ground. Majority of people living in the traditional houses on stilts were satisfied with the houses and their adaptive capacity to current environmental challenges in the Plain of Reeds.

Majority of houses scatter in lines along the roads and canals, and several in the rice fields.

Houses support livelihoods activities.

Majority of houses are built by contemporary materials.

The traditional houses on stilts adapt well to the current challenges.

The floor levels of majority of houses were raised over the flood peak in 2000. Currently, typhoons are a critical concern due to the temporary materials and structures of houses.


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A1. Tam Nong District: 13 houses 12 houses on

stilts A house in the

resettlement residential line at Tram Chim Town

Characteristics

House A1.1.1 in Phu Duc Village

Pattern of settlement: Road – House – Canal Type: Traditional house on stilts Durability: Durable house built by good quality wood

and tiled roof. Livelihoods: Doing farming in dry season and selling

fertilizer all year round Adaptation strategies:

- House on stilts - Partially raising the ground floor - The ground floor is used to store farming tools

Limitations of current adaptation: This house adapts well in the current context.

Improvement the owners want: The owners were satisfied.


Pattern of settlement: Road – House - Canal Type: Temporary house on stilts Durability: Concrete ground floor columns, temporary

materials (low quality wood (cajuput and bamboo), thatch, metal panels) for other structures.

Livelihoods: Farming in the dry season and going fishing in the flooding season.

Adaptation strategies: - House on stilts - The ground floor is used to store farming and fishing

tools Limitations of current adaptation: The house floor level is

higher than the flood peak in 2000. Improvement the owners want: more durable materials


Pattern of settlement: Canal – Road – House – Garden – Farm

Type: Temporary house on stilts Durability: temporary materials: low quality wood

(cajuput and coconut), metal panels, MDF Livelihoods: farming and gardening in dry season and

being hired labourers in flooding season Adaptation strategies:

- Elevating the ground floor


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- Elevating the garden to cultivate vegetable (which is rare in Tam Nong District)

- Collecting the rain water and filter the water before using (as they notice degradation in water quality)

Limitations of current adaptation: Flood peak in 2000 was 5 cm higher than the house floor level.

Improvement the owners want: concrete house with brick walls

House A1.2.1 in Phu Cuong Village

Pattern of settlement: Canal – Road – House Type: Temporary house on stilts Durability: Temporary materials: low quality wood

(cajuput and bamboo), thatch, metal panels Livelihoods: Being a hired labourer, selling

miscellaneous things Adaptation strategies: House on stilts Limitations of current adaptation: The house is very

vulnerable to strong winds Improvement the owners want: Make the house durable


Pattern of settlement: Canal – Road – House Type: Traditional house on stilts Durability: Durable house with concrete columns, good

quality wood and tiled roof. There is not a foundation. Livelihoods: being office workers and doing farming Adaptation strategies: House on stilts with floor level

higher than flood peak in 2000 Limitations of current adaptation: Concern of typhoons

and strong winds Improvement the owners want: Building concrete house

with brick walls on elevated ground


Pattern of settlement: Road – House – Canal Type: Traditional house on stilts Durability: Durable house with concrete columns and

foundation, good quality wood and tiled roof Livelihoods: Farming in dry season and fishing in

flooding season Adaptation strategies

- House on stilts - Elevating the front yard - The ground floor is used to store farming tools

Limitations of current adaptation: The house adapts well in the current context.

Improvement the owners want: The female owner and daughter preferred concrete houses with brick walls but the male owner was satisfied with the traditional house on stilts as he thought it was cooler.


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House A1.3.1 in Phu Tho Village

Pattern of settlement: Road – House - Canal Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: temporary materials: no foundation, low

quality wood (cajuput and bamboo), thatch, metal panels, and plastic sheets.

Livelihoods: Farming in dry season and fishing in flooding season, raising pigs and poultry

Adaptation strategies: - House on stilts - Elevating the front yard - The ground floor is used to store farming tools

Limitations of current adaptation: The houses floor was inundated 50 cm in the flood in 2000.

Improvement the owners want: More durable materials


Pattern of settlement: Road - House Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: temporary materials: low quality wood,

thatch, and plastic sheets. Livelihoods: Farming in dry season and fishing in

flooding season Adaptation strategies: House on stilts Limitations of current adaptation: Flood peak level in

2000 was around the house floor level. Improvement the owners want: more durable house to be

safe in strong winds and typhoons


Pattern of settlement: Road - House Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: temporary materials: low quality wood, metal

panels Livelihoods: farming, raising fishes and poultry Adaptation strategies: House on stilts Limitations of current adaptation: The house floor is

higher than flood level in 2000.


Pattern of settlement: Road - House Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: temporary materials: low quality wood, metal

panels, no foundation Livelihoods: hired labourers. They did farming before,

but gave up. Adaptation strategies: House on stilts Limitations of current adaptation: Flood peak level in

2000 was lower than the floor level Improvement the owners want: Concrete house with

brick walls on elevated ground.


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Pattern of settlement: Canal – Road – House – Farm Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: temporary materials: low quality wood, metal

panels, plastic sheets, thatch, no foundation Livelihoods: Farming in dry season and fishing in

flooding season, selling drinks Adaptation strategies: House on stilts Limitations of current adaptation: Improvement the owners want: Owners wanted to elevate

the ground.


Pattern of settlement: Canal – Road – House – Farm Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: temporary materials: low quality wood,

thatch, no foundation Livelihoods: Farming in dry season and fishing in

flooding season Adaptation strategies:

- House on stilts - Building the house low to avoid strong winds - Planting Melaleuca trees around the house to avoid

strong winds Limitations of current adaptation: Flood peak level in

2000 was around the floor level of the house. Improvement the owners want: Concrete house with

brick walls on elevated ground.

House A1.4 in the resettlement residential line at Tram Chim Town

Pattern of settlement: Road – House – Canal Type: a house in resettlement residential line Durability: concrete structure frame built by the

government; temporary materials added by residents: low quality wood, thatch, metal panels, plastic sheets

Livelihoods: being hired labourers and producing incense Adaptation strategies: Resettlement project:

- The government raised the ground and built a concrete frame

- The house owners added partitions, doors and windows

Limitations of current adaptation: People’s livelihoods are negatively affected. Typhoons and strong winds are a concern.

Improvement the owners want: Improving livelihoods and building with more durable materials


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A2. Tan Hong District: 3 houses

Characteristics

House A2.1 in Tan Cong Chi Village 1

Pattern of settlement: Road – House Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: temporary materials: low quality wood

(cajuput and bamboo), thatch, metal panels, cloth Livelihoods: being hired labourer, catching frogs Adaptation strategies:

- House on stilts - Partially raising the ground floor - The ground floor is utilised to raise poultry.

Improvement the owners want: same typology built by durable materials

House A2.2.1 in An Phuoc Village

Pattern of settlement: Road – House – Large canal Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: temporary materials: low quality wood, metal

panels, thatch Livelihoods: being hired labourer in dry season, catching

fishes in flooding season Adaptation strategies

- House on stilts - The ground floor is used to store fishing tools

Limitations of current adaptation: Being worried by typhoons and strong winds

Improvement the owners want: single sloped roof so that the house looks brighter and neat (maybe because the current roof is too low and not allowing much sunlight into the house)

House A2.2.2 in An Phuoc Village

Pattern of settlement: Road - House Type: self-designed house according to a house the

owner saw in Ha Giang Province Durability: durable house with concrete columns, good

quality wood and metal roof Livelihoods: gardening after retiring from the work in the

army Adaptation strategies

- Raising the ground floor almost to the road level (above flood peak level in 2000)

- Houses on stilts Improvement the owners want: The owners were

satisfied.


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A3. Thanh Binh District: 1 houses

Characteristics

House A3 in An Phong Village

Pattern of settlement: Canal –Road – Garden – House – Farm (a house on the natural levee)

Type: traditional house on stilts Durability: concrete foundation and ground floor

columns, high quality wood, tiled roof Livelihoods: Farming and cultivating vegetables in dry

season, go fishing in flooding season Adaptation strategies:

- House on stilts - The ground level is partially elevated - The ground floor is used to store fishing tools


A4. Thap Muoi District: 2 houses

Characteristics

House A4.1 in Hung Thanh Village

Pattern of settlement: Canal – Road – House – Farm Type: traditional house on stilts Durability: concrete foundation and ground floor

columns, low quality wood, metal panels Livelihoods: Farming in dry season, living on remittance

from daughters (who are workers in Ho Chi Minh City) in flooding season

Adaptation strategies: - House on stilts - Partially raising the ground floor - The ground floor is utilised to raise poultry and store

farming tools Limitations of current adaptation: flood in 2000 was

about 0.5 meter higher than the ground level and 2 meters higher than the farm level

Improvement the owners want: A ceiling to make the house cooler.

House A4.2 in Hung Thanh Village

Pattern of settlement: Canal – Road – House Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: low quality wood, metal panel roof Livelihoods: farming in dry season, catching fishes in

flooding season Adaptation strategies:

- Raising the ground floor 30 cm higher than flood level in 2000

Limitations of current adaptation: the house has been no longer affected by floods since the ground floor was raised.


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Improvement the owners want: concrete house with brick wall, so that the house is durable to typhoons and strong winds

A5. Cao Lanh District: 1 house

Characteristics

House A5 in Gao Giong Village

Pattern of settlement: Canal – Road – House – Farm Type: traditional house on stilts Durability: good quality wood, tiled roof Livelihoods: farming in dry season, catching fishes in

flooding season Adaptation strategies

- House on stilts - Partially raising the ground floor - The ground floor is utilised to raise poultry and store

farming tools Limitations of current adaptation: The ground floor was

not inundated in flood in 2000. Improvement the owners want: The owners were

satisfied.

B. Along Tien River: 14 houses

Context

Over 4 meters of inundation and 3 – 3.5 meters of inundation in 2000

Flood arrives and drains sooner and quicker than in the infield area.

Livelihoods: Agricultural production (rice production, gardening, raising fishes, livestock, and poultry), catching fishes, and other servicing activities. There are more possible livelihood activities in this area compared to the infield area (Area A) because this area has fertile soil and plenty of fresh water from the Mekong River. In addition, this area has more diverse economic activities as it is more developed compared to

Characteristics

Houses on stilts with quite similar characteristics as in the Plain of Reeds (Area A).

The old houses at Long Khanh Village are on low stilts due to the natural high elevation of the ground (natural levee). These households can do gardening work thanks to the fertile soil and fresh water from the Mekong River. In the past, the old houses belonged to wealthy and powerful households, usually with the weavers’ trade. Now people in the village no longer work on this trade.


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the infield area. There is severe threat of

erosion along the Mekong River

Hong Ngu District: 14 houses B1: 6 houses on

stilts in the area inundated over 4 meters in 2000

B2: 8 houses on stilts in the area inundated 3 – 3.5 meters in 2000

Characteristics

House B1.1 in An Lac Ward

Pattern of settlement: Canal – Road – House – Farm Type: traditional house on stilts Durability: durable house with concrete foundation, high

quality wood, roof by metal panels Livelihoods: farming in the dry season, raise fishes and

livestock Adaptation strategies:

- House on stilts - Partially raising the ground floor - Building a store house to store farming tools and

harvest Limitations of current adaptation: The house adapts well.

Flood peak in 2000 almost reached the house floor level. Improvement the owners want: The owners were

satisfied.

House B1.2 in Thuong Phuoc 2 Village

Pattern of settlement: House in the field Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: columns of concrete and high quality wood,

there is not a foundation but a stone and cement base for each column, other materials are temporary: low quality wood, metal panels

Livelihoods: do farming in the dry season, being hired labourer

Adaptation strategies: - House on stilts - Building a store house to store farming tools and

harvest - The house is low to avoid strong winds, especially in

the field


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Limitations of current adaptation: - Flood peak in 2000 was 35cm higher than the house

floor. - Difficulty in transportation. A 12-year-old daughter

died due to a fall from the narrow dyke to the water in the field.

- Concern for typhoons and strong winds Improvement the owners want: more durable materials

House B1.3.1 in Thuong Phuoc 1 Village

Pattern of settlement: Road – House – River Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: ground floor columns of concrete, other

materials are temporary: low quality wood, metal panels and thatch

Livelihoods: catching fishes in the river Adaptation strategies:

- House on stilts - Using the ground floor to store fishing tools

Limitations of current adaptation: Erosion of the river bank

House B1.3.2 in Thuong Phuoc 1 Village

Pattern of settlement: Type: traditional house on stilts Durability: durable house with concrete foundation and

columns, high quality wood, and tiled roof Livelihoods: farming in the dry season, running a renting

service of farming machines Adaptation strategies:

- House on stilts - Partially elevate the ground level - Using the ground floor to store farming tools and also

frequent staying in daytime - Harvest rain water

Limitations of current adaptation: The river bank eroded 20 meters in around a year.

House B1.4.1 in Binh Thanh Village

Pattern of settlement: Road – House – Farm Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: temporary materials: low quality wood, metal

panels Livelihoods: Sawing wood, selling drinks Adaptation strategies:

- House on stilts - Building the house with 2 levels - Using ropes to stabilize the house to the ground (to

deal with strong winds) Limitations of current adaptation: Flood in 2009 was 50

cm lower than the lower ground of the house. Improvement the owners want: Concrete house with


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brick walls. In the near future, they wanted to build a foundation for the house.

House B1.4.2 in Binh Thanh Village

Pattern of settlement: Road – House - Canal Type: temporary house on stilts Durability: temporary materials: low quality wood, metal

panels Livelihoods: farming in the dry season and going fishing

in flooding season, and raising cows and poultry Adaptation strategies:

- House on stilts - Storing farming and fishing tools on the ground floor

Limitations of current adaptation: The house level was around the flood peak level in 2000

House B2.1.1 in Long Khanh B Village

Pattern of settlement: Road – House – Garden Type: the old house Durability: durable house with columns by stone and

high quality wood, high quality wood floor and tiled roof Livelihoods: do farming, gardening (cultivating fruit

trees, raising livestock Adaptation strategies:

- House on stilts - Raising the level of the front yard

Limitations of current adaptation: Flood peak in 2000 was 80cm lower than the house floor. The old roof tiles had been no longer in the market, so it was difficult to do the roof maintenance.

House B2.1.2 in Long Khanh B Village

Pattern of settlement: Canal – Road – Garden – House – Garden

Type: traditional house on stilts combined with elevated ground

Durability: durable house with concrete house and brick walls on the ground floor and traditional typology on the upper floor

Livelihoods: Cultivating flowers for commerce, and vegetable and fruit trees for family use.

Adaptation strategies: - Raising the level of the ground - Combining the concrete elevated ground with the

traditional house on stilts Improvement the owners want: The owners were

satisfied.

House B2.2.1 in Long Khanh A Village

Pattern of settlement: Road – Garden - House Type: the old house Durability: durable house with columns by stone and

high quality wood, high quality wood floor and tiled roof


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Livelihoods: having the fields rented, gardening, raising fishes

Adaptation strategies: Raise the level of the ground Improvement the owners want: The owners were

satisfied


Pattern of settlement: Road – Garden – House – Garden Type: the old house Durability: durable house with columns by stone and

high quality wood, high quality wood floor and tiled roof Livelihoods: gardening (tobacco), farming and raising

cows Adaptation strategies: House on stilts Limitations of current adaptation: Flood in 2000 was 60

cm lower than the house floor Improvement the owners want: The owners were

satisfied and want to conserve the house.


Pattern of settlement: Road – Garden – House Type: traditional house on stilts (built 1985) Durability: a durable house with columns by stone and

high quality wood. There are bases by 4*6 stones under columns. Other components are built by high quality wood, metal panels, and tiled roof.

Livelihoods: Remittance from children (The owner was 82 years old).

Adaptation strategies: House on stilts Limitations of current adaptation: The flood peak in 2000

was 1.3 – 1.4 meter lower than the house floor level. Improvement the owners want: The owner was satisfied.


Pattern of settlement: Road – Garden - House Type: the old house (built 1933) Durability: a durable house with columns by stone and

high quality wood, other components: high quality wood and tiled roof. There are big stone bases under columns.

Livelihoods: farming and raising fishes and pigs Adaptation strategies:

- House on stilts - Collecting rain water

Limitations of current adaptation: Flood in 2000 was 0.8 meter lower than the house flood.

Improvement the owners want: Brick walls for the house.


Pattern of settlement: Road – Garden - House Type: the old house (built 1924) Durability: a durable house with columns by stone and

high quality wood, other components: high quality wood and tiled roof. The house has been conserved by owners.


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Livelihoods: Remittance from children (The owner was old).

Adaptation strategies: House on stilts Improvement the owners want: The owner was satisfied.


Pattern of settlement: Road – Garden – House Type: the old house (130 years) Durability: a durable house with columns by stone and

high quality wood, other components: high quality wood and tiled roof. There are long bases of thick wood under the columns. Brick walls were built on the ground floor. The house has been conserved by owners, and an additional concrete house with brick walls was built.

Livelihoods: business Adaptation strategies: Elevating the ground level.

C. Nearby area: area along Tien and Hau Rivers: 13 houses

Context

3 meters to over 4 meters of inundation in 2000

Flood arrives and drains sooner and quicker than in the infield area.

Livelihoods: rice farming, raising fishes, catching fishes, commercial activities, etc.

More developed and urbanised than the infield area

Characteristics

Houses on stilts share quite the same characteristics with houses on stilts in the studied area.

Floating houses can float on the river hence they are not affected by floods. This typology may provide potential lessons and solutions to extreme and unpredictable floods in the future. Most people living in floating houses for livelihoods reason.

Champa houses are traditional houses on stilts of Champa people in the Mekong Delta. Their livelihood activities are different from Vietnamese in flooding season: they do not go fishing but may weave the fish nets or cloth, or selling clothes.


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C1. Tan Chau District: 4 houses 1 houses on stilts 2 floating houses 1 Champa house

Characteristics

House C1.1.1 in Long Chau Village

Pattern of settlement: Road – House Type: traditional house on stilts Durability: Generally, this house is durable with columns

by concrete and high quality wood, and tiled roof. Some temporary materials are used for the walls: metal panels, wood and thatch for the walls. There was not a foundation but there were bases for the columns.

Livelihoods: The owner was working at the local Women Organisation, while the other sister was working at nail service.

Adaptation strategies: house on stilts Limitation of adaptation: Flood peak level in 2000 was

1.8 meter lower than the house floor Improvement the owners want: She preferred a concrete

house with brick walls as she believed it was safe and tidy.


Type: floating house Durability: materials: high quality wood, metal panel.

The floating structure: empty barrels. Livelihoods: The husband is a car driver, the wife is at

home. They raised fishes before but then gave up. Adaptation strategies: Float on the water. Limitation of adaptation: There is not much difference

between the dry and flooding season. The house may be slightly moved when there are strong winds.

Improvement the owners want: She preferred a concrete house with brick walls, but she was also satisfied with this floating house.


Type: floating house Durability: materials: high quality wood, metal panel.

The floating structure: empty barrels. Livelihoods: The wife raises fishes while the husband is a

hired labourer working in Ho Chi Minh City. Adaptation strategies: Float on the water Limitation of adaptation: The house may be slightly

moved when there are strong winds Improvement the owners want: If she had not raised

fishes, she would have preferred a house on the land, but as she was raising fishes, she preferred living in a floating house. She preferred a larger house.


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House C1.2 in Chau Phong Village

Pattern of settlement: Road – House Type: Champa house Durability: a durable house built by high quality wood

and tiled roof. Livelihoods: Farming. Adaptation strategies: House on stilts Limitation of adaptation: The flood peak level in 2000

was around the house floor level.

C2. An Phu District: 7 houses 5 floating houses 2 Champa house

Characteristics

House C2.1 in Da Phuoc Village

Type: Floating house Durability: materials: high and low quality wood, metal

panels. Floating structure: bamboos, empty barrels, plastic water tubes, and a boat.

Livelihoods: catching fishes. The owners do not raise fishes but stay in floating house because they do not have land. In flooding season, they cannot catch fishes because fishes have gone into the fields.

Adaptation strategies: - Floating on the water - In the flooding season, they move the house nearer to

the river banks to avoid strong winds. - This house is not durable, so it was built low and

small to float easily and avoid strong winds. Limitation of adaptation: inconvenient transportation to

the land. Their little children are driven to the school by boat, then walk 1.5 km to school.

Improvement the owners want: They preferred to live on the land. In the near future, they wanted to make the house more spacious and decorate the house.


Type: Floating house Durability: materials: high quality wood for the structure,

low quality wood, metal panels and MDF for other components. Floating structure: 4 empty barrels, 150 bamboos, and a boat.

Livelihoods: commerce. They sell miscellaneous things in the centre market at the river bank. They raised fishes before but then gave up.

Adaptation strategies: Floating on the water. In the flooding season, they move the house nearer to the river banks to avoid strong winds.

Limitation of adaptation: - Inconvenient transportation - Concern of typhoons


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Improvement the owners want: The owners preferred living on the land. They also had land but it was too far from the market. They were living in the floating house for their livelihoods.


Type: Floating house Durability: materials: high quality wood, metal panels. Livelihoods: Raising fishes (5000 fishes) and selling coal Adaptation strategies: Floating on the water. In the

flooding season, they move the house nearer to the river banks to avoid strong winds.

Limitation of adaptation: Inconvenient transportation Improvement the owners want: The owners preferred

living on the land.


Type: Floating house Durability: A durable house with high quality wood and

metal panels. The owners also have 3 other neighbouring houses to raise fishes. Floating structure: plastic water tubes, empty barrels, and bamboos.

Livelihoods: Raising, collecting and selling fishes. Adaptation strategies: Floating on the water. In the

flooding season, they move the house nearer to the river banks to avoid strong winds.

Limitation of adaptation: Inconvenient transportation Improvement the owners want: The owner was satisfied.

He preferred the floating houses to houses on the land as he found it cooler and more comfortable.


Pattern of settlement: Type: traditional house on stilts Durability: high quality wood columns, temporary

materials of other components: low quality wood, metal panels, and thatch

Livelihoods: Farming, gardening, raising fishes and poultry, and one member work for the bus service. Going fishing in the flooding season.

Adaptation strategies: - House on stilts - Partially raise the ground floor - Using the ground floor to store farming and fishing

tools. Limitation of adaptation: the house floor is higher than

flood peak in 2000 Improvement the owners want: They preferred concrete

house with brick walls and one-slope roof.


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Pattern of settlement: Road – House Type: Champa house Durability: a durable house with high quality wood and

tiled roof Livelihoods: Farming, selling clothes Adaptation strategies: House on stilts Limitation of adaptation: the house floor is higher than

flood peak in 2000 Improvement the owners want: The owners were

satisfied. They may want to build an additional concrete house with brick walls as a kitchen.


Pattern of settlement: Road – House Type: Champa house Durability: : a durable house built by high quality wood

and roof by metal panels Livelihoods: Farming, selling souvenirs to travellers, and

going fishing Adaptation strategies: The ground floor is used as a

souvenir shop to travellers. In flooding season, it is moved to the upper floor.

Limitation of adaptation: Flood 2000 inundated the house floor 5 cm for a week.


C3. Chau Doc Town: 2 houses

Characteristics

House C3.1 in Chau Phu A Village

Pattern of settlement: Road – Path – House – River Type: temporary house on stilts on the river, connecting

to the road by a small wooden path. Durability: materials: high and low quality woods, metal

panels Livelihoods: Being hired labourers Adaptation strategies: House on stilts on the river with

the length of stilts of 7 meters. Limitation of adaptation:

- Flood in 2000 was 30 cm lower than the house level - Concern of typhoons and strong winds, especially in

flooding season. The roof may be flown way. Improvement the owners want: They dreamed of a

concrete house with brick walls and one-slope roof on the land.

House C3.2 in Chau Phu A Village

Pattern of settlement: Road – Path – House – River Type: temporary house on stilts on the river, connecting

to the road by a small wooden path. Durability: materials: high and low quality woods, metal


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panels Livelihoods: Making crafts Adaptation strategies: House on stilts on the river with

the length of stilts of 7 meters. Limitation of adaptation:

- Flood in 2000 inundated the first floor 50 cm. - Strong winds and typhoons are the most critical

concern. Old people and children evacuate to schools in typhoons.

Improvement the owners want: They dreamed of a concrete house with brick walls on the land.

Source: Author


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Appendix4.Housestudysample

A house in Phu Tho Village, Tam Nong District29

This section describes how a house in the studied area is studied. Below is an

example of the information collected and analysis for each studied house. The

information collected includes the location, settlement pattern, typology, basic

measurement, construction and durability, the occupation of owners, facilities,

current adaptation strategies, limitations of adaptation, and plenty of photos of

spaces inside and outside the houses. There are also a set of drawings presenting the

houses’ sections with different flood levels in the history, current adaptation of

activities in the dry and flooding season through plan and section diagrams, and

sections of the houses in extreme flood levels in the future scenarios.

1. Location

Address: Phu Tho village, Tam Nong District, Dong Thap Province

In the field

Along the soil local road

Figure 183. Location of the house

29This study assumes that the topography of the area does not change considerably since the year 2000


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Figure 184. Location of the house in year 2000 flood map (2.5 – 3.0 meter of inundation in year

2000 flood)

2. Settlement pattern

Canal – Pathway – House – Farm

3. Type

Temporary thatched house

4. Basic measurement

Length: 6.5 meters

Width: 6.5 meters

Highest column: 3.1 meters

Lowest column: 1.7 meters

Length of stilts: about 2.5 meters

5. Construction and durability

Temporary house

No foundation, columns are fixed in the ground

Structure: low quality wood (Eucalyptus)

Floor: bamboo

Cladding: thatch


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Roof: steel

Repair the house regularly. Change the columns, floor and cladding every 4 – 5

years

6. Occupation of owners

Husband and wife

Dry season: farming practice

Wet season: fishing activities

Raise some chickens for family use

Three children are going to the university and schools

7. Facilities

Water: no tap water, harvest rain water and buy mineral water for drinking, use

water from canals for other use

No electricity in flooding season. In dry season, they use a part of electricity

provided for the pump station.

Use neighbour’s fish-pond toilet

Wastes are burnt

8. Current adaptation

The house is on stilts to increase the level of the house

Partially elevate ground around the house

Use ground floor for storing farming and fishing tools in dry season. In flooding

season, the pathway’s side is used for storing.

The house is low to avoid strong wind

Many Melaleuca trees are planted along the pathway to help protect the house

from strong wind.


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Connect to the water (small jetty) for water transport. However, in dry season,

the pathway is more regularly used, while water transport is used mainly to

transport heavy things. In flooding season, the family travels by boat.

Shifting occupation in dry and wet season

Adapt very well in lifestyle and have high productivity in farming and fishing

practice

9. Limitations of adaptation

Adapt well in lifestyle, landscape (trees) and the house’s height (low)

The house is not durable and has to be repaired regularly

The floor is around the peak flood level in year 2000

10. Expectations of improvement

The house owners have elevated a nearby ground. After their children finished

studying, they would build a brick house on elevated ground.

11. Photos


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Figure 185. Some views of the house

Source: Author

12. Drawings

Figure 186. The house with flood levels in 1998, 2000, 2009 and exceptionally high and low flood in the future scenario

Source: Author


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Figure 187. The house plan in dry season Source: Author

Figure 188. The house section in dry season

Source: Author


245

Figure 189. The house plan in flooding season

Source: Author

Figure 190. The house section in a nice flood

Source: Author


246

Figure 191. The house section in flood in 2000

Source: Author

Figure 192. The house section in flood in 1998

Source: Author


247

Figure 193. The house section in exceptionally high flood in the future scenario

Source: Author

Figure 194. The house section in exceptionally low flood in the future scenario

Source: Author