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Chapter – 5

SOCIETY AND WOMEN

The concept of society is very vast. Society always has been a combination of

people of different nature and temperament. It is made up of many families, religion,

caste, customs and practices. Every custom and practice has its own relevance and

none of the customs and practices takes place without the intervention of women.

From birth to marriage and till death the females form an integral part of all these.

This chapter is an attempt to deal with all those customs and practices of the Sultanate

period in which women played a significant role. These were marriage, divorce,

polygamy, customs related with marriage, education of girl child, position of widows

in society, sati, jauhar and purdah .A description of the dress, ornaments and

cosmetics is also dealt with.

The sources studied for exploring such practices related to women are Tarikh-

i-Firozshahi of Ziauddin Barani, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi of Shams Siraj Afif, Rehla of

Ibn Battuta, Tarikh-i-Shahi of Ahmad Yadgar, Masalik-ul-Absar-fi-Mumalik-ul-

Amsar of Shihab-al-Din-al Umari, Khair-ul-Majalis of Hamid Qalandar, Fawaid-ul-

Fuad of Amir Hasan Sijzi, Akhbar-ul-Akhyar of Abdul Haq Muhaddis, Hasht Bihisht,

Matlaul Anwar, Nuh Siphir and Ijaz-i-Khusravi of Amir Khusrau, Waqiat-e-

Mushtaqui of Rizquallah Mushtaqui and Tarikh-i-Daudi of Abdullah Khan Daudi.

Education

The followers of Islam are guided by the Quranic injunctions. Quran contains

the God’s words which were revealed to the Prophet (PBUH). Quran lays much

emphasis on acquiring ilm or knowledge. Incidentally, the first Revelation begins with

the verse Iqra Bismi rabika lazi khalaq which means read in the name of Thy Lord,

who has created. Similarly, another verse of the same chapter tells that is ‘He who

taught the use of pen’-Allazi allama bil qalam. And also, ‘He who teacheth man what

he knowth not’-allamal insana malam yalam. Thus, by the means of these verses it is

enjoined upon the believers to acquire, disseminate, and transmit all knowledge to

others.1

1 S. Z. H. Jafri, ‘Education and Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval India’ in S. Z. H. Jafri, ed.,

Recording the Progress of Indian History, Primus books, Delhi, 2012, p. 134.

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God recommends to his followers acquisition of knowledge. “Acquire

knowledge because he who acquires it in the way of the Lord, perform an act of

piety; who speaks of it praises the Lord; who seeks it adores God; who dispenses

instruction in it, bestows alms; and who imparts it to its fitting objects performs an act

of piety. The acquisition of knowledge enables its possessor to distinguish what is

forbidden from the allowed. It is our friend in the desert, our society in solitude, our

companion when bereft of friends; it guides us in misery; it is our ornament; it serves

as armour against our enemies. With knowledge the servant of God rises to the

heights of goodness and to a noble position, associates with sovereigns in this world,

and attains to the perfection of happiness in the next.”2

The Prophet (PBUH) has also laid same emphasis by the means of his sayings.

He is reported to have said for every Muslim whether male or female, that it is a duty

to acquire knowledge. We could say that no discrimination is placed between men and

women on the matter of acquiring knowledge. Knowledge was considered as

important for mankind as the Prophet (PBUH) suggest them to travel as far as

possible in order to gain knowledge. Seek knowledge though if it is in China.3

Dispensation of knowledge started at the time of Prophet (PBUH) and

continued onwards. At the time of second khalifa a number of learned men were

allowed to give lecture in mosque. They were called Qass 4which means narrator. The

subject of their recitation was the verses of Quran and traditions of the Prophet. In

this way, the mosque became not only the place for worship but also a centre for

education. Later on these mosques developed along with them a building where

education was imparted to the pupils. These structures were called madrasas, a more

institutionalized form of higher education.

Beside tradition, philosophy, theology, history, geography, astronomy was also

the subjects taught before the end of the Umayyad. The Abbasid rule was the Golden

period of the Muslim learning. The women in Islamic Arab were no less inferior to

their male counter parts. The ladies of the Prophet’s family were noted for their

2 Ameer Ali, Ethics of Islam, Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli, Delhi, 2009, p. 47. 3 A. M. A. Shustery, Outlines of Islamic Culture, Banglore Press, Banglore city, 1938, Vol. I,

p.162. 4 Ibid., Vol. I, p. 163.

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learning, their virtues and their strength of character.5 Bibi Fatimah, the beloved

daughter of the Prophet (PBUH) was attributed with immense intellectual attainments

that she could participate in the controversial discussions like that of succession.

Other examples were of Zainab, Darimiyya, a poetess and a propagandist in the cause

of Ali against Moaviya.6

In India the Muslim women during the Sultanate period could not attain the

standard of perfection as their preceptors had in other Islamic world. Later on, in

Mughal period there were a number of royal ladies gifted with the wealth of

knowledge. Some examples are Gulbadan Bano Begum, the daughter of Babur who

wrote Humayunnamah, Salima Sultan the niece of Humayun , Maham Anga, the wet

nurse of Akbar, was well educated and founded a college at Delhi.

There were institutions for the education of boys and girls. These were maktabs

and madrasas. Maktabs were the centers which imparted primary education to boys

and girls. These were a kind of primary schools where elementary instruction was

imparted in reading and writing Arabic and Persian.7 The girls in India received their

primary education in primary schools called maktabs. The emergence of makhtabs in

various parts of India was the result of the arrival of people from the various central

Asian cities and towns. They brought Islamic culture with them. The master taught

the children there to read and write.8

Madrasas were the institution meant for higher education. The author of

Masalikul Absar, Shihabuddin Al Umari has written that in Delhi there are 1000

madrasas. He praises the Sultans of Delhi for their generous support to these

institutions of learning and states that thousands of faqih are appointed in makhtabs

whose allowances are paid by the diwans. The main subject was qirat and the pupils

were taught writing skills. Most of the children there were orphans.9

5 Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, University Paperbacks, London, 1965, p. 255. 6 Outlines of Islamic Culture, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 772. 7 A. L. Srivastava, Medieval Indian Culture, Shiva Lal Agarwal and Co., Agra, 1964, p. 98. 8 Irfan Habib, Medieval India- The Study of A Civilization, National Book Trust, New Delhi, 2007,

op. cit., p. 78. 9 Shahabuddin Al Umri, Masalikul Absar Fi Mumalik ul Amsar, Eng.Tr., Ottospies, A. Rashid and

S. Moinul Haque, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 1943, p. 24.

146

Important information given by Al-Umari is, there were maktabs (primary

schools) exclusively for girls and in the coastal western regions of India, and even the

women memorized the Quran.10

Another traveller Ibn Battuta specifically tells us about the women of the

township of Honawar (an old seaport, now destroyed, on the western coast of India)

and says that in the city I saw thirteen schools for girls and twenty three for boys.11

S.Z. H. Jafri opines that perhaps it was extraordinary large Muslim population and to

fulfill the need of male and female education.12 Ibn Battuta praises the extraordinary

quality of women folk to memorize the Quran.13

According to a Sufi saint Shaikh Nasiruddin Mahmud; the act of teaching in a

maktab was a noble and virtuous act. He states that, it is a sinless act as the teacher is

associated with the teaching of Quran and one who teaches Quran always remains

with ablution14 which is considered good in Islam and same is applicable to the ladies

who teach the holy book. The women of a village named Salahi are appreciated by

Sheikh Nasiruddin Chirag Delhvi in Khair-ul-Majalis.15

Teaching and acquiring knowledge both the activities were considered noble.

We find reference of the Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji’s reign, where women were

engaged in receiving higher education. Ghiyasuddin Khilji established madrasa

exclusively for women because he considered their education essential for the

progress of the country.16

Not only Mohammad bin Tughlaq but his predecessor Mohammad Ghori was

the first Muslim King of India who deemed his duty to impart education in India.

Some schools and seminaries were set up first in Ajmer for the spread of Islamic

education by him.17

10 Masalikul Absar Fi Mumalik ul Amsar, Eng.Tr., Ottospies, A. Rashid and S. Moinul Haque, op.

cit., p. 24 11 Rehla, Eng. Tr., Mahdi Husian, op. cit., p.179; see also The Travels of Ibn Battuta, op. cit., pp.

230-231. 12 ‘Education and Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval India’, op. cit., p. 137. 13 Rehla, Eng. Tr., Mahdi Husain, p. 179. 14 Hamid Qalandar, Khair-ul-Majalis, ed., K. A. Nizami, Aligarh, 1959, Majlis no- 32, p. 107. 15 Ibid., p. 107. 16 S. M. Ziauddin Alavi, Muslim Educational Thought in the Middle Ages, Atlantic Publishers and

Distributers, Delhi,1988, p. 8. 17 S. M. Jaffar, Education in Muslim India, Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delhi, New Delhi, 1972, p. 38.

147

Iltutmish was very much inclined towards providing education and interested

in imparting education to his children. Raziya was well versed in Quran and she could

read and write it with correct pronunciation.18 The royal ladies who acquired

knowledge were interested in imparting it. The women of the harem were also

interested in patronizing men of letters and huge amount of money was given to them

as grant. An early example of an educated lady is of Mah Malik, the granddaughter of

Alauddin Jahansoz. Minhaj speaks highly of her in his Tabaqat.19 Her handwriting is

praised by Minhaj, he says that her hand writing was like “Royal Pearls.”20 The chief

queen of Iltutmish, Shah Turkan patronized men of letters and huge amount of money

was given to them as grant.21

The Muizzi College at Delhi was one of the best centers of learning in the reign

of Razia. The college was so rich and magnificent that it gave the impression of Jama

Masjid and was once attacked by the Karamathians.22 The Quran and Islamic

teaching were the basis for everything. The pattern of education in India was similar

to the pattern in the other Islamic countries. The study of religion with respect to

Hadith (traditions of the Prophet) and its allied branches were the first to attract the

attention of Muslim scholars in India.23

The most important ruler of the Sultanate period who worked for the sake of

education was Firozshah Tughlaq. He was an eminent educationist who appointed

teachers in various parts of India. He renovated and reconstructed the old madrasas.

Not only he ordered the reconstruction of old madrasas but also attain the credit of

establishing the new schools and colleges with residential facility for the students.24

It is asserted that Sikandar Lodi appointed teachers in Makhtabs and Madrasas

in various cities throughout his dominion presumably making provision for them

18 Mohammad Qasim Ferishta, Tarikh-i-Ferishta, Naval Kishore, Lucknow, 1865, Vol. I, p. 68. 19 Minhaj-us-Siraj, Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Eng. Tr., H. G. Raverty, Oriental Books, Reprint 1970,Vol. I, p.

392; N. N. Law, Promotion of Learning in India During Muhammadan Rule, Longmans, London, 1916, p.xxvii; see also Education in Muslim India, p. 192.

20 Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Eng. Tr., H. G. Raverty, Vol. I, p. 392; see also, Education in Muslim India, op. cit., p.192.

21 Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Eng. Tr., H. G. Raverty, Vol. I, p. 630. 22 Education in Muslim India, op. cit., p. 41. 23 ‘Education and Transmission of Knowledge in India’, op. cit., p. 135. 24 Medieval India-The Study of Civilization, op. cit, p. 79.

148

through land or cash grant.25 During his reign huge amount of money was distributed

from the royal treasury two times a year for the scholars, learned men, widows and

other deserving people.

However, education was in practice an activity which was mostly confined to

the elite, the masses had limited access to it. 26 There were no madrasas for the girls

of the masses. In the very early age some girls did go to madrasas meant for the

boys.27 The fifteenth century Persian dictionary pictures a girl at a primary school at

Malwa region. We can clearly notice that the girls used to get primary education

together with boys.

Fig. From Mifitah u’l Fuzala; See also, Irfan Habib, Medieval India the Study of a

Civilization. The picture confirms the presence of girl education in maktabs (primary

schools) in India.

The regional kingdoms also provided an impetus to the process of education.

The practice of educating girls did not remain confined to the Sultanate of Delhi but

most of the regional kingdoms were ahead of each other in imparting education to

girls.

25 Rizquallah Mushtaqui, Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, ed., I. H. Siddiqui, Rampur, 2002, p. 18; see also

Medieval India-The Study of Civilization, op. cit., p. 79. 26 ‘Education and Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval India’, op. cit., p. 135. 27 Talat Aziz, ‘Education of Muslim Girls in India’ in S. M. Azizuddin Husain, ed., Madrasa

Education In India -Eleventh to Twenty First Century, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, 2005, p. 111.

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Among the list of the learned ladies of the regional kingdoms one was Chand

Sultana, the most favourite queen of Deccan. She was a woman of excellent education

and extra ordinary talent. She was skilled in arts of warfare. She spoke Arabic,

Persian, Turkish, Kanarese and Marathi and her hobbies included painting flowers.28

Bibi Raji, the wife of Mahmud Sharqi of Jaunpur had also contributed a lot in

the field of education. She got constructed a Jami Masjid, a monastery and a madrasa

in Jaunpur and gave structure the name of namazgah.29 She also assigned some

scholarship to professors and stipends to students.

The princesses of the royal families were educated by learned teachers. What

was the mode of education is not exactly clear. Later on, when the girl grew up her

education was greatly restricted by the purdah system. The females when reached the

age of puberty were avoided co-education. Sources are silent on this matter it is

assumed that may be because of purdah they were exempted from higher education.

Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji of Malwa is known for his outstanding efforts for

girl education. He established a madrasa (secondary school) exclusively for girl

education because he considered their education essential for the progress of the

country. He had three schools within his harem. The harem of the Sultan had fifteen

thousand women; these women acted as school mistress who used to teach the ladies

present inside the palace.30

Great Bahmani king Firoz (1397-1422) was a good linguist and Ferishta

records that in his harem there were ladies of various races, such as Arabians,

Circassians, Georgians, Turks, Europeans, Chinese, Afghans, Rajputs, Bengalis,

Gujratis, Telinganese, Marhattas and others with each of whom he could converse in

her own language.31

28 Education in Muslim India, op. cit., pp. 192-193. 29 Ibid., p. 128. 30 Promotion of Learning in India During Muhammaden Rule, op. cit., p. 201. 31 Tarikh-i-Ferishta, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 376-370; see also Promotion of Learning in India During

Muhammaden Rule, op. cit., p. 84.

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There were certain highly educated royal ladies who were capable of teaching

the children in the harem such example are of the aunt of Ismail Adil Shah of Bijapur

(1510-1534). His aunt named Dilshad provided guidance and was his tutor.32

Qanun-i-Islam, a book by Jafar Sharif is an interesting piece of work on

education. We learn from the source that there were schools for girls. After a boy or

girl initiated his or her education a maktab ceremony was performed. The pupils were

given Eidi by their teacher. It was a written document on a colored or Zarafshani

(illuminated) paper which was read by the child to the parents who made rich presents

to the teacher.33

We have references in the sources that the tazkir meetings were also attended

by women. In the tazkir meeting of Malik-ul-Muzzakkrin Khwaja Afzal the audience

along with learned and pious men were also Indian women (jewari-i-Hindi) veiled

ladies and those of seraglio assembled to hear the tazkir (admonition). The women

due to observing purdah were kept separate. At the same time the process of learning

did not reach beyond the ladies of respectable families. We come to know that in that

tazkir meeting among other women there was present Shamsa Khatoon, the

songstress; after she was detected she was asked to leave the meeting by the learned

speaker of the tazkir meeting.34

Education to girls was given according to their requirements. Most of the time

they were given better moral, intellectual, and practical training within the walls of

their houses than the women of today who receive education in proper schools.35

Before the advent of Islam in India, knowledge was the monopoly of the upper

class viz; the Brahmins. Whatever may be the reason they refused to impart education

to the low-caste.36 By the coming of the followers of Islam in India, education was

imparted in schools to all the children in society irrespective of religion, caste, sex,

and financial condition. Now, the Hindus who had been deprived from the attainment

of knowledge received education side by side with their Muslim classmates, and there 32 Tarikh-i-Ferishta, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 72; Promotion of Learning in India During Muhammaden

Rule, p. 93. 33 Ibid., pp. 200-201. 34 Society and Culture in Medieval In India, op. cit., p. 140. 35 Education in Muslim India, op. cit., p. 8. 36 Ibid., p. 14.

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existed no ill feeling like caste discrimination and enmity between the people of two

religions. Thus, this was the important aspect of the primary schools which flourished

in almost all the parts of Indian subcontinent.

Contrary to this assertion of Jaffer, Altekar states that the percentage of literacy

among the Hindu women declined during the Muslim rule.37 Altekar calls the advent

of Muslim rule in India as a political revolution which affected the education of Hindu

girls of respectable families. Though, at the same time he holds the view that raising

of the marriageable age of girls helped in the increase of female education to a

remarkable strength.38

Blaming purdah practice as an obstacle in the attainment of higher education

cannot be regarded correct, as purdah was an integral part of all the Muslim societies

mainly Arab, but still the women like Fatima, Zainab, Sakina, Darimiyya, Queen

Zubaida attained high merits in the field of education.

There must be other reasons which would have discouraged the women in the

Sultanate from acquiring higher education. No doubt, the nobility and other higher

classes of Muslims in India imparted their daughters religious education and

sometimes military too. It seems that contemporary historians refrain from providing

information on female education.

Although in India, education existed after and before the Sultanate period but

we do not find references of royal ladies or princess who attained high degree of

literary education as Muslim ladies in other parts of Islamized world.

Yet we can conclude that the education of the Muslim princesses in India was

not neglected sometimes they did show some progress which was creditable

Marriages in the Sultanate

Men and women both are important part of society and their union results in

the growth of population. The common means of union of a man and a woman is by

37 A. S. Altekar, The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization from Prehistoric Times to the Present

Day, Motilal Banarsi Das, Banaras, 1956, p. 23. 38 Ibid., p. 24.

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the means of marriage in this way marriage forms an important part of the society.

When marriage is solemnized it constitutes of various aspects. We shall try to

examine what were the types of marriages that took place in society during the

Sultanate rule and problems related with them.

The nature of companion or the selection of proper match for a boy or girl has

been always a problem and the same was the circumstances in the Sultanate period.

Eleventh century Sufi saint Ali Hujwiri speaks on companionship with women and

mentions the following tradition of the Prophet, Four qualities must be sought in a

woman i.e. beauty, nobility, wealth and religion.39 The Prophet (PBUH) also stated

that, a married man perfects half of his religion.40

In Islam, marriage is a civil contract made by mutual consent between a man

and a woman.41 “Marriage” says the Ashbah w’an Nazair,42 “is an institution ordained

for the protection of society, and in order that human beings may guard themselves

from foulness and unchastity” “Marriage is a sacrament, in so much that in this world

it is an act of ‘ibadat’ or worship for it preserve mankind free from pollution.”……”it

is instituted by divine command among members of the human species.” “Marriage

when treated as a contract is a permanent relationship based on mutual consent on the

part of a man and woman between whom there is no ban to a lawful union.43

As our Prophet (PBUH) states beauty, nobility, wealth and religion as criteria

for selecting a suitable match there are specified degree of prohibition on the grounds

of consanguinity and affinity, fosterage. Persons who come within these prohibited

degrees are called Mahrams i.e; for forbidden to each other. All those are called na-

mahrams or those with whom marriage is not forbidden.44 Thus marriage can take

place between na-mahrams.

39 Outlines of Islamic Culture, op. cit.,Vol. II, p. 503, see also Syed Maqbool Hussain, The Sayings of

The Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), Adam Publishers, New Delhi, 2002, p. 270. 40 Outlines of Islamic Culture, p. 503. 41 Ibid. 42 There exist books and chapters named Ashbah wa n Nazair in Islamic jurisprudence meaning

similarities and example. 43 The Spirit of Islam, op. cit., pp. 246-247. 44 K. M. Ashraf, Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, Munshiram Manoharlal, New

Delhi, 1969, p.174.

153

During our period of study permanent marriages as well as temporary

marriages were found. Although we have rare reference of temporary marriages in the

medieval period but we have its references in the history of Islam. Later on according

to Badauni this type of marriage was considered unlawful by Imam Abu Hanifa and

Imam Shafai but Imam Malik and Shias considered them as legal. Later on Malik Qazi

issued a fatwa considering muta marriage valid for both Hanafis and Shafities.45

Reuben Levy is of the view that the object of muta marriage was not the

establishment of a household or begetting of children, but simply to provide a man

with a wife when he was away from home on military service or for other reasons.

The system obviously left itself to abuses and it differed so little from prostitution that

the traditions declare that the Mohammad made it unlawful.46

The types of marriages is not a matter of much importance, how far the royalty

and society during the Sultanate period helped in arranging marriages of poor girls is

dealt with in this chapter. Sultan, the head of the state considered his prime duty to

arrange the necessities for the marriage of poor girls. There had an increase in the

worries of the poor parents of when their daughters attained puberty 47 as they could

hardly arrange for their marriages. May be this was the reason the birth of a daughter

in a family was not welcomed. It is evident from the writings of Afif that early

marriages were encouraged.48 The custom of early marriage was already prevalent in

Hindu society. There was no fixed age of marriage. Both Hindu and Muslims

favoured an early marriageable age for boys and girls.49

We come to know from the source that the poor Muslims and the widows came

from all sides and got the names of their daughters registered in the Diwan-i-Khairat

and received large provisions from the side of the Sultan at the time of marriage of

their daughters.50 A department known as diwan-i-Khairat was established by Firoz

45 S. A. A. Rizvi, The Wonder That Was India, Vol. II, London, 1987, p.200. 46 Reuben Levy, Social Structure of Islam, Cambridge University press, Second Edition, 1957, p.

115. 47 Ibid., p.106, No age limits have been fixed by Islam for marriage and quite young children may be

legally married although a girl is not handed over to her husband until she is fit for marital congress.

48 A. Rashid, Society and Culture in Medieval India, Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta, 1969, p. 131.

49 Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 179. 50 J. M. Banerjee, History of Firozshah Tughalq, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1967, p. 83.

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Tughalq which fulfilled the needs of the poor people in the Sultanate especially for

arranging marriage of poor girls. This was set up under the supervision of Sayyid

Amiri Miyan, he was entrusted with the task of providing relief to the needy persons,

by the means of this department of diwan-i-khairat. As the name itself suggest the

money was given in charity to the poor and needy.51 Whenever any petitioner came

for financial help he was interrogated in order to check the genuineness of the petition

after which the provisions were granted to the needy. For the purpose of charity three

degree of grants was available, first, second and third. These were fifty, thirty or

twenty five tankas.52 Sultan Sikandar Lodi was in practice of giving his sleeping dress

and bed every day to orphan girls for dowry.53

One of the wives of Sultan Alauddin Khilji who was the daughter of

Muizuddin gave huge amount in charity to a person who was worried about the

marriage of his daughter, when she came to know that the poor man was associated

with Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya.54

In the same way we find many references in the Sufi text where Sufis helped in

arranging marriages of poor girls. The nobility was also not left behind in this

generous act of helping the poor parents and providing those means and money in

order to arrange the marriages of their daughters. We see that they helped by making

collection of useful articles like garments, bed sheets and other articles from their

houses for the dowry of the daughters of the poor parents.55

Malik-ul-Umara, Fakhruddin, the Kotwal during the reign of Sultan Balban

made arrangements for the dowry of poor girls. It is said that he appointed twelve

thousand men who were only to recite the Quran every time. He used to change his

dress each day and the same discarded dress was given to poor and needy people

every day. Same was done with the bed sheets. Each year he gave dowries to

thousands of poor girls.56

51 History of Firozshah Tughalq, op. cit., p.83; see also Agha Mahdi Husain, Tughlaq Dynasty,

S.Chand and Co, New Delhi, 1976, pp.422-423; see also Society and Culture in Medieval India, p. 131.

52 Tughalq Dynasty, op. cit., p. 423. 53 K. A. Nizami, Royalty in Medieval India, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1997, p. 68. 54 K. A. Nizami, The Life and Times of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli, 1991,

p. 109. 55 Mohammad Wahid Mirza, The Life and Works of Amir Khusrau, Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i- Delli, Delhi,

1974, p. 28. 56 Ibid.

155

Mian Zainuddin one such noble at the court of Sultan Sikandar Lodi provided

the necessary things to the father of the daughter, everything he needed for the

marriage.57 Masnadi Ali Zainuddin was in service of Khan-i-Jahan Lodi and was

allowed by Sikandar Lodi to succeed him. He used to give the poor parents the items

required for the marriage; the items given were garments and other household

requirements like cots, besides the dowry.58

The dowry for marriage was arranged when the marriage was fixed but the

search of a suitable match for marriage was a question in itself. The search for

suitable match was the primary concern of the parents. In context a hadith of Prophet

(PBUH) has been quoted in the beginning of the chapter. Marriage was fixed by the

consent of parents when we talk about the common folk but in case of the Sultans

there were various reasons. The Sultans usually had more than one wife.

Most of the time wars of conquests ended in capture of a large number of

women, some of whom were of respectable families and had to be taken as wives and

supported by the conquerors.59 In this case the Sultan sometimes conquered Hindu

territories and took Hindu princess in his harem. Usually, we find the Sultan

respectfully marrying these princesses. We know how Alauddin Khilji conquered

Gujrat and Kamala Devi, the queen of Karen Vagela was honourably brought to Delhi

and Alauddin took her into his harem.60

Shams Siraj Afif mentions about the matrimonial alliance between the father of

Firoz Tughlag and his mother who was a Hindu girl, daughter of Ranamal Bhatti. Afif

narrates an interesting story behind the marriage61 of this Hindu princess with Rajab,

the father of Firoz Tughlaq.62

Prince Khizr Khan Son of Alauddin Khilji, after a prolonged love affair with

Deval Rani, a Hindu princess married her. This love affair was not accepted by his

mother and she not allowed him to marry her, instead she married Khizr Khan with

57 Rizquallah Mushtaqui, Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, Eng. Tr., I. H. Siddiqui, ICHR, New Delhi, 1993, p.

75. 58 I. H. Siddiqui, ,‘ Life and Culture under the Lodi Sultans’ in I. H. Siddiqui, Composite Culture

Under the Sultanate of Delhi, Primus Books, Delhi, 2012, p. 82. 59 Outlines of Islamic Culture, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 503. 60 Mohd. Habib, K. A. Nizami, A Comprehensive History of India- The Delhi Sultanate, Vol. V, part-

1, People’s Publishing House, New Delhi, reprint, Nov.2006, p. 334. 61 Narrated in the second chapter of the thesis. 62 Shams Siraj Afif, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, ed., Maulvi Vilayat Husain, Calcutta, 1891, p. 45.

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one of her niece. Later, noticing intensity of the affair she was compelled to marry

Khizr Khan with Deval Rani. Haji Dabir in Zafar- ul- Walih gives an account of an

extra-marital affair of Sultan Alauddin Khilji with one of his cousin.

As told earlier there were various reasons behind the marriages that took place

in the Sultanate. We notice that there was a matrimonial relationship of every Sultan

with his predecessor family.63 K.A. Nizami opines that ‘Matrimonial relations with

the ruling house had great value for the aspirant to the throne. When the supporters of

Sayyidi Maula planned a coup to place Sayyidi Maula on the throne, they arranged

his marriage with the daughter of Nasiruddin Mahmud.64

An example of marriage of Razia with her rebellious chief Altunia is an example

of a marriage where political intensions were involved.

During the days when Sultan Razia was struggling to save her empire by the

rebellious nobles there held the successful rebellion of Ikhtiyaruddin Altuniah. The

rebellion was such planned that Aitgin, another noble of Razia and Ikhtiyaaruddin

Altunia secretly planned the revolt against Razia Sultan. Her faithful slave and noble,

Jamaluddin Yaqut was killed and Razia was imprisoned by them. Now, the nobles

who collectively but secretly helped each other in rebellion against Razia raised

Muizuddin Bahram Shah on the throne. But the new Sultan had Aitgin assassinated

within a month and Altunia could expect no reward for his rebellion.65

Razia took advantage of this situation and married Altunia expecting that this

marital contract will be of advantage for both. Razia expected to win back her

freedom through this alliance, and Altunia saw in it an opportunity to enhance his

status. Thus we can see that often marriages were solemnized for the benefit of each

other. Sometimes Sultans married the women of the conquered territories with whom

often they fell in a jovial relationship. Rare were the cases where marriages were

arranged forcefully by the parents like that of prince Khizr Khan with his mother’s

niece (daughter of Alp Khan). Last but not the least the history of Muslim rule in

63 Royalty in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 85. 64 K.A Nizami, Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the Thirteenth Century,

Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2002, footnote, p. 144. 65 A Comprehensive History of India, op. cit., p. 242.

157

India is full of references of such marriages which were the result of a love affair

between a prince and a princess.

The sources of the Sultanate period beautifully depict these royal marriages.

Amir Khusrau in his masnavi Deval Rani Khizr Khan, beautifully describes the

marriage ceremony of Khizr Khan with Deval Rani.

Similarly, Ibn Battuta in his work Rehla provides a description of the marriage

of Amir Saifuddin Gada. The description of the marriage ceremonies in both the text,

Deval Rani Khizr Khan and Rehla shows that the atmosphere of the marriage

ceremonies was dominated by the women. These lines from the Rehla help in

describing the marriage ceremony.

The two days before the marriage of Amir Saifuddin the palace was decorated

by the ladies, they applied henna to his hands and feet. Some entertained him with

dance and music.

Contrary to the nature of marriages in royalty there were a common group of

people which married in their same class. Ibn Battuta informs us that the Samira

people marry among their own clan and avoid marrying among other than their own.66

Consideration was given to the lineage of the family and purity of blood was

considered the primary necessary feature in a match.

Syed Wajihuddin Mashedi, the darogha of Tamil, did not marry his daughter at

the proper age because he could not find a boy belonging to a family with purity of

blood. Lastly, she was married to Moinuddin Sanjari with a great disparity of age

between the two.67 This show how considerate the people of those days towards the

purity of blood that they accepted their daughter to remain unmarried or marrying

with someone with a more difference of age rather than marrying the girl with the one

who does not belong to a respectable family with any purity of blood.

The Afghans usually married within their own tribe and also considered the

purity of blood. When Sikandar Lodi proposed Miyan Khwaja Ismail Jalwani for the

marriage of his daughter with himself, Jalwani reminded the Sultan that he was the 66 Rehla, Eng. Tr., Mahdi Husain, op. cit., p. 6. 67 Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p.132.

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son of a goldsmith’s daughter.68 Bibi Ambha, also known as Hema, the Hindu wife of

Sultan Bahlol Lodi was a goldsmith’s daughter. Bahlol Lodi got attracted with her

beauty, fell in love and married her. The son born to them was Sikandar Lodi.69 The

history of Muslim rule in India has abundant references of Muslim rulers who married

a Hindu woman. Alauddin Khilji married the mother of Deval Rani, and kept her

respectfully in his harem. Hoshang Shah of Ghori dynasty married a Hindu girl

Ambika.70

We have references where Sultans have made matrimonial relations with the

Sufi families. Sultan Mohammad Bin Tughlaq married his daughter, Bibi Rasti with

grandson of Shaikh Fariduddin. The proposal of marriage was sent from the side of

the Sultan.71

Shaikh Yusuf was the descendent of Bahauddin Zakariya at Multan. There the

people had declared him the Sultan after which the Rai Sirah drove him away. Shaikh

Yusuf moved to Delhi where Sultan Bahlol Lodi cemented his tie with Shaikh Yusuf

by arranging a matrimonial alliance between his daughter and Shaikh Yusuf’s son

named Shaikh Abdullah Qureshi.72 Sultan Sikandar Lodi became disciple of Sufi

Sayyid Mohammad Gawas, the founder of Qadiri order in India and gave one of his

daughters in marriage to him. He said to have done this in obedience to the command

of Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani who was the original founder of this order, who

appeared to him in a dream and ordered him to give his daughter to Muhammad

Gawas in marriage.73

Customs and ceremonies related to marriage

A stage was reached in marriage negotiations when the parties agreed to the

wedding of their son and daughter. The agreement was finalized by a small ceremony

called ‘mangni’ that is betrothal ceremony. After this formal recognition a date was

fixed for the marriage and elaborate preparations began.

68 Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p.132. 69 Yadgar Ahmad, Tarikh-i-Shahi, Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta, 1939, p. 17. 70 Pushpa Prasad, Sanskrit Inscriptions of Delhi Sultanate, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1990,

introduction, p. xix. 71 Syed Athar Abbas Rizvi, A History of Sufism in India, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1975,

Vol. I, p. 134. 72 ‘Life and Culture under the Lodi Sultans’, op. cit., p. 72. 73 John S. Subhan, Sufism its Saints and Shrines, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 1999, p. 264.

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After all the members had gathered and all necessary preparations were

finished, the barat comprising of bridegroom, his family members and relatives head

towards the house of the bride. Reaching there, amidst various ceremonies like Nikah,

marriage takes place in cordial atmosphere. After these ceremonies and songs bride

departs from her house along with the bridegroom. If the bride was too young for the

marriage she returned to her parents after a short time and the final ruksat was fixed at

a later date.74

K. M. Ashraf is of the view that Muslims borrowed almost all ceremonies and

customs from Hindus.75 But there were many reasons behind the matrimonial

alliances made by the Kings. Nobles also married with great pomp and show.

Common man at the Sultanate had no substantial means to involve in a lavish

wedding.

Divorce

Divorce was very common in the Pre-Muslim Arab and though a lawful act

was condemned by the Prophet (PBUH) who looked upon the custom of divorce with

extreme disapproval and considered it the thing most disliked by God.76 He repeatedly

declared that nothing pleased God more than the emancipation of slaves, and nothing

more displeased Him than divorce.77

A revelation came from God to Moses saying you have parted My servant

from Me. You have been sent (as messenger) to unite and not separate (my lovers)

from Me. Do not sever my creatures from Me, because the most hated deed is to cause

divorce (separation).78

In spite of this there are rare examples where the followers of Islam followed it

without any valid reason. References of divorce in the Sultanate period especially

among royalty and aristocracy are rare. We have an example where Prince

Muhammad, the eldest son of Sultan Balban in drunken condition divorced his

beloved wife. When he regained his senses he repented for his misdeed and wished

74 Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p.182. 75 Ibid., pp. 181-182, footnote.1. 76 Outlines of Islamic Culture, op. cit., p. 675. 77 The Spirit of Islam, op. cit., p. 243. 78 Outlines of Islamic Culture, p. 526.

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for the re-union.79 The ulema advised him that in such case his ex-wife should be

married with another person and when that person would willingly divorce her she

would be able to remarry her former husband.80 Shaikh Sadruddin Arif married the

divorced wife of Prince Muhammad. Shaikh Sadruddin Arif readily agreed to marry

her. This shows that a Sufi saint did not hesitate to accept a divorced wife and

considered it as a virtuous deed to reunite the separated couple. Although the lady

refused to leave the saint and prince was killed in a Mongol raid.

The prince in the above incident divorced his wife in anger and intoxicated

condition but there was a Sufi who divorced his wife because she was hindrance in his

worship. Husbands had their own reasons behind the divorce.

Usually, unpleasant relationship of the couple became the reason behind the

divorce. Once, Qazi Muhiuddin, came to Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya because his

relation with his wife became so unpleasant that he decided to divorce her. Shaikh

Nizamuddin Auliya did not approve it resulting which the relations between the

husband and wife were restored.81

Beside the reasons mentioned in Quran for a husband to divorce his wife,

people had their own individual reasons behind divorcing their wives. Famous Sufi

Saint Qutbuddin Bakhtiyaar Kaki divorced one of his wives soon after marriage, as

according to him her presence had disturbed his daily program of prayers.82

We can say that the practice of divorce was the most detestable and

undesirable act in the verses of Quran and considered unlawful by the Prophet

(PBUH) unless the husband had genuine reason (like adultery of wife),83 behind the

demand of divorce. In spite of it, we find few references of divorce in Sultanate

period for which reasons varied from person to person.

79 Shaikh Jamali, Siyar-ul-Arifin, MS, Habibganj Collection, 22/11, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh, folio. 84(a) - 84(b). 80 Ibid. 81 The Life and Times of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, op. cit., p. 72. 82 Amir Hasan Sijzi, Fawaid-ul-Fuad, ed., Khwaja Hasan Sani Nizami Dehlavi, Urdu Academy,

Delhi, 1992, part-III, Majlis-10, p. 552-554; Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the Thirteenth Century , op. cit., p. 219.

83 The Spirit of Islam, op. cit., p. 244.

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Polygamy

The union of a man with several women by the means of marriage is called

polygamy. The concept of polygamy was not only prevalent amongst the Arabian

society but also in neighboring countries of Arabia. The institution of polygamy

existed in the other neighboring countries like Persia, even the western parts of

Europe were not an exception.

The passage or the verse of the Quran which deals with the polygamy is you

may marry two, three or four wives but not more. The subsequent line declares but if

you cannot deal equitably and justly with all, you shall marry only one. The word

equity (adl) is not merely equality of treatment but in other important and necessary

matters like lodging, clothing and other domestic requisites but also complete equity

in love, affection and esteem.84

Syed Ameer Ali asserts that polygamy was an unavoidable practice in early

Muslim society as there were frequent tribal wars, constant decimation of male

population, and numerical superiority of women, combined with the absolute power

possessed by the chiefs originated the custom.85

Among upper caste Hindus polygamy in both its aspects prevailed from the

earliest times.86 He further adds that, certain times, certain conditions of society make

this practice absolutely needful for the preservation of women from starvation or utter

destitution.87

When we talk about polygamy in Sultanate era we find that beside the chief

queen i.e. the first married wife of the Sultan there were many other wives of the

Sultan. Monarchs both Hindus and Muslims had one chief queen whose children

succeeded to the throne. She also had other privileges like right of guardianship of a

minor son who had to succeed to the throne. There was no fixed rule of choice among

other queens, mistresses or concubines.88

84 The Spirit of Islam, op. cit., p. 229. 85 Ibid., p. 222. 86 Ibid.; see also Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, Eng. Tr., I. H. Siddiqui, op. cit., introduction, p.xix. 87 The Spirit of Islam, op. cit., p. 230. 88 Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 54.

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We have a clear picture that how the Sultans were polygamous. Even princes

also had many wives. Prince Khizr Khan, the son of Alauddin Khilji being already

married, was involved in an unending affair with Deval Rani a Hindu princess and

ultimately married her.

Sources describe the harem of different nobles. One of the vivid descriptions is

of the harem of a noble during the reign of Sultan Sikandar Lodi.89 This signifies that

the nobles also indulged in a polygamous life. Ibn Battuta a noble and a traveller

indulged in polygamy.

Extremely strange the Sufis who spent their lives in extreme unfavorable

conditions sometimes also married more than one wife. Shaikh Moinuddin Chisti had

two wives 90 and a big family. Shaikh Nasiruddin Chirag is reported to have stated

that Sheikh Farid had many wives and treated them all justly and equitably so far as

the marital relationship was concerned.91

Sultans could be ignored for leading a polygamous life. There may be various

reasons for marrying a number of wives may be they were highly sensuous and most

of the time marrying princess from different regions was a part of their appeasement

or subjugation policy. But it is difficult to say what the reasons were for Sufis behind

leading a polygamous life.

Sources of the Sultanate period lack the information regarding the marital

conditions of the common man. Once in Fawaid-ul-fuad we find that there is a freed

slave, Atiq of Amir Hasan Sijzi,( the author) who had four wives.92

Observing the references of the Sultanate period we can conclude that

polygamy prevailed in the royalty and aristocratic class in medieval India. About

common man it cannot be asserted that they definitely practiced polygamy. The

masses especially the poor peasants enjoyed a monogamous, healthy and free life as

89 Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, op. cit., p. 92. 90 Shaikh Abdul Haq Muhaddis, Akhbar-ul-Akhyar, Matba-i- Mohammadi, Delhi, 1283 A. H.,

pp.112-113. 91 Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the Thirteenth Century, op. cit., p. 219. 92 Fawaid-ul-Fuad, Naval Kishore, op. cit., p. 184.

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he could not afford to marry many wives.93 Although polygamy was not encouraged

in Islam but Sultans and nobles followed it.

Position of Widows in Society

The position of the widows in society is one of the most important topics

which the historian of the woman has to discuss and elucidate opines A.S Altekar.94

One who takes a widow as his wife, in the household everything will be

desired and wanted by the woman is the view of Amir Khusrau.95 Nizamuddin Auliya

fixed allowances for the widows. The above view of Amir Khusrau is helpful in

describing the position of widows in society as well as the kind of mindset the poet

had for widows.

Unlike the Hindu widows, the Islam does not permit a Muslim widow to

embrace death by burning herself in fire. Though a Muslim widow too lived a

desperate life but never allowed to adopt death.

Hindu widows dedicated their lives to the worship of idols at Rajgir. When

such women came to the temples surrounded by the thorny trees with no food, they

kept themselves standing with folded hands for at least ten days and ultimately

embraced death.96

Widows were considered as a weaker section of society and because of this

reason the Sultans of the Sultanate took measures to help them financially. To begin

with the mighty Iltutmish, he allowed the widows to hold iqtas allotted to their

husbands.97 Sultan Balban found the holding of iqtas unsuitable for women and the

iqtas were withdrawn from them and allowances were fixed instead of it.98 Sultan

Balban deprived widows from the iqtas but he was kind enough towards them as he

fixed allowances to them.

93 Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 172. 94 The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, op. cit., p. 115. 95 S. H. Askari, Amir Khusrau- As a Historian, Khuda Bakh Oriental Public Library, Patna, 1992, p.

38. 96 Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 88. 97 Ziauddin Barani, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, Eng. Tr., Elliot and Dowson, Low Price Publication, Delhi,

2008, Vol. III, pp. 107-108. 98 R. P. Tripathi, Some Aspects of Muslim Administration, Central Book Depot, Allahabad, 1959, pp.

249-250.

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Mohammad Bin Tughlaq did not lack this quality of taking care of the widows.

He established alms houses for widows and orphans on a very liberal scale.99 Sultan

Firozshah Tughlaq was deeply concerned about the welfare of his subjects especially

the poor girls and widows.100

The office of muhtasib was made to keep an eye on the immoral acts if

prevailed in the Sultanate. His duty was to keep an eye on the acts which were not

according to the Shariat. Among his other duties like to see that prayers were offered,

to prevent the use of wine and demolish the gambling houses, during the Lodi period

muhtasib was also entrusted with the task of finding suitable match for the widows.101

Sultan Sikandar Lodi had great reverence for the widow of Qutb Khan Lodi, she was

Niamat khatoon and was supported by Sultan Sikandar Lodi after Qutb Khan’s death.

Niamat Khatoon had a foster son Prince Jalal Khan. He was assigned the jagir of

Kalpi with one hundred and twenty horses and fifteen elephant in order to take care of

his mother. He was asked to take Niamat Khatoon to Kalpi where she was to be given

all comforts. This was all because the Sultan had kind attitude, full of sympathy

towards the widow of Qutb Khan Lodi.102

Sultan is reported to have sent money from the royal treasury twice a year to

every city and town to be distributed among the ulema and widows.103

Following the Sultans their nobles also indulged themselves in the noble act of

helping the widows. Mian Sultan Farmuli a noble of Sultan Sikandar Lodi used to

distribute clothes and blankets to the poor in winter and rainy seasons and provided

widows with sheets of cloths.104

One of the nobles of Lodi period is known for a benevolent act towards the

widows of the soldiers who died in fighting. The Khan paid the salary and allowances

of the man who died in his service to the relatives of the widow of the deceased and if

99 Promotion of Learning in India During Muhammadan Rule, op. cit., p. 45. 100 R. C. Jauhari, Firoz Tughlaq, Shiv Lal Agarwal, Agra, 1968, p. 30. 101 Abdul Halim, History of Lodi Sultans of Delhi and Agra, Idarah-i-Adabiyat -i Delli, Delhi, reprint,

1974, p. 227. 102 Abdullah Khan Daudi, Tarikh-i-Daudi, ed., Sheikh Abdur Rashid, Dept of History, Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh, 1957, p. 62. 103 ‘Life and Culture under the Lodi Sultans,’ op. cit., p. 75. 104 Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, Eng .Tr., I. H. Siddiqui, op. cit., p. 86.

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she did not have any relative, he asked her to adopt a boy from amongst the children

of her husband’s relation or in his absence any free born, and appoint one of the

competent slaves owned by his husband as his peshwa (custodian). She was also

enjoined to send the adopted boy to a guide or a tutor. This was a generous act of the

nobles by which the widows of the deceased soldiers or any other employee was

benefitted.

After marriage husband is the natural custodian of a woman and if

unfortunately he dies then the elder son acts as her custodian. Once during the reign of

Sultan Balban, in an incident, Haibat Khan a slave of Balban in a state of utter fury

murdered a son of a widow. The weeping mother pleaded the Sultan for justice.105

Balban implying justice to the mother of the murdered son remarked ‘this murderer

was my slave, I give him to you, with your hand stab him with a knife.’106 Haibat

Khan, the murderer after subjected to five hundred lashes for this murder was handed

over to the widow for final punishment. The accused was pardoned by the widow

when pleaded for mercy although widow was given the full rights from the Sultan to

punish the man who had killed her son. Thus by allowing her to inflict the murderer

with whatever punishment she wished the Sultan did justice with her and did not

merely neglect her because she was a widow and a weak person.

Hence, the Sultans of Delhi considered their prime duty to render support and

help to the widows in their rule. The nobles also considered helping the widows as an

act of virtue. They discovered various ways of helping such kind of people among

which the widows were helped the most.

Moral Values and women

Deterioration in moral values has been a part of society in every era. Both men

and women involve themselves in the immoral activities. Amir Khusrau is of the view

that women when indulges herself in immoral activities brings dishonor to herself and

her family and also undermines her prestige. Women were supposed to be pure in

thoughts, words and deeds.107 This signifies that women in those days also had some

105 Ziauddin Barani, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 48; see also The History of India as told

by its Own Historians, Elliot and Dowson, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 101. 106 Ibid. 107 Hasht Bihisht, op. cit., pp. 208-209.

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inclination towards immoral activities and sinful acts, for which Amir Khusrau is seen

concerned in his work Matlaul Anwar and Hasht Bihisht

Amir Khusrau has laid down certain ethical code in his Matlaul Anwar and by

the means of his daughter; conveys these codes to the other females and wants them

to follow these codes. He considered eyes the chief cause of all evils. Thus, he advices

women to adopt a low gaze and preserve their images like pearls which lie safe in the

shells and advices that the women should not stare at unknown persons.

S. H. Askari is of the view that ‘judged from modern standards, Amir

Khusrau’s view about females of his time may be taken to be very conservative and

preservative of old traditional principles and practices.’108 His conservative views

give us one more reason to believe that society was observing certain immoral norms

and evils penetrated in society.

Amir Khusrau advices his daughter never to indulge in peeping activities

behind the doors or the curtains, or casts her looks in different directions never to

neglect the use of veil or concealing sheet of cloth and always to keep her face

towards the wall and her back towards the door. According to Amir Khusrau ‘the

woman who walks or runs in streets is not a woman but a bitch’.109

He did not like women’s extreme fondness for embellishment of her body and

too much beautification of face for it may become the reason of mischief, disgrace

and ignominy.110

Amir Khusrau enjoins upon the wives to keep them within the limits of the

homes and have watchful eyes on all the resources of their houses and the most

important to have privacy with none except husband.111

Among the immoral activities, adultery is considered most detestable and

sinful act so that a husband can have his relation broken with his wife by the means of

divorce, if the adultery of the wife was proved.112 Ibn Battuta has described how

108 Amir Khusrau- As a Historian, op. cit., p. 34. 109 Ibid., p. 35. 110 Ibid. 111 Ibid., p. 63. 112 The Spirit of Islam, op. cit., p. 244.

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mother of Prince Mahmud was ordered by Qazi Kamaluddin to be stoned to death

when her charge of adultery was proved.113 In the same way when the charge of

adultery was confirmed, for a non-Muslim, he was ordered to leave the country.114

Once during a conversation with Barani, Sultan Mohammad bin Tughlaq

enquired by him that among apostasy, murder, adultery, conspiracy, rebellion, helping

the king’s enemies and disobedience for which sins capital punishment is permitted

by Prophet (PBUH). Barani replied that only for apostasy, murder and adultery. Thus

a person involved in adultery deserved the capital punishment as a murderer.115

Many social evils prevailed among the women of the Sultanate. Among such

evils one was wine drinking, an evil which is forbidden for men but women were also

found indulged in it at became a popular drink among a section of women. Mostly

dancers used to take wine. The reference of which has been given in chapter three.

During the Lodi period the women were also found involved as member of the

gang of robbers and thugs. Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui narrates an anecdote about a beautiful

woman who belonged to the party of robbers during the reign of Sikandar Lodi.

Hussain Khan Sarwani, once while passing by the vilayet of Lucknow found on

his way a young woman in attractive garments, who was weeping.116 Hussain Khan

inquired the reason and he was told that she has lost the way to her house. The noble

asked her to walk along with him, she told her incapability to walk and asked him to

ride his horse. After a while she offered a betel leaf to the Khan to chew. The Khan

was unwilling to eat it and kept it under his armpit. No sooner had he kept it under his

armpit he lost his senses. There upon the woman held bridle of the horse and reached

the place where rest of the robbers untied his belt, resulting which the betel leaves fell

down from his armpit on ground and he regain his senses. The robbers ran away and

Hussain Khan Sarwani rode his horse and having tied the woman with the tail of the

horse dragged her.

113 Rehla, Eng. Tr., Mahdi Husain, op. cit., p. 86. 114 Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the Thirteenth Century, op. cit., p. 77. 115 Royalty in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 176. 116 Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, Eng. Tr., I. H. Siddiqui, op. cit., pp. 255-256.

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The woman was kept in his harem according to the author of Waqiat-i-

Mushtaqi she was a beautiful woman, he did not kill her.117

Such gangs were active those days and women were also a part of it. Men alone

could not be able to perform these sorts of crime so they took help of women. May be

these women were a part of their families.

Once more a man named Sikandar was betrayed by an old woman who

belonged to a gang of highway robbers. These robbers looted the travelers while they

were in the journey. An old woman asked Sikandar to bow down his head as she

would remove the grass blades from his turban. As he bowed his head she placed

something on his head and as a result of it he lost his senses. She took him in the

forest where rest of her companions waited. He regained his senses when his turban

fell on the ground.

The men fled away and he arrested the woman, took her to the town and

having left her in the custody of darogha, restarted on his journey.

These kinds of women involved themselves in immoral acts of betraying

travelers only for the purpose of earning money. The amount collected by this means

would help them in providing their livelihood. Thus, we can notice that there were

various ways by which women earned their livelihood. Some found it suitable to work

in fields, some worked as maids and salves in houses and on the other hands there

were presence of such women who indulged in unwanted activities for their

livelihood. This also shows that administration of the Sultanate was running weak and

unwanted elements whether men or women were active.

Ornaments, Cosmetics and Dresses of Women

Ornaments and women are inseparable, ornaments and cosmetics have been

used by women to beautify themselves. There were ornaments to decorate various

parts of body. K.M. Ashraf is of the opinion that leisured classes had special facilities

for cultivating attractiveness among both sexes.118 Physical beauty can be acquired by

117 Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, Eng. Tr., I. H. Siddiqui, op. cit., pp. 255-256. 118 Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 214.

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the help of both the things i.e. ornaments and cosmetics. Women of all class are fond

of wearing it.

Ornaments were used by the ladies since times immemorial and were quite an

important item for the decoration of the body, whether masculine or feminine. The

ornaments used by the females were necklace, earring, ankle let, bracelets (worn

round forearms and legs), and nose pendent and broad ornamented bracelet. The

perforation of the ears of one’s daughter is mentioned.119

According to a Chinese traveler ‘the women of Bengal wore earrings of

precious stones set in gold; they had pendants on their neck, gold bracelets on their

wrists and ankles.120 Yadgar Ahmad narrated an incident where mang tika (placed on

forehead) were made by a goldsmith using precious diamonds of various valuations

i.e. five lacks, three lacks and two lack tankas for sale.121

Such remarkable and precious items of jewelry were made during those days.

Mian Taha Farmuli a noble and a scholarly man during the reign of Sultan Sikandar

Lodi is found of making a special kind of earring as a gift for the wife of Ahmad

Khan. Beside other things he knew the art of making objects of ivory. He had carved

out an earring out of ivory for the wife of a noble, Ahmad Khan. The earring

resembled a bud of water lily.122 He placed an artificial black bee made of ebony (a

hard black wood), inside the bud. When that earring was put on the lady’s ear, it

remained in the form of a bud as long as she did not move her head, but as soon as she

moved it, it opened into a flower and the bee came out and began to fly near her

eye.123

This shows that how much fondness of unique jewellery existed among the ladies

of the Sultanate, the goldsmiths and various other people indulged in the art of

making ornaments and earned a handsome amount.

119 Amir Khusrau, Nuh Siphir, MS, Habibganj Collection, 50/16, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh, Part VII, folio. 45-46; Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit, p. 56.

120 Ibid. 121 Tarikh-i-Shahi, op. cit., pp. 60-61; see also Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 57. 122 Waqiat-e-Mushtaqui, Eng. Tr., I. H. Siddiqui, op. cit., p. 194. 123 Ibid.

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Cosmetics

Cosmetics have been used by women for adding charm to their personality. For

the works of Amir Khusrau especially Ijaz-i-Khusravi, Matlaul Anwar and Nuh Siphir

we come to know how the middle aged women used cosmetics to retain their

diminishing charm. Amir Khusrau, ridicule of the dying of hair by the people of the

Sultanate age.124 This shows that there were colors found to paint the hair in medieval

times, this was called wasma and Khizaab in Ijaz-i-Khuaravi.125 Beside these we find

the mention of gulguna and ghaza, (red color which women used to apply on their

face) and supaida. Women used collyrium on their eyelids to enhance their grace and

beauty and also painted the eyebrows. Powdered their face and put antimony in eyes.

The body was adorned with cosmetics and scented lotion.126

Ubtan, a paste made of various aromatic powders was rubbed on the skin in

order to cleanse it. Decoration of hairs with flowers and application of red color in the

feet were popular aids of beautification in those days.127 Betel leaves were chewed to

redden the lips.128 They put black dot on their cheeks as a protection against evil eyes.

Henna was used to give red color to hand and feet.129

Amir Khusrau also talks of the Solah Singar or the sixteen forms of

embellishment or ornaments of the Hindu ladies and address to his daughter that the

preference must be given to chastity rather than applying of cosmetics and false

beautification of face and body.130 These names of the sixteen articles of

embellishment given by the historian and poet are these- Henna, Wasma, Surma

(collyrium), Surkhi (red color), ghaza (face rouge), safidab( white paint), ghalia

(civet), sar-aweza (head dress or veil), gushwara (ear-ring), Silsila (chain), halqa-i-

bindi (nose ring), galuband (necklace) and bazuband (armlet), dastana (bracelet),

Khalkhal (ankle ornament), angushtar (ring)131 etc.

124 Amir Khusrau, Matlaul Anwar, Naval Kishore, Lucknow, 1302 A.H, p. 173. 125 Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 56. 126 Malik Mohammad Jaisi, Padmavati, Eng. Tr., A. G. Shirreff, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal,

Calcutta, 1944, p. 182; Society and Culture in Medieval India, p. 56. 127 Society and Culture in Medieval India, p. 56. 128 Amir Khusrau, Nuhsiphir, MS, op. cit., part VII, Folio. 45-46. 129 Ibid.,, folio 45-46; Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 56; Life and Conditions of the

People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 217. 130 Amir Khusrau- As a Historian, op. cit., p. 30. 131 Ibid.

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Dress

Religious literature gives a description of poor people especially farmers who

had hardly enough clothes to cover their whole body. The laborers did not have

enough clothes to cover their whole body.132 Shaikh Hamiddudin Nagori had a piece

of loin cloth to cover his body where as his wife had a tattered dupatta.

The average costume of the Muslim women constituted of a sheet of cloth

called chadar, veil called naqab, trousers called izar, pairahan a kind of loose waist-

shirt or shift called shalwar, maqna was a garment worn over the head reaching the

ground. Garments like trousers and shirts were common for both male and females.133

Amir Khusrau has mentioned about the various types of garments in his Ijaz-i-

Khusravi. Paicha-i-Shalwar, Khastak-i-izar, niganda, dotah, barani, Kulah and

dastar, durrah (upper garment)134 Poor or non-aristocratic women probably went

about wrapped up in long sheet of cloth covering their heads with a garment known as

burqa.135

Color also mattered for the people and they were superstitious regarding the

blue color of the fabric. This color was avoided in daily use as it was considered the

colour of mourning. Women were fond of bright colors and preferred clothes having

prints or drawings on them.136

132 Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 54. 133 Ibid.; Life and conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 213. 134 Ibid. 135 Ibid., p. 172. 136 Ibid., p. 213.

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Sati

Being an important section of society many social practices are related with

women. Some enforced practices like sati and jauhar were very traumatic. The

practice of sati is attached to the society from ancient times till the middle ages. This

social practice was one of the most traumatic and inhumane practice related to

women. By the means of this social evil a widow was forced to immolate herself in

the pyre of her husband.

It is important as well as interesting to explore where and how the practice of

sati emerged. The origin of sati had its roots from the character of a woman who was

named ‘Sati’ she was the wife of Lord Shiva and daughter of Daksha. She was the

first to consume her in the fire.137 The word ‘sati’ is derivate from the word ‘Satya’

(truth) or Godliness. Sati literally means a virtuous wife, but practically it was the

practice of burning the widows on the funeral pyre of their husband. This custom was

prevalent among upper class Indians, for at least two thousand years.138 This can be

exemplified by the examples from Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Ramayana

describes a Brahmin woman who committed Sati when molested by Ravana. In

Mahabharata, among several examples two are worthy to be mentioned here. A

woman Sairandhri is ordered to be burnt with Kicaka and eight queens of Krishna

entered fire on his death.139 From the ancient times till the medieval age the cruel

practice continued. When Alberuni visited India he found the practice of Sati

prevalent in India. It was common though not compulsory. According to Alberuni if a

woman became widow she could not remarry. She had only to select between two

things, either to remain widow for rest of her life or to burn herself along with the

pyre of her husband.

Unwillingly, the second was selected because living a life of a widow was

extremely painful as widows were ill-treated and lived a life of extreme pain and

137 Nirmala Gupta, ‘Sati System in Medieval India’, p. 1. Annoted Quotation. 138 Ibid. 139 K. Krishna Murthy, Social and Cultural Life in Ancient India, Sundeep Prakashan, Delhi, 1982, p.

82.

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torture.140 Nirmala Gupta is of the opinion that the life of the Hindu widow became

miserable if she selected to survive the rest of her life.141

The widows were forbidden the use of ornaments and good dresses. They

could not enjoy good food and have long hairs. Being widow was considered as a

punishment for the sins of the previous life.142

Ibn Battuta, when came to India too found at many occasions widows burning

themselves on the pyre of their husbands. On one such occasion while hearing the

cries of the woman he fainted.143 He gives a detailed description of how a woman was

prepared for being a ‘sati’. The description is very poignant.144

Amir Khusrau describes the burning of women in medieval India through the

practice of sati and writes that Islam does not permit such kind of merciless and cruel

practice for the mankind. But he praises the spirit of the Hindu widow who burns

herself. He also asserts that if this practice becomes lawful among the followers of the

Islam, pious devotees might surrender their lives.145

Malik Mohammad Jaisi also had praise for the sati women and writes that, the

sati burns herself for the truth and for her husband and the same truth has the power to

cool the fire.146

The Sultanate period had a mixed population of Hindus and Muslims. With

exception of Mohammad bin Tughlaq none of the Sultan made efforts to stop this

inhumane practice. Ibn Battuta informs us that the Sultan enacted a law, through

which it was necessary to procure Sultan’s permission before burning a widow.

Probably, the law was designed to discourage the use of compulsion or forcefully

burning a woman on pyre.

140 Abu Al Raihan Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Alberuni , Alberuni’s India, Eng.Tr., Dr. Edward C.

Sachau, Oriental Books, reprint 1983, Vol. II, pp. 155-157. 141 ‘Sati System in Medieval India’, op. cit., p. 4. 142 Ibid. 143 Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 188. 144 The Travels of Ibn Battuta, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 614. 145 Nuh Siphir, MS, op. cit., folio. 22. 146 Padmavati, Eng. Tr., A. G. Shireff, op. cit., p. 112.

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It is important to mention that the people who encourage the practice were the

Brahmins of that age, as when the woman had to be sati she used to take bath in river

and give all her ornaments and garments to the Brahmins in alms.147

We have one single reference of burning of a widow in Muslim society, by the

wife of Ain-ul-Mulk Mahru. Ain-ul-Mulk Mahru revolted during the reign of

Mohammad bin Tughlaq, his revolt was crushed and he was defeated, when this news

of his defeat reached to his wife and subsequently not any other information reached

she decided to be a sati.148

Thus, we see that women out of love for their husband and most of the time

because they were compelled by the society, embraced death by burning them in the

pyre of their dead husbands. The practice of sati became prevalent because of two

reasons, one is that in the society of those days women were completely subordinate

to men. Secondly, the male dominant society had no respect for the widow women

even if she was a childhood widow, religious beliefs had overpowered the society

because of this no one dared to oppose this painful treatment given to widow women.

Jauhar

When we analyze or think over the practices like sati and jauhar we are

compelled to think that what the real position of Hindu women was in the medieval

society. No doubt the men had complete control over the women.

We have evidences in the sources that women collectively burnt themselves

when the army was defeated by the hand of enemy. The practice of jauhar was

prevalent among the ladies of the harem of rajput rajas. Such a terrible death was

accepted by the women of the defeated rajput army in order to save their integrity and

chastity and avoid getting in to the clutches of victorious conqueror. Most of the times

the victorious army was of the Muslim invaders but there are also references when

brave rajputs preferred jauhar while losing in inter tribal wars, which frequently took

place.

147 Rehla, Eng. Tr., Mahdi Husain, op. cit., p. 22. 148 Ibid., p. 109.

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Jauhar was adopted under two forms and under two circumstances. The

situation when the rajput army was completely defeated and the other when they were

apprehensive of being captured alive.

The two forms of the Jauhar were when the females threw themselves in the

fire, in order to avoid themselves falling in the hands of the victor. In the second form,

the males when found difficult to win the battle forced their females to jump into the

fire. The purpose of both the forms of jauhar was to preserve the chastity of the

females of the defeated army.149

The siege of Chittor by Alauddin Khilji and the women performing jauhar has

been a famous incident in the history. Another event of jauhar during the reign of

Alauddin Khilji was the siege of Ranthambor.150 The upheaval at Ranthambor fort

compelled the queen of Raja Hammir, Ranga Devi to plunge herself into the fire

along with other ladies of the fort.

The jauhar was committed by the raja of Kampilla when his fortress was

besieged by Mohammad Bin Tughalq to punish him for sheltering a rebel named

Bahauddin Gurshasp. The raja tried his best to avert the crisis but apprehensive of

being captured alive decided to embraced death by throwing themselves in fire.

The description of this incident is found in Ibn Battuta’s Rehla. He describes

that all the ladies washed themselves, rubbed their bodies with sandal wood paste, and

then made their solemn obeisance to their master and quietly threw themselves in the

fire.151 It was the brutality and humiliation given to the defeated army and their

women which compelled them to accept such a painful death.

Not only Hindu rulers embraced death by performing jauhar but references of

such death are found by Muslims, when Timur invaded India. Timur’s invasion

resulted in brutal slaughter which persuaded the warriors to adopt the course of Rajput

jauhar.152 Kamaluddin the governor of Bhaitnair and his retainer burned their women

and their property and then proceeded to fight Timur like ‘blood thirsty devils’.153

149 Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 193. 150 The Campaigns of Alauddin Khilji, op. cit., p. 40; Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan,

p.192. 151 Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, p. 193. 152 Ibid., p. 194. 153 Ibid., footnote.

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Again in the year 1739, we find Mussalmans in a very difficult situation and

decided to perform jauhar. This was the year when Nadir Shah invaded India.

Thus, we can conclude regarding this practice that it was not only barbarity and

brutality of the Muslim invaders which compelled rajput women to embrace death but

the practice also took place when there was a conflict between various rajput tribes.

It is noteworthy that Muslims also embraced death by burning themselves out

of fear of brutal treatment by the invaders likes Timur and Nadir Shah, thus

safeguarding the integrity and chastity of Muslim women.

Purdah

It is held by B.N. Sharma154 that the Muslims are responsible for the growth of

custom of purdah and that before Islam the women of Hindustan went freely. Indeed

the elaborate and institutionalized form of purdah dates from the time of the Muslim

rule in India.155

Purdah, when applied to women means concealing oneself from the gaze of

males who are not related to blood. This can be further justified by the translation of a

surah of the holy Quran.

O, Prophet! Speak to the wives and to the daughters of the faithful that they let

their wrappers fall low. And speak to the believing women that they refrain their looks

and observe continuance; and that they display not their ornaments except those

which are external, and that they draw their kerchief over their bosoms. (Surah. XXIV,

31)156

The Quran instruct the women to unveil themselves only in the presence of

their fathers, husbands and brothers.157 Those men relatives of a woman with whom

Islam prohibits to marry are called mahrams and persons beyond this prohibited

degree are called Na-mahram. The underlying idea behind the institution of purdah is

the seclusion of Na-mahrams. It may be noted that much emphasis was placed on the

154 B.N.Sharma, Social Life in Northern India 600-1000, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1966, p. 25. 155 Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, op. cit., p. 171. 156 Imtiyaz Ali, Ameer Ali on Islam, Amar prakashan, Delhi, 1982, p.11. 157 Ibid., p. 12.

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purity of moral character of a woman and most important was the public reputation of

woman for chastity.

Strict observance of purdah is advocated by the medieval historians especially

Isami and Amir Khusrau. They are strong supporters of purdah. Isami advocated that

women should be completely secluded from the males. The women those who

observe purdah are characterized as chaste and of high moral values.158 About purdah

Amir Khusrau is also of the same view. By the means of his daughter, he advices

women not to indulge in peeping from behind the door or the curtain, or caste her

look in different directions.159 Amir Khusrau suggests the females to remain inside

their houses so that they remain unnoticed by any male. He says that women should

not roam here and there and it does not suit a girl of respectable family160. It is purdah

which protects the chastity and elevates the moral level of women. He gives an

example of shell and water drop inside it; unless and until the shell is removed the

water drop inside it remains pure and unnoticed. Women who come out of their house

soon fall in the eyes of men. In order to live a pious life by women he emphasizes the

observation of purdah.161

Amir Khusrau disapproves Raziya of unveiling herself in front of courtiers

and common public.162

When women came out of their houses they used palanquin as a means of

transport. These palanquins had silken curtains to protect the woman inside it from the

looks of other people.163 Ibn Battuta describes the palanquin of Makhduma-i-Jahan,

the mother of Mohammad bin Tughlaq.164

To respect the lady who observes the purdah is the quality of a virtuous man.

The mighty Tughlaq Sultan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq considered its duty to respect

the pardanashin women and not to unnecessary gaze at them. Whenever, the Sultan

158 Abdul Malik Isami, Futuh-us-Salatin, Eng. Tr., Agha Mahdi Husain, Asia Publishing house, Dept

of History , Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 1976, Vol. II, op. cit., p. 254. 159 Amir Khusrau- As a Historian, op. cit., p. 35. 160 Amir Khusrau, Hasht Bihisht, Sulaiman Ashraf Institute Press, Aligarh, 1918, p. 209. 161 Matlaul Anwar, op. cit., p.199. 162 Amir Khusrau, Deval Rani Khizr Khan, Silsilah Kulliyat-i-Khusrau, Aligarh, 1916, p. 49. 163 Rehla, Eng. Tr., Mahdi Husain, op. cit., p. 122. 164 Ibid.

178

had to enter the harem he used to send information of his arrival through eunuchs. The

purpose was to inform the pardanashin women to hide themselves from the sight of

the emperor.165

Afif mentions women who resided in seclusion in the palace.166 Tatar Khan

carried his slave girls in a closed cart for the sake of purdah. Firozshah Tughlaq

insisted upon the observance of purdah by the women. Women visited to the shrines

of the saints in palanquin which was later prohibited by Sultan Firozshah Tughlaq.167

The purpose was to stop free mingling of both the sexes as it was contrary to the

Islamic code of conduct and gave liberty to unruly men to molest women.

Visiting shrines was not only prohibited for Muslim women but the Hindu

ladies too were stopped from visiting temples during the reign of Firoz Tughlaq

because such visit led to promiscuous mixing of men and women.168

Contrary to this, the common lower class women folk went around unveiled.

They did not live a secluded life. We find references of women who came out of their

house for work, devoid of purdah. Some women came out of the house for the

purpose of bath and filling water.169 There were many more household jobs the

common women had to do. Thus purdah seemed to be a barrier in performing day to

day duties of household. Common women only covered their head with the lapel of

their dupatta or sari.

Architecture

We do not have ample evidences where royal ladies provided patronage in the

field of architecture. Usually wells were constructed as a matter of work of pity and

welfare. Rich merchants used to get the wells built. One well was constructed at the

behest of a princess of a royal family; she is named as Ayesha, a sister of Sikandar

Lodi.170 Beside Ayesha, Bibi Raji of Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur is known for her

outstanding contribution in the field of architecture.

165 Royalty in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 66. 166 Shams Siraj Afif, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, op. cit., pp. 69-70. 167 Ibid., pp. 373-74; see also Firoz Tughlaq, op. cit., p. 139. 168 Royalty in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 38. 169 Ziauddin Barani, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 47-48. 170 Sanskrit Inscriptions of Delhi Sultanate, op. cit., introduction, p. xxix, p. xxxi-xxxii.

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After the study of the social conditions of the society during the Sultanate

period; I found that there was an inevitable line of demarcation between the royal

ladies and the common women. The position of royal ladies was an exception. Poor

women had to work hard for their livelihood. We see royal ladies busy in formation of

cliques and intrigues for the benefit of their sons.

Polygamy strongly existed. The Sultans were polygamist due to various

reasons may be because of their sensuous nature or due to the appeasement policies

for various other states. Divorce is rare in Sultanate. Royalty spends a huge amount on

marriage ceremonies of their kith and kin. Female slavery was an integral part of the

society without the study of which the research is incomplete. Purdah is also followed

by the royal ladies and common woman only covered her head with lapel of her

dupatta or sari. Practices like sati and jauhar had its roots deep penetrated in the

Hindu society. Cosmetics and ornaments were also a part of life of royal ladies and

poor women were devoid of it.

In this way by the study of the sources of the Sultanate we find that there was

a strong line of demarcation between the elite class of ladies and common women.