CHAPTER 6:CHAPTER 6:Biological and Psychological Biological and Psychological

TheoriesTheories

A. IntroductionA. Introduction

• 1) The emergence of the Positive school of thought shifted the focus 1) The emergence of the Positive school of thought shifted the focus of study from the act to the actorof study from the act to the actor

• a. Interested in the causality of crimea. Interested in the causality of crime

• b. The theory that free will was a motivating factor in the commission of crime b. The theory that free will was a motivating factor in the commission of crime was largely discreditedwas largely discredited

• c. The three major schools of thought in the Positive School of criminology: c. The three major schools of thought in the Positive School of criminology: Biology, Psychology and SociologyBiology, Psychology and Sociology

B. Biological school of thoughtB. Biological school of thought

• WHICH ONE IS THE WHICH ONE IS THE MURDERER?MURDERER?>>

• 1) Is there any correlation 1) Is there any correlation between physical appearance between physical appearance and crime?and crime?

Can you GUESS?Can you GUESS?• a. Cesare Lombroso was the first a. Cesare Lombroso was the first

researcher to come up with the researcher to come up with the hypothesis that crime was hypothesis that crime was connected with human evolutionconnected with human evolution

• b. Developed the notion that b. Developed the notion that criminals were criminals were atavisticatavistic or or primitive and also possessed a primitive and also possessed a stigmatastigmata or distinctive physical or distinctive physical features that set them apart from features that set them apart from mainstream societymainstream society

2) What about body type and 2) What about body type and crime?crime?

a. 1949- William Sheldon concluded a. 1949- William Sheldon concluded that a relationship existed between that a relationship existed between one’s body type and personalityone’s body type and personality

i. i. EndomorphsEndomorphs – soft roundness (relaxed, – soft roundness (relaxed, comfortable, extroverted “softies”)comfortable, extroverted “softies”)

ii. ii. MesomorphsMesomorphs – square masculinity and – square masculinity and skeletal massiveness (active, assertive skeletal massiveness (active, assertive and lust for power)and lust for power)

iii. iii. EctomorphsEctomorphs – linearity and frailty – linearity and frailty (introverted, overly sensitive, and have a (introverted, overly sensitive, and have a strong love for privacy)strong love for privacy)

b. Sheldon conducted studies and found that a possible link existed between b. Sheldon conducted studies and found that a possible link existed between mesomorphy and delinquency, which lead other researchers such as Juan Cortes, mesomorphy and delinquency, which lead other researchers such as Juan Cortes, Florence Gatti, John Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein to conduct similar studies and Florence Gatti, John Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein to conduct similar studies and experimentsexperiments

c. Are juvenile delinquents classified as Mesomorphs more predisposed to a life of c. Are juvenile delinquents classified as Mesomorphs more predisposed to a life of crime? Do law enforcement officials hold a negative view of mesomorphs that could crime? Do law enforcement officials hold a negative view of mesomorphs that could possibly influence the way they are dealt with, (i.e. are they ‘picked on’ more?)possibly influence the way they are dealt with, (i.e. are they ‘picked on’ more?)

3) Inherited delinquency?3) Inherited delinquency?

a. Some people in the late 19th century believed that criminality was inherited and a. Some people in the late 19th century believed that criminality was inherited and that Bad Blood or “germ-plasm” was spread through procreationthat Bad Blood or “germ-plasm” was spread through procreation

b. Possible relationship between IQ & Delinquency?b. Possible relationship between IQ & Delinquency?

i. John Slawson claimed that IQ tests were culturally biasedi. John Slawson claimed that IQ tests were culturally biased

ii. After an extensive study in 1926 by Slawson, no link was found between ii. After an extensive study in 1926 by Slawson, no link was found between IntelligenceIntelligence, , (the ability to learn), and criminality(the ability to learn), and criminality

iii.An IQ test was developed by Binet/Simon and refined by Stem around the beginning of iii.An IQ test was developed by Binet/Simon and refined by Stem around the beginning of the 20the 20thth century (IQ score = ratio of mental age x chronological age w/ the mean score century (IQ score = ratio of mental age x chronological age w/ the mean score about 100)about 100)

c. However, contemporary studies by Murray and Herrnstein have shown that, c. However, contemporary studies by Murray and Herrnstein have shown that, on average, a delinquent’s IQ is around 8 points lower than a non-delinquenton average, a delinquent’s IQ is around 8 points lower than a non-delinquent

• i. Also, similar studies have shown that crimes such as bribery, forgery, and i. Also, similar studies have shown that crimes such as bribery, forgery, and embezzling are typically committed by offenders possessing relatively high IQ’s embezzling are typically committed by offenders possessing relatively high IQ’s whereas crimes such as assault, robbery and sexual assault are committed by whereas crimes such as assault, robbery and sexual assault are committed by offenders with relatively low IQ’soffenders with relatively low IQ’s

• d. Several studies, (Kranz, Lange, etc.) have shown that d. Several studies, (Kranz, Lange, etc.) have shown that monozygotic twins monozygotic twins (identical twins) are more likely to exhibit similar patterns of criminal behavior (identical twins) are more likely to exhibit similar patterns of criminal behavior than than dizygotic twins dizygotic twins (fraternal twins)(fraternal twins)

i. However, this may be due to the environment rather than genetics. (nature v. i. However, this may be due to the environment rather than genetics. (nature v. nurture)nurture)

e. Studies on adopted children have shown that they exhibit similar patterns of e. Studies on adopted children have shown that they exhibit similar patterns of delinquency to their biological parents, rather than their adopted parentsdelinquency to their biological parents, rather than their adopted parents

i. Though adoption studies are better than studies on twins at separating the effects i. Though adoption studies are better than studies on twins at separating the effects of the environment, there are some problems with this approach as well. of the environment, there are some problems with this approach as well.

ii. The measures of criminality in these studies is not standardized, and children in ii. The measures of criminality in these studies is not standardized, and children in these studies have had varying levels of contact with their biological parentsthese studies have had varying levels of contact with their biological parents

4) Brain function and behavior4) Brain function and behavior

a. New research has indicated that criminality may be linked with brain structure a. New research has indicated that criminality may be linked with brain structure in certain parts of the brain that effect abilities such as self-control and changes in certain parts of the brain that effect abilities such as self-control and changes in the environmentin the environment

i. Deficiencies of Serotonin levels in the brain have been linked with aggressive and i. Deficiencies of Serotonin levels in the brain have been linked with aggressive and impulsive behaviorimpulsive behavior

b. b. Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) occurs when a brain (ADHD) occurs when a brain produces too little serotonin, which may lead to delinquencyproduces too little serotonin, which may lead to delinquency

i. Symptoms of ADHD include but are not limited to hyperactivity, inattention, and low i. Symptoms of ADHD include but are not limited to hyperactivity, inattention, and low self-esteem (Typically, symptoms show up in children as young as 4 years)self-esteem (Typically, symptoms show up in children as young as 4 years)

ii. Between 3 and 8 million children are estimated to have ADHD and it is being ii. Between 3 and 8 million children are estimated to have ADHD and it is being diagnosed at a ratio of 3:1 (Boys/Girls)diagnosed at a ratio of 3:1 (Boys/Girls)

iii. A study by John Satterfield has shown that children with this diagnosis are 25 times iii. A study by John Satterfield has shown that children with this diagnosis are 25 times more likely to be institutionalized for anti-social behavior than those who are not more likely to be institutionalized for anti-social behavior than those who are not diagnosed with ADHDdiagnosed with ADHD

iv. In 2000, sales of drugs such as Ritalin, (which is often used to treat ADHD), reached iv. In 2000, sales of drugs such as Ritalin, (which is often used to treat ADHD), reached an astounding $758 million dollars and over 90% of the world’s Ritalin is consumed by an astounding $758 million dollars and over 90% of the world’s Ritalin is consumed by the United States!the United States!

c. Chemical poisoningc. Chemical poisoning

i. Chemicals can indirectly affect behavior by altering brain chemistry, and can affect i. Chemicals can indirectly affect behavior by altering brain chemistry, and can affect the ability of an individual to react to the environmentthe ability of an individual to react to the environment

ii. Particularly harmful is the ii. Particularly harmful is the chemical lead chemical lead which was banned in paint products in the which was banned in paint products in the United States in 1978United States in 1978

iii. Herbert Needleman conducted a study of leads effect on delinquency and iii. Herbert Needleman conducted a study of leads effect on delinquency and determined that there may be a connection between lead poisoning and juvenile determined that there may be a connection between lead poisoning and juvenile delinquency.delinquency.

iv. Other chemical exposure through pesticides, garbage disposal sites and poor air iv. Other chemical exposure through pesticides, garbage disposal sites and poor air quality have also been proven to have a negative impact on children quality have also been proven to have a negative impact on children

v. Exposure to these chemicals can lead to lower IQ’s, asthma, cancer and learning v. Exposure to these chemicals can lead to lower IQ’s, asthma, cancer and learning disabilitiesdisabilities

d. The controversy over biological theoriesd. The controversy over biological theories

i. Can crime be controlled if we eliminate these so-called “bad genes” and is i. Can crime be controlled if we eliminate these so-called “bad genes” and is sterilization a viable option? sterilization a viable option? (Skinner v. Oklahoma 1942)(Skinner v. Oklahoma 1942)

• 1) Psychoanalytical Theory1) Psychoanalytical Theory

a. Sigmund Freud developed the idea that a personality consisted of 3 partsa. Sigmund Freud developed the idea that a personality consisted of 3 parts

i. The i. The idid – present at birth, it consists of blind, unreasoning, instinctual desires and – present at birth, it consists of blind, unreasoning, instinctual desires and motivesmotives

ii. The ii. The egoego – grows from the id and is the problem-solving dimension of the – grows from the id and is the problem-solving dimension of the personality which deals with reality and differentiates it from fantasypersonality which deals with reality and differentiates it from fantasy

iii. The iii. The superegosuperego - develops from the ego and is the moral code, norms and values - develops from the ego and is the moral code, norms and values that the child has acquiredthat the child has acquired

b. When either of these comes into conflict with each other, then it is possible that b. When either of these comes into conflict with each other, then it is possible that children may be more inclined to become a delinquentchildren may be more inclined to become a delinquent

c. Freud’s psychoanalytical theory was applied to the study of crime and some theorists c. Freud’s psychoanalytical theory was applied to the study of crime and some theorists argued that an under-developed or an over-developed super-ego could lead to argued that an under-developed or an over-developed super-ego could lead to delinquencydelinquency

i. underdeveloped superego – the socialization process has been inadequate i. underdeveloped superego – the socialization process has been inadequate (unconscious urges may eventually translate into acts of delinquency)(unconscious urges may eventually translate into acts of delinquency)

ii. overdeveloped superego- too much socialization (can lead to impulses and urges ii. overdeveloped superego- too much socialization (can lead to impulses and urges which in turn can lead to a conflict between the id and the superego)which in turn can lead to a conflict between the id and the superego)

C. Psychological TheoriesC. Psychological Theories

d. The 3 main criticism of psychoanalytical theoryd. The 3 main criticism of psychoanalytical theory

i. No evidence that a causal link exists between a subjective internal state of mind i. No evidence that a causal link exists between a subjective internal state of mind and delinquencyand delinquency

ii. Does the personality truly consist of an id, ego and superego?ii. Does the personality truly consist of an id, ego and superego?

iii. Is it possible to predict that a causal relationship exists between early childhood iii. Is it possible to predict that a causal relationship exists between early childhood experiences and future behavior? experiences and future behavior?

2) Behavioral Theory2) Behavioral Theory

a. Behavioral theorist’s feel that children learn how to behave through a. Behavioral theorist’s feel that children learn how to behave through reinforcementreinforcement (anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior (anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring) and reoccurring) and punishmentpunishment (sanctions that decrease the probability of a (sanctions that decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated)behavior being repeated)

b. B.F. Skinner postulated that environment shapes behaviorb. B.F. Skinner postulated that environment shapes behavior

i. i. Operant conditioningOperant conditioning, (a type of learning where subjects do something and , (a type of learning where subjects do something and connect what they do to a given response that they receive), was demonstrated by connect what they do to a given response that they receive), was demonstrated by Skinner’s work with pigeonsSkinner’s work with pigeons

ii. Skinner argued that juveniles repeat rewarded behavior and do not repeat ii. Skinner argued that juveniles repeat rewarded behavior and do not repeat behavior that is punishedbehavior that is punished

c. Albert Bandura expanded on Skinner’s ideas and developed a theory of c. Albert Bandura expanded on Skinner’s ideas and developed a theory of aggression which states that behavior is learned by children through modeling aggression which states that behavior is learned by children through modeling and imitating othersand imitating others

i. Bandura believes that children learn aggressive behavior through observation and i. Bandura believes that children learn aggressive behavior through observation and through imitating othersthrough imitating others

ii. One of the more notable experiments he conducted focused on the effect of the ii. One of the more notable experiments he conducted focused on the effect of the mass media on aggressive behavior (mass media on aggressive behavior (the the BoboBobo doll experiment doll experiment) )

d. Does the media have an effect on delinquency?d. Does the media have an effect on delinquency?

i. Examples – MTV’s jackass was blamed as the cause for a 13 year old Connecticut i. Examples – MTV’s jackass was blamed as the cause for a 13 year old Connecticut boy to lay himself across a barbeque grill. A nine year old girl hanged herself with a boy to lay himself across a barbeque grill. A nine year old girl hanged herself with a shoelace after watching the Man in the Iron Maskshoelace after watching the Man in the Iron Mask

ii. Beginning with Herbert Blumer in 1933, criminologists have sought to conduct ii. Beginning with Herbert Blumer in 1933, criminologists have sought to conduct interviews and experiments to determine whether such a relationship existsinterviews and experiments to determine whether such a relationship exists

e. How does the viewing of violent material affect children?e. How does the viewing of violent material affect children?

i. Children may get the notion from the mass media that violence can solve disputes, i. Children may get the notion from the mass media that violence can solve disputes, which may lead to delinquencywhich may lead to delinquency

ii. Desensitization towards real life violenceii. Desensitization towards real life violence

iii. Fears of victimization may increase since violence in entertainment can lead to a iii. Fears of victimization may increase since violence in entertainment can lead to a perception that the world is a violent and hostile placeperception that the world is a violent and hostile place

• f. Millions of children watch violent T.V. on a regular basis but don’t act out the f. Millions of children watch violent T.V. on a regular basis but don’t act out the violence that they see, which leads many behavioral theorists to conclude that violence that they see, which leads many behavioral theorists to conclude that already aggressive youths have their behavior reinforced by viewing violence in already aggressive youths have their behavior reinforced by viewing violence in the mass media the mass media

• g. Critiques of behavioral theoryg. Critiques of behavioral theory

i. Pays little attention to the effect of mental processes on behaviori. Pays little attention to the effect of mental processes on behavior

ii. How can pigeons being used as a test subject, (used in the Skinner experiments), ii. How can pigeons being used as a test subject, (used in the Skinner experiments), accurately predict human behavior?accurately predict human behavior?

iii. Why is it that more children do not commit delinquency when they know the iii. Why is it that more children do not commit delinquency when they know the possible gains?possible gains?

iv. Behavioral theory completely ignores the idea that free will may influence behavioriv. Behavioral theory completely ignores the idea that free will may influence behavior

D. Practical applications of psychotherapy and D. Practical applications of psychotherapy and behavior modificationbehavior modification

• 1)The possible benefits of psychotherapy1)The possible benefits of psychotherapy

• a. It may be possible to control a child’s instinctual drive so that they will not a. It may be possible to control a child’s instinctual drive so that they will not experience any of the internal conflict linked to delinquency.experience any of the internal conflict linked to delinquency.

i. Psychoanalytic theory in juvenile justice became increasingly popular in the 1950’s i. Psychoanalytic theory in juvenile justice became increasingly popular in the 1950’s due to organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) due to organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO)

ii. This school of thought gave rise to the notion that delinquency could be prevented ii. This school of thought gave rise to the notion that delinquency could be prevented by identifying likely offenders early on in life, (often referred to as “at-risk” youths)by identifying likely offenders early on in life, (often referred to as “at-risk” youths)

2)Behavior modification theory2)Behavior modification theory

a. The method for changing behavior through conditioning is referred to as a. The method for changing behavior through conditioning is referred to as behavior behavior modification modification

i. Widely practiced in the 1960’s and the 1970’si. Widely practiced in the 1960’s and the 1970’s

• ii. The two major modification techniques that are still practiced to this day are ii. The two major modification techniques that are still practiced to this day are aversion therapy, (which teaches children to correct unwanted behavior through aversion therapy, (which teaches children to correct unwanted behavior through punishment), and operant conditioning, (which uses a system of rewards and punishment), and operant conditioning, (which uses a system of rewards and consequences often through a consequences often through a token economytoken economy which reinforce and punish behavior, which reinforce and punish behavior, respectively)respectively)

iii. A token economy is often effective since points are handed out for positive iii. A token economy is often effective since points are handed out for positive behavior that can be used to gain privileges, which reinforces positive behavior. behavior that can be used to gain privileges, which reinforces positive behavior. Similarly, privileges can be taken away to punish negative behaviorSimilarly, privileges can be taken away to punish negative behavior

END (Chapter 6 Notes)END (Chapter 6 Notes)