Chapter 6_Program Designing

7/29/2019 Chapter 6_Program Designing

1/13

Training and Development

Programme design can be described as the process of developing training curricula and materials to

meet training and development needs. Effective programme design therefore should be oriented

towards job performance rather than towards subject matter content or training staff preferences.

i. where required job performance

is compared with current job performance and the resulting gap identified. This gap or

discrepancy is further analyzed to determine what can be reduced or eliminated by

training. This tells us what training objectives should be.

ii. where training programme units are outlined in terms of job tasks,

and the content and sequence of individual sessions is developed. This tells us how the

training will be done.

iii.- where each individual training unit and the total programme is

evaluated against session objectives to determine where further improvements can be

made.

In order to optimize training and development activities two points should be considered during the

design stage:

(i) the effectiveness of training and (ii) the efficiency of training.

The is concerned with whether the training achieves its objectives in terms of learning

objectives and transfer of skills to the job. In this context we ask whether a certain development

could best be learned through a certain method-lecture, case study, role-play, etc.

The is concerned with the cost and time required to deliver training to the level of agreed

effectiveness. Thus, the efficiency of training is a feature of the training media used. In this context

we asked whether a module should be conducted through a lecture, audio-video aids, computer-

based training, etc.

The programme design should also be based upon and reflect in its elements the training cycle-

starting from needs analysis and finishing with the evaluation of training results.

The main elements of programme design are:

needs analysis

learner analysis

setting objectives

designing the training curriculum

selection of training and development methods.

selection of training and development media

evaluation

Page # 35


2/13


helps to identify and prioritize the most critical problems and needs, and to

determine which of them could be solved by training.

is important to identify individual needs and learning potential or trainability of

trainees.

is important to specify the nature, dimensions and the

volume of the knowledge, attitude and skill, which should be changed during the training. Often, the

objectives indicate job standards or performance parameters to be achieved.

deals with selecting, producing, sequencing and reviewing the

training modules.

is important to ensure that

effective training is carried out in accordance with the curriculum and the objectives.

ensured that the training is delivered in the most

efficient manner possible.

serves to monitor the programme implementation and ensure whether

the training objectives have been achieved and, if not, why not and what types of corrective action

are necessary.

With regard to the phases outlined in the introduction, would include:

needs analysis

learner analysis

setting general objectives (including performance targets)

The would include:

setting detailed objectives

designed the training curriculum

selection of training and development methods selection of training and development media

The improvement phase would include evaluation with feedback and necessary interventions in the

first two phases, particularly for medium-and long-term training programmes.

Page # 36


3/13


If the needs analysis indicates among other things the expected outcomes of a successful training

programme, the analysis of the learners could provide essential information on their trainability, the

possible length of the training and the extent of training to be carried out. Fundamental differences

between people usually influence their learning capabilities and hence influence programme design.

These differences could be analyzed in the following areas:

intellectual ability

prior knowledge or expertise in the area to be taught

motivation to learn

could be reflected in the learners capability to plan their own learning, and

conceptual and intellectual readiness to cope with learning tasks and materials. Can the learner select

the most important aspects of the courses material, devote sufficient time and attention to critical

programme elements and ignore the unimportant ones? Can the learner connect and interrelate new

knowledge, which is particularly important for managers in order to integrate and conceptualize

fragmented facts, derived trends and practical conclusions? All these depend upon the intellectual

abilities of the trainees.

obviously influences the breadth and

depth of the course level, the content and the pace of instruction. If the course level is too low and/or

the pace of instruction too slow or vice versa, the trainees will become frustrated. This is often a

problem on programmes for managers with widely divergent knowledge and expertise, particularly ifthey are drawn from various organizations, departments and functions. In such a situation, specific

skill training modules should be provided separately from the main course, and the latter should be

confined to specific organization issues. For example, the fundamentals of budgeting should be

covered as a separate programme only for individuals required it, but the budgeting system itself for

the whole organization could be provided as part of the main body of the course.

In case where a divergence of prior knowledge and expertise still exists, these is an opportunity for

team-building by selecting groups of people with varying expertise to work on selected work-related

issues and projects, and thus facilitate the exchange of experience, as well as the use of the

synergetic effect to enrich the learning.

influences the effectiveness of learning and depends greatly upon such factors as the

values that learners place on the learning task or objective in relation to their present job and their

future career, their perception of their own knowledge and trainability, and the difficulty of the task or

objective.

If a task perceived as very difficult or very easy, learners will put in very little effort. The learners;

overestimation of the own abilities could also reduce their efforts in the learning process. Finally, if

Page # 37


4/13


the project design is not based on their interests and identified individual needs, the learners are not

going to pay full attention to the programme. The design should prove and be seen by learners to be

based on all these three considerations.

Training objectives are normally derived by comparing actual and expected job performance through

training and development needs analysis. Training objectives can be conveniently classified into the

following two categories:

, which include training objectives for the whole training programme; and

, which include training objectives for individual training sessions.

In long training programmes a third category- -may also be introduced, where the

programme is divided into units, before being farther divided into individual training sessions.

for a training programme on performance appraisal may be

as follows:

At the end of the training programmes trainers will be able to:

describe performance appraisal and its advantages.

describe and conduct the steps of a formal appraisal system,;

set performance standards and evaluate the actual work carried out; and

plan and conduct the performance interview and place emphasis on problem solving, goal

setting and improving performance.

Objectives are important to serve as the yardstick of the achievement and its measurement. They

should prescribe what the learner will be able to do at the end of the session. It helps the programme

designer to know precisely what to test and to design the evaluation methods.

This objective must be:

specific- related to definite action;

measurable- describe the quality or quantity required;

attainable- possible to achieve, not just a target;

relevant- to do with the behavior required; and

time-related- performance at or within a specified time.

In order to explain these characteristics better we can relate them to the objectives of the training

programme, for example, on performance appraisal.

. There are a number of areas to definite actions, such as describing performance appraisal

and its advantages, conducting the steps of a formal appraisal system, etc.

Page # 38


5/13


. It should be possible to evaluate by questions or other tests whether the trainee can

describe the performance appraisal system and its advantages, and outline the steps that need to be

takes to conduct a formal performance appraisal. It should also be possible to measure the trainees

skills in applying the performance interview techniques.

The objectives, in this case, are a combination of the knowledge and skills objectives,

information about appraisal planning, information on conducting the performance interview, attitude

objectives, and using performance appraisal results in practice.

If the company does not currently practice performance appraisal nor plan to do so in

the future, the objectives of this course will not be related to the behavior and skills required by the

job and hence the learning itself will not be successful.

The skills, knowledge and attitudes are to be acquired during the course. In

addition, as part of this programme, trainees are recommended to apply their knowledge back on the

job within a specified period. For example, each trainee (manager) will carry out an appraisal

interview with all his or her subordinates within two weeks of returning to work. Many training

programmes now incorporate the development of an action plan for transferring the acquired skill

knowledge and attitude back to the job.

This stage involves the selecting, producing, sequencing and reviewing of training modules to meet

the identified programme objectives.

In this area we are concerned with selecting subject areas and prioritizing the content

under the following headlines:

What the learner must know- items essential to the programme objectives.

What the learner should know- items which supplement the essential materials and should be

included if successful time is available.

What the learner could know- items which are interesting and relevant but not essential.

Because of the scope of a managers job there is a temptation on includes a wide range of items, as

they may be of benefit to the manager either now or in the future. If this is allowed, the management

development programme not only becomes very long, but may also become very diluted, with no real

core or focus as well as being expensive. Such an approach will also adversely affect the reputation of

management development within the organization; when the programme is evaluated, the real

benefits will be less evident than the excess costs both in money and organization time.

This can be approved in a number of ways. For example, to start with, the need forcertain knowledge should be identified before other knowledge can be discussed. Although not

Page # 39


6/13


necessary for understanding, materials may be available which can make learning of a segment

easier if they precede it. If the variation in learning difficulty is great, and should the learning of the

easier parts help in learning the more difficult materials, a sequence developed around the concept of

moving from the easier to the more difficult tasks may be better.

Normally a mixture of the above approaches may be the best. As the purpose of the programme is

achievement by the trainee of the programme objectives, pedagogical logic or learning-effectiveness

considerations must carry a higher priority than subject-matter logic.

It is recommended that the first step in the modules

production would be the preparation of a plan for each individual training session, which could use

any type of training method, e.g. lecture, role-play, case-study, etc. Preparation of the session plan

has a number of important advantages among which the following should be emphasized:

a standard format for the session plan facilitates the maintenance of a consistent approach

by different trainers in their part of the programme;

the session plan forms an important link between the programme objectives, based on the

needs analysis, and the actual training process;

the session plan helps the programme designer to ensure that no important elements of the

training process or the subject-matter are omitted;

it also helps the trainer to continue with the session if any deviations occur, as well as to fill

in gaps for sessions that were committed for different reasons;

finally, the plan could also help a new or substitute trainer who has to take over the

conducting of a session.

The most important elements to be included in a session plan are the following:

the title of the subject to be covered in the training session;

the durationof the training session;

the locationand address of the session, specifying lecture room, discussion room, computer

laboratory, etc,;

the objectives to be achieved in the training session in line with those of the overallprogramme;

the key points to be covered in the training session;

the training equipmentand audiovisual aids required for the session;

the session outlineindicating the sequence of the subject and their elements, the points to be

covered and the methods and media to be utilized; and

the evaluation outlineto indicate how the session is to be assessed in meeting its objectives.

After arranging all the components in an appropriate sequence, the programme

designer should add up the time required. Normally it will be found that the time required exceeds

Page # 40


7/13


what is available. As a result it will not be enough just to make changes in the timetable; it will also

be necessary to revise the objectives, making them more realistic within the given time constraints.

This revision should be carried out in agreement with the programme client since it may involve a

reduction in the achievement level agreed in advance.

The programme designer may also review training and development media to maintain or even

improve efficiency in the new circumstances of the revised programme.

By using this approach, it is easier to drop the breadth of impact knowledge in favor of in-depth

analysis of a smaller portion of the subject.

Training and development methods are important means to support the learning process. There is

need for continuous improvement in the overall organization and methodology of managementdevelopment programmes, particularly training methods and techniques.

. The learner: intellectual ability, prior knowledge or expertise in the area to be

taught, and motivation. The trainer: knowledge, managerial and teaching experience and personality,

etc.

A trainer-manager with expert knowledge in his or her field, but with little or no teaching experience

normally prefers to use small discussion groups rather than lecturing.

As a rule, management training objectives are defined in terms of

changes to be effective in knowledge, attitudes and skills, which should in turn lead to improve

managerial behavior. Where training is intended to improve multiple skills, as is usual for a

management programmes, a combination of different cognitive and participative teaching methods

could be used.

Various subject areas (e.g. management, finance, marketing, accounting) have

their own specific features. However, for a practical manager, the purpose is not only to know the

technique itself, but to be able to apply it. This practical ability can be developed through case

studies, business games, simulation exercises, practical projects, etc.

The following time and material factors should be taken into consideration when designing the

programme:

the preparation time, which varies for different subjects and training methods;

the length of the course, which could provide an idea on how combine different kinds of

methods effectively and when to use them;

Page # 41


8/13


the time of day when the programme is conducted. For example, the morning is the best

time for lecturing, the afternoon for participative methods; and

the teaching facilities available. Some methods require small teams and premises and other

need large premises; each with relevant training equipment. The lack of adequately equipped

facilities could influence the training selection.

Once the training content has been decided and the appropriate training methods selected to support

the learning process, the next step is to select the appropriate media for delivery of the training in the

most efficient manner and at minimum cost.

For example, a trainer have a preference for videos, and design a training programme around videos.

In another case, a company manager may decide that to keep up with new technology, the company

must build its training programme around the medium of computer-based training. Both these media

are very successful in appropriate situations, but will not suit in most cases; even where they are

suitable, the actual costs, in comparison to other media, may be prohibitive.

It should also be remembered that whereas the media selected will affect the efficiency and cost of

training, it will not necessarily influence the effectiveness of training. For example, there will be little

difference in the delivery of the content of training between a lecture given in person or showing a

videotape of the same lecture. There will, however, be a difference in cost and availability,

particularly if the lecturer is busy person who charges a large fee for personal appearances. Thus, it is

important to review the most important factors influencing training media selection when designing

the programme.

The factors in selecting media are as follows:

between instructor and learner. Some training tasks or trainees require a high

level of interaction. An example of media that provide a high level or interaction is a live trainer

sometimes assisted by computers.

The possibility and scope of changes in content must be reviewedbefore the media is selected and the programme material prepared. For example, where training

materials are selected to meet training needs and some of the content then becomes obsolete, the

materials need to be replaced or modified.

. The is In organizations which have

employees spread over a large geographical area, trainers must decide whether to bring the learner

to the training site or the training process to the learner. This would certainly influence the media

selection. The programme designer should compare the costs and benefits between the above-

mentioned two alternatives, taking into consideration transport, hotels, availability of media and

training equipment.

Page # 42


9/13


The is the If a large number of managers are to be

trained, investment in initial media development suited to the programme content and trainees needs

may be justified and training costs should be compared with expected training effectiveness.

, If the training has to be carried out for a group of

employees within a short period of time, the selection of media will reflect the time constraints

improved.

, Many companies have difficulty in releasing employees for training

programmes. Additional problems occur if a company operates a shift-work system, and training must

be organized in line with constraints imposed by the work schedule. It is necessary to consider media

to suit this situation. For example, flexible learning systems like computer-based training have the

advantage of permitting learners to learn at their own pace, in their own time and at their ownlocation.

, Through it is already recommended that media decisions should be

made to suit the training programme objectives after a full analysis of the alternatives, it may

sometimes be more appropriate for a particular company to select readily available media because

they have already had experience using it and have the necessary hardware. This should be weighted

against the costs and effects of introducing the new media.

, The fear of exposing their lack of expertise could also influence

the media selection. For example, individualized learning using books or flexible learning systems can

address this need and bring the individual to a level of acceptable expertise without embarrassment

in front of other trainees.

The last step in the process of programme design is preparing evaluation instruments. This is

certainly important because it determines if the learner has achieved the objectives of the programme

and also highlights areas where the programme should be revised.

It is useful to think about the training evaluation process in terms of four main levels of evaluation.

is obtained from the reaction of the learners after each training session, each

module or at the end of the course. This provide an immediate feedback from the learners on areas

such as the course content, its relevance to the job, the quality of presentation, the training climate,

where improvement could be made, and so on. This immediate feedback assists the trainer in

steering the course adequately. However it is of limited value since it does not measure actual

learning, nor can it measure the application of new concepts on the job. Thus, evaluation at this level

can only answer the questions How do trainees learn? and Are they happy or not?

Page # 43


10/13


measure the amount of learning that trainees have acquire during the training

programme. It would also answer questions on what and how well they have learned during the

course. Learning will be measured against programme learning objectives for individual session and

for the total training programme. The design of evaluation procedures will cover knowledge, skill and

attitude learning, and it forms part of the programme design process.

measure whether learners have transferred and applied their learning to the

job. This is more difficult to measure, since it should happen out of the programme context and in the

actual job setting. The best way to do this is for trainers to visit learners (or some of them) in their

work situations before and after the training programme to discuss any changes in their job

performance with them and their managers.

measures the change in department or organization performance which can be

credited to the training. It is difficult to estimate because many other factors than training affectperformance. However, there are some statistical and analytical methods which can be used to

eliminate the influence of those other factors.

Programme design also includes a number of areas which support the training activity and without

which it will not take place or would be ineffective. These are:

i. Planning

ii. Budgeting

iii. Timing

iv. Staffing

v. Facilities

vi. Programme promotion and marketing

Below are some checklists to ensure that all critical items are taken into consideration at the design

state

This is basically the overview or a master checklist ensuring that all relevant areas have been

covered.

Needs analysis

Should needs be fulfilled through external courses?

If external courses required, identify appropriate one.

If internal programme required then:

-Design training programme

-Identify staff and resources

-Prepare programme budget

-Decide on course location

Page # 44


11/13


-Decide on course accommodation and hostel reservations

-Decide on trainers (internal and external)

-Promote course to potential trainers and their supervisors.

-Check out training facilities

-Conduct training programme

-Evaluate training rogramm

The following worksheet outlines the main budget items with regard to training.

Clerical ClericalProfessional ProfessionalOutside consultants

Promotional material Meeting roomsStaff work roomsHospitality areas

Films Means, coffee breaks, receptionsVideotapes StaffAudiotapes Participants3.5mm slides TimingOverhead transparenciesManuals

Hand-outsComputer programmesBooks and articlesOther

Staff Administrative costsIn-house UtilitiesExternal consultants MaintenanceParticipants Other.

Some factors which affect the timing of programmes and should be taken into consideration at the

design stage are as follows:

Generally speaking, holiday periods are not very popular for

training courses because many potential trainees are not available. However, some universities

schedule programmes at this time, as training resources become available. Other organizations

commence programs after the holiday period or after the beginning of the financial year in line with

the availability of training budgets and/or a reduction in the volume of urgent work.

Page # 45


12/13


Management development programme will-in addition to

company trainers-also utilize outside trainers and consultants. Their availability may be limited and

therefore often determine when the programme can be conducted. Availability of outside training and

residential facilities are also important in programming training.

In many cases the actual logistics of planning, designing, promoting and

providing training resources and faculty staff, means that a minimum lead time exists before a

successful programme can commence. This time depends on the number of participants, their jobs,

location, programme complexity, professionalism of the training and support staff, etc, and should b

well assessed during the design stage.

The planner also needs to consider the availability of; (i) staff members, either training or

management staff; (ii) outside consultants or guest speakers; and (iii) administration and supportstaff.

A seminar facility checklist as well as factors to be considered in choosing meeting rooms are

suggested below:

Availability on seminar dates

Cost (rooms, meals, seminar rooms, equipments, tc.)

Transport (public or own car, if public, consider convenience, frequency and costs)

Seminar room (size, appearance, lighting, dcor, outlook, sound protection, ventilation and

other comfort conditions)

Supporting services (food, sleeping accommodation, recreation, public telephone, etc)

General (scenic outlook, general dcor, cleanliness, experience in hosting seminars, etc)

Factors to consider in choosing meeting rooms (room size, room structure, windows,

furnishing, acoustics, color scheme, floor coverings, lighting, electrical outlets, glare,

temperature, ventilation, noise, computer hook-in)

Promotion involves developing strategies and materials aimed at generating enrolments for

train for training programmes. Examples of promotional materials used to foster interest in

training programs could be as follows:

Brochures

Newsletter/newspaper

Promotional contacts

Leaflets

Posters

Magazine advertisements

Page # 46


13/13


Television and radio advertising

Page # 47

Documents

Chapter 6_Program Designing