Embed Size (px)
DESCRIPTION
Chapter 7. Human Development Across the Lifespan. Outline. Prenatal Development The Newborn Infancy and Childhood Adolescence Early and Middle Adulthood Later Adulthood. Developmental Psychology. The study of the changes that occur in people from conception to death. Outline. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
Citation preview
Chapter 7
Chapter 7
Human Development Across the Lifespan
Chapter 7
Outline
Prenatal DevelopmentThe NewbornInfancy and ChildhoodAdolescenceEarly and Middle AdulthoodLater Adulthood
Chapter 7
Developmental Psychology
The study of the changes that occur in people from conception to death
Chapter 7
Outline
Prenatal DevelopmentThe NewbornInfancy and ChildhoodAdolescenceEarly and Middle AdulthoodLater Adulthood
Chapter 7
Prenatal Development
The period of development from conception to birthEmbryo– A developing human between 2 weeks and 3 months after
conception– Cells are beginning to specialize to form organs, muscles,
bones, etc.
Fetus– A developing human between 3 months after conception to
birth– One inch long, but roughly resembles a human being with
arms, legs, a large head and a beating heart
Chapter 7
Prenatal Development
The placenta nourishes the embryo and the fetus and carries away waste productsThe mother’s blood never actually mingles with the unborn childDiseases and teratogens (toxic agents that she eats, drinks, or inhales) can cross the placenta and compromise the baby’s development
Chapter 7
Critical Periods in Development
Critical Period– A time when certain internal and external influences have
a major effect on development– At other periods, the same influences will have little or no
effect
Alcohol is the drug most often abused by pregnant womenFetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)– A disorder that occurs in children of women who drink
alcohol during pregnancy– Characterized by facial deformities, heart defects, stunted
growth, and cognitive impairments
Chapter 7
Critical Periods in Development
Smoking during pregnancy restricts the oxygen supply to the fetus, slows its breathing and speeds up its heartbeat– Associated with a significantly increased of miscarriage– Babies are more likely to suffer low birth weights, which
puts the child at risk for other developmental problems
Other factors that are related to health of a newborn:– Prenatal care and nutrition– Mother’s level of psychological stress during pregnancy
Chapter 7
Outline
Prenatal DevelopmentThe NewbornInfancy and ChildhoodAdolescenceEarly and Middle AdulthoodLater Adulthood
Chapter 7
The Newborn
Neonates– Newborn babies
Newborns an sleep up to 20 hours a dayWhen awake, they are much more aware and competent than they seem at first glance
Chapter 7
Reflexes
Rooting reflex– A baby turns its head toward something touching its cheek
and gropes around with its mouth– Helps the baby find its mother’s nipple
Sucking reflex – Sucking on any object placed in a baby’s mouth
Swallowing reflex– Enables the baby to swallow liquids without choking
Chapter 7
Reflexes
Grasping reflex– Clinging vigorously to anything placed in their hands
Stepping reflex– The light stepping motions made by babies if they are held
upright with their feet just touching a surface
These reflexes disappear after two or three months
Chapter 7
Perceptual Abilities
All of a baby's senses are functioning at birth:– Sight – Hearing – Taste – Smell – Touch
Chapter 7
Vision
A baby’s least developed sense is probably vision, which takes 6 to 8 months to become as good as the average college student's
Chapter 7
Other Senses
Hearing– Fetuses in the womb hear sounds and after birth and show
signs that they remember sounds they heard in the womb– Babies are also able to tell the direction of a sound– Newborns seem particularly adept at discriminating speech
sounds
Smell and taste– Newborns have clear-cut likes and dislikes – Prefer sweet flavors
Chapter 7
Other Senses
As infants grow older their perceptions improve– Their sense organs and nervous system physically mature– Gain experience of the world– Teacher Tube
Chapter 7
Outline
Prenatal DevelopmentThe NewbornInfancy and ChildhoodAdolescenceEarly and Middle AdulthoodLater Adulthood
Chapter 7
Infancy and Childhood
During the first dozen years of life a helpless infant becomes a competent older childThis transformation encompasses many important kinds of changes including – Physical– Motor– Cognitive– Social developments
Chapter 7
Physical Development
Growth of the body is most rapid during the first year– The average baby grows approximately 10 inches and
gains about 15 pounds
Growth slows down considerably until early adolescence Growth occurs suddenly rather than through small, steady changesDuring the first two years, children have heads that are large relative to their bodies as their brain undergoes rapid growth– Brain reaches ¾ of adult size by the age of two– Head growth is complete by age 10
Chapter 7
Body Proportions at Various Ages
Chapter 7
Cognitive Development
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget– Cognitive development is a way of adapting to the
environment– Children are intrinsically motivated to explore and
understand things, progressing through four basic stages of cognitive development
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development– Sensory-motor stage (birth-2)– Preoperational stage (2-7)– Concrete operational (7-11)– Formal operational (11-15)
Chapter 7
Sensory-Motor Stage (birth-2)
Object Permanence– The concept that things continue to exist even when they
are out of sight
Mental Representations– Mental images or symbols (such as words) used to think
about or remember an object, a person, or an event
Self-Recognition– Ability to recognize the reflection as “myself”
Chapter 7
Preoperational Stage (2-7)
A child becomes able to use mental representations and language to describe, remember, and reason about the world– Allows for engaging in fantasy play and symbolic gestures
Egocentric– Unable to see things from another person’s point of view
Easily mislead by appearances
Chapter 7
Concrete-Operational Stage (7-11)
A child can attend to more than one thing at a time and understand someone else’s point of view, though thinking is limited to concrete mattersGrasp principles of conservation– The concept that the quantity of a substance is not altered
by reversible changes in its appearance
Chapter 7
Formal-Operational Stage (11-15)
Individuals acquire the ability to think abstractly and test ideas mentally using logic
Chapter 7
Moral Development
How people make moral decisions about right and wrongKohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development– Preconventional
– Interpreting behavior in terms of its concrete consequences
– Conventional– Interpreting behavior in terms of social and societal approval
– Postconventional– Emphasis on abstract principles, for example justice, liberty,
and equality
Chapter 7
Language Development
Development of language follows a predictable pattern
Chapter 7
Social Development
Erikson’s Stage Theory– Eight stages beginning at birth and ending in old age– In each stage, the individual faces a central conflict or
“crisis” that must be resolved– Successful development in the following periods of
development occur when the crisis is resolved favorably– In early development, parent-child interactions are
critically important– As the child grows older, peer relationships become more
important– In adulthood, focus is on how the person interprets the
patterns of his or her life
Chapter 7
Erikson’s Stage Theory
Trust vs Mistrust (0-1 yr)– If needs are met, infants come to trust the environment
and themselves
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (1-3 yrs)– Ability to master skills such as walking, holding onto thing,
control of their excretory functions
Initiative vs Guilt (3-6 yrs)– Support and encouragement or scolding for new activities?
Industry vs Inferiority (6-13 yrs)– Ability to meet the new expectations at home and school
Chapter 7
Erikson’s Stage Theory
Identity vs Role Confusion (13-18 yrs)– Ability to integrate the various roles (student, sister,
friends, etc.)
Intimacy vs Isolation (18-25 yrs)– To love someone else we must have resolved earlier issues
and feel secure in our own identities
Generativity vs Stagnation (25-60 yrs)– The challenge is to remain creative in all aspects of one’s
life, finding meaning and joy in all major activities
Integrity vs. Despair (60 yrs-end of life)– Acceptance with one’s life, a sense that it is complete and
satisfactory
Chapter 7
Parent-Child Relationships in Infancy: Development of Attachment
Attachment– The emotional bond that develops in the first year of life
that makes human babies cling to their caregivers for safety and comfort
– Signs of attachment are evident by age six months or earlier by reacting with coos at the caregiver’s appearance or whimpers when they leaves
Autonomy– Sense of independence; a desire not to be controlled by
others– A child who has formed a secure attachment to a caregiver
can explore the environment without fear
Chapter 7
Parent-Child Relationships in Infancy: Development of Attachment
Socialization– Process by which children learn the behaviors and
attitudes appropriate to their family and culture
The need for both autonomy and socialization can be met if parent allow the child a reasonable amount of independence, while insisting the child follow certain rules
Chapter 7
Parent-Child Relationships in Childhood
Effect of parenting style on a child’s outlook and behavior– Authoritative parents provide firm structure and guidance
without being overly controlling.– Must successful parenting style
– Authoritarian parents are low on warmth but high on control and insist on unquestioning obedience
– Produce children who generally have poor communication skills, are moody, withdrawn and distrustful. May also act out when the parents aren’t around
Chapter 7
Parent-Child Relationships in Childhood
Effect of parenting style on a child’s outlook and behavior– Permissive parents are high on warmth, but low on control
– Children tend to be immature, disrespectful, impulsive and out of control
– Indifferent parents exert little control, are neglectful and inattentive
– Children tend to be overly dependent and lacking social skills and self-control
Chapter 7
Parent-Child Relationships in Childhood
Criticisms:– Parents do not determine the parent-child relationship on
their own – children affect it too– Parents do not act the same way toward every child in the
family– Research that indicates that the importance of parents
may be overestimated and that peers are a key factor in shaping adult personality
Chapter 7
Relationships with other Children
Solitary play (0-18 months)– A child engaged in some activity alone– The earliest form of play
Parallel play (18 months – 2 yrs)– Two children playing side by side at the same activities,
paying little or no attention to each other– The earliest form of social interaction between toddlers
Cooperative play (3+ yrs)– Two or more children engaged in play that requires
interaction
Chapter 7
Children in Dual Career Families
In the US, over half the children between birth and age third grade spend some time being regularly cared for by persons other then their parentsCurrent research indicates no direct link between children who are raised in one parent families and psychological disorders.
Chapter 7
Gender-Role Development
Gender identity (age 3)– The knowledge that one is male or female– Little understanding of what that means
Gender constancy (age 4 or 5)– The realization that gender cannot be changed
Chapter 7
Gender-Role Development
Gender-role awareness– Knowledge of what behavior is appropriate for each gender
Gender stereotypes– General beliefs about characteristics that men and women
are presumed to have
Gender-typed behavior– Socially prescribed ways of behaving that differ for boys
and girls
Popular culture – especially television – influences the norms of gender-appropriate behavior that develop in children’s peer groups
Chapter 7
Television and Children
American children spend more time watching television than they do any other activity other than sleepingConcerns:– Violence– Sleep Disturbances
Children can learn worthwhile things from educational programs on TV
Chapter 7
Outline
Prenatal DevelopmentThe NewbornInfancy and ChildhoodAdolescenceEarly and Middle AdulthoodLater Adulthood
Chapter 7
Adolescence
Adolescence is a period of the lifespan that is defined as much by social expectations and personal circumstances as by biological and cognitive changesAbout age 10 to age 20
Chapter 7
Sexual Development
Puberty– The onset of sexual maturation, with accompanying
physical development– Visible signs occur in a different sequence for boys and
girls
Chapter 7
Early vs Late Development
Age at puberty differs greatly in individuals Early development for boys has positive impact– They are better in sports and receive greater respect from
their peers
Early development has both positive and negative effects for girls– Early developing girls may be admired by other girls, but
may be treated as a sex object by boys
Chapter 7
Adolescent Sexual Activity
The US has the highest teen birth rate in the industrialized world– Nearly 7x the rate in France and 13x the rate in Japan– May be due to ignorance of the most basic facts
concerning reproduction
Chapter 7
Cognitive Changes
Increased ability to reason abstractly (formal operational thought)Can understand and manipulate abstract concepts, speculate about alternative possibilities and reason in hypothetical termsImaginary Audience– Adolescents’ delusion that they are constantly being
observed by others
Personal Fable– Adolescents’ delusion that they are unique, very
important, and invulnerable
Chapter 7
Personality and Social Development
Adolescents are eager to establish independence, but fear the responsibilities of adulthoodHow “stormy and stressful” is adolescence?– Many adolescents manage to keep stress in check,
experience little disruption in their everyday lives, and generally develop more positively than is commonly believed
Chapter 7
Forming an Identity
Identity Formation – The development of a stable sense of self, necessary to
make the transition from dependence on others to dependence on oneself
Identity Crisis– A period of intense self-examination and decision making– Part of the process of identity formation
Chapter 7
Relationship with Peers
Adolescents require guidance and structure from adultsThe low point of parent-child relationships generally occurs in early adolescence, when physical changes of puberty are occurring
Chapter 7
Outline
Prenatal DevelopmentThe NewbornInfancy and ChildhoodAdolescenceEarly and Middle AdulthoodLater Adulthood
Chapter 7
Early and Middle Adulthood
Development during adulthood is much less predictable – it is more a function of the individual's decisions, circumstances and even luckThere are certain experiences and changes that take place sooner or later in nearly everyone's life and certain needs that nearly every adult tries to fulfill
Chapter 7
Love, Partnership and Parenting
Nearly all adults form a long-term, loving partnership with another adult at some point in their livesFailure to form an intimate partnership with someone else can cause a young adult to feel painfully lonely and incomplete<embed id="VideoPlayback" src="http://video.google.com/googleplayer.swf?docid=-7802693088108366327&hl=en&fs=true"
Chapter 7
Forming Partnerships
Almost 90% of Americans eventually get married, but it is happening alter in lifeCohabitation– Most last no longer than two years– Greatest recent increase in cohabitating couples is among
people over age 35
Homosexual couples– Successful relationships have the same characteristics as
heterosexual relationships– High levels of mutual trust, respect and appreciation– Shared decision making– Good communication– Good conflict resolution skills
Chapter 7
Martial Satisfaction
Chapter 7
Ending a Relationship
Almost half of all marriages eventually end in divorce– It is rarely a mutual decision
Most divorced adults report that the divorce was a positive step that eventually resulted in greater personal contentment and healthier psychological functioning
Chapter 7
Physical Changes
Decline in the function of reproductive organs and the hormones that regulate sexual responseWomen– Estrogen drops sharply for women around age 45– Breasts, genital tissues and uterus begin to shrink– Menstrual periods become irregular leading to menopause
(the cessation of menstruation) around age 50– Menopause also leads to osteoporosis (a serious thinning
of the bones) increasing vulnerability to fractures
Men– Fertility and testosterone declines gradually in men
between 48 and 70
Chapter 7
Personality Changes
Psychological health generally increases in adulthood– Less self-centered, develop better coping skills, more
sympathetic, giving productive and dependable– Increasing commitment to and responsibility for others and
are more comfortable in interpersonal relationships
Demonstrates Erikson’s major challenge in middle adulthood: Generativity vs Stagnation
Chapter 7
Outline
Prenatal DevelopmentThe NewbornInfancy and ChildhoodAdolescenceEarly and Middle AdulthoodLater Adulthood
Chapter 7
Later Adulthood
During the 20th century, the percentage of Americans over age 65 has more than tripled– In 2000, 35 million Americans were over age 65– By 2030, expected to be more than 70 million Americans
were over age 65
Those over 85 represent the fastest-growing segment of the US populationDue to aging baby book generation, better health and nutrition
Chapter 7
Demographics of Aging
Women live an average of 7 years longer than men – Differences in hormones, exposure to stress, health-related
behaviors and genetic makeup
White Americans live an average of 5 years longer than African Americans– Disparities in socioeconomic well-being
Chapter 7
Demographics of Aging
Our views of older adults are often heavily colored by myths– Older adults are lonely, poor, troubled by ill health, and
“senility” is inevitable
Some symptoms go untreated because medical professionals assume they are inevitable signs of decay in old ageIncreasingly, people age 65+ are healthy, productive and able
Chapter 7
Cognitive Changes
Healthy people who remain intellectually active maintain a high level of mental functioning in old ageThe brain only shrinks about 10% between the ages of 20 and 70The aging mind does work slowly and certain types of memories are a little more difficult to store and retrieve
Chapter 7
Facing the End of Life
Kübler-Ross’s Stages of Dying– Denial– Anger– Bargaining– Depression– Acceptance
Chapter 7
Chapter Review
Prenatal Development– What major events take place during the fetal and
embryonic stages of prenatal development?– Why can a toxic agent cause devastating effects at one
point in prenatal development but not at others?
The Newborn– What early reflexes enable newborns to respond to their
environment?– Is your temperament the same as it was when you were a
newborn?– Which senses are the most developed at birth, and which
are the least developed?
Chapter 7
Chapter Review
Infancy and Childhood– Do children grow at a steady pace?– Is walking at an early age a sign of future athletic ability?– How does a child’s ability to reason change over time?– How do gender and ethnic background affect moral
development?– How does a child develop language skills?– According to Erikson’s theory, what are the major
developmental milestones in childhood?– When do children learn about their gender?– Is watching TV a good or bad influence on the
development of children?
Chapter 7
Chapter Review
Adolescence– What are the consequences of going through puberty early
or late?– What are two common fallacies that characterize
adolescent thinking?– What important tasks do adolescents face in their personal
and social lives?
Chapter 7
Chapter Review
Early and Middle Adulthood– What factors are important in forming satisfying
relationships in adulthood– What are the satisfactions and stresses of adult work?– What is menopause and what changes accompany it?– In what ways do adults think differently than adolescents?– What changes in personality occur as adults move into
midlife?
Chapter 7
Chapter Review
Later Adulthood– What factors are related to life expectancy?– Why does the body deteriorate with age?– What kind of lifestyle and sex life can be expected after
65?– Is memory loss inevitable in old age?– How well do most elderly people cope with the end of life?
