Chapter 7 - QA

1

OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter you should be able to:

Define the term ‘quality’ in relation to customer needs. Realize the importance of quality assurance in a business

enterprise Identify key elements of product quality. Differentiate between product quality and service quality Explain the importance of quality service in any business. Select appropriate method of monitoring your product quality.

KEY TERMS YOU WILL LEARN Quality Quality control Quality assurance Monitoring Sampling Standard measurement ISO Quality certificate Control Defect Inspection Measurement standard Random sampling Quality audit Tolerance limit Standardization Batch

Chapter 7 Quality Management D.N.Mutsotso (MIQA)

2

INTRODUCTION In the past consumers were forced to accept any product sold in the market no matter how low their quality may be. This has changed over the past years due to availability of various options and sophisticated taste of modern consumers. Today only high quality products and services can survive the stiff prevailing market competition. It is therefore important that every entrepreneur must take the issue of quality of product or service very seriously if he or she has to succeed in any business endeavor. 7.1 DEFINING QUALITY

You might have heard people saying ‘one quality of this plastic material is that it is unbreakable’ or ‘This is a poor quality radio’ The word ‘quality’ according to ISO 8402 refers to the totality of the features and characteristics which determine the extent to which the product or service meets customer’s requirements. Notice how customer-driven this definition is. ISO 9000:2000 defines quality as the degree to which an entity fulfills requirements. The term quality can be used with such qualifiers as ‘good’, ‘bad’, ‘high’, etc. These are termed qualitative aspects of quality and can be understood if the basic measurable aspects, the quantitative aspects are first established. For example, a laser jet printer produces a better quality report than a dot matrix printer. But merely saying that a laser printer is of better quality than a dot matrix printer is not justifiable if there is no point of reference, in this case, a report as the dot matrix could produce superior quality in other jobs. You will realize that today’s consumers play a very important role in determining what extend which features and characteristics of a product or service satisfy their needs.

While some monetary units such as dollars can easily define prices, other customer’s needs are defined by translating the features and characteristics for the manufacture of a product into specifications. Dale (1990) in his book entitled: ‘Quality control’ has identified these key specifications:

3

Reliability – consistency of performance over time, average time

for the unit to fail. Performance – primary product characteristics, such as baking

bread. Features – Secondary characteristics, added features such as

remote control. Conformance – meeting specifications or industry standards,

workmanship. Durability – useful life, include repair. Service – resolution of problems and complains, ease of repair Response – Human-to-human interface, such as courtesy of the

dealer Aesthetics – sensory characteristics such as external finish. Reputation – past performance and other intangibles, such as

being ranked first.

7.2 TYPES OF QUALITY 1. Design quality The followings are the characteristics associated with quality design: Simplicity in terms of shape and number of parts. Can be easily translated into a manufactured product Working drawing and specifications are easily understood. Innovative – the design is above most people’s expectations. In conformity with aesthetics and ergonomic standards 2. Material quality Each material used in design and manufacturing has its own quality, which make them suitable for a particular job. Material quality is determined by its properties and working characteristics. For example, a material may be said to have good quality because it can withstand heat or shock for a specified period of time without distortion. Some materials used today for example are a

4

combination of two or more materials. These materials (called alloys) have better working quality than one single pure material. 3. Production quality Product quality can be defined as the degree to which the manufacturing processes reflect the design requirements. Nowadays consistency of manufacturing has been improved by the adoption of automation and computer-controlled machine tools. The end results are less human errors, high productivity, less wastage and cost effective methods of production. 4. Product quality It is the combination of design quality, material quality and production quality. It is a measure of how well the product fitness for purpose satisfies the following customer’s requirements.

Usability Safety Maintainability Availability Price Environmental conformance

5. Service quality Synonymous with Product quality, service quality is appropriate for cases where the ‘product’ is intangible or cannot be necessarily be taken home away with as a purchase. Examples include:

Consultancy Taxi service, Banking service (to sometimes) Baby-sitting

5

7.3 FACTORS AFFECTING QALITY OF PRODUCT

We all want to design and produce quality products. Unfortunately there are factors that make it difficult to achieve the desired quality. Human factor is one of them. Errors that occur at various stages of manufacturing processes could be attributed to: Poor training on the part of the worker, that is, he or she may

not have the right skills to manipulate the materials or machines.

Management problems within the company. e.g. lack of managerial skills.

Faulty materials. This could be structural faults, impurities or inconsistent mix.

Design problems. This could be an omission of a component, incorrect measurements or complex design.

Faulty tools and machines could be as a result of wear on the moving parts,

Lack of service, lack of spares, or machine being out of date.

ACTIVITY 1. 1. If you walked into a hotel today, what would be

your expectations of a good quality accommodation service?

2. Imagine you run an airline booking agency. How would you ensure that you meet the requirements and expectations of your clients?.

3. You are employed as the quality representative in an organization setting up to print a weekly newsletter. Describe how you would set out to ensure that the quality of both the newsletter and processes involved will result in a good end product.

6

7.4 FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY OF SERVICE According to Badiru and Ayeni (1993) Practitioner’s guide to Quality and Process Improvement, interpersonal skills play a more significant role in the quality of services than they do in the manufactured product. They identified the following key elements that contribute to quality service: Courtesy – The empathy, respect, consideration and politeness

with which a service is provided. Reliability – the consistency, accuracy and dependability of

service. Promptness – the timeliness, responsiveness, and willingness to

provide service. Competence – the adequate of the skill and knowledge required

to deliver service. Access – the receptiveness of the service provider to

customer’s request. Communication – the ability to listen to the customer, keep the

customer informed and accept customers feedback. Credibility – the honesty, believability and reputation of the

service provider with respect to the delivery of service. Comprehension – The readinesses of the service provider to

learn, know, and understand the customer and his or her needs. Tools – the collection of tangible and physical instruments at

the disposal of the service provider. 7.5. QUALITY MANAGEMENT ISO 9000:2000 defines Quality Management as a set of coordinated activities to direct and control an organization with regard to quality. Direction and control generally includes establishment of the quality policy, quality objectives, quality planning, quality control, quality assurance and quality improvement.

7

7.5.1 quality policy These are the overall intentions and direction of an organization related to quality as formally expressed by top management. It should generally be consistent with overall policy and would provide a framework for the setting of quality objectives. 7.5.2 quality objectives These are things sought, or aimed for related to quality 7.5.3 quality policy This is focused on setting quality objectives and specifying necessary operational processes and related resources to fulfil the quality objectives. An example of a quality policy is as follows: ‘It is the absolute policy of our company to provide products and services that fully and consistently meet the agreed requirements of our customers and ensure that products are manufactured to defined standards of content and fitness for purpose’. 7.5.4 quality control This is focused on fulfilling quality requirements. It is the maintenance of the desired quality in a manufactured product. Strictly speaking, it involves monitoring, reduction of variation and elimination of known causes. Quality control is the best way to produce quality products, It helps in checking whether the manufacturing plan is working properly and to act on errors that might have occurred during the design, manufacturing, packaging and distribution. Quality control can be seen as a management function where everybody in the company is responsible for its sustenance. As Badiru (1900) said: Good quality is everybody’s responsibility; bad quality is everybody’s fault’. In a manufacturing business for example, everybody from machine operator to the top management is responsible for quality control. In this context, quality control must therefore be seen as a management-driven programme of plan, activities and events. This programme is

8

implemented and managed with the aim of ensuring that: (a) the process will meet consumer quality requirements; (b) return-on- investments are met. Quality is not something that is ‘tacked onto’ a product or service but a philosophy of total integration of all the inputs in the business to achieve the desired outcome. Today it is common to find quality being used as business philosophy. Mini Technical (Pty) Limited mission statement is an example of quality-oriented philosophy. 7.5 5 quality assurance This is focused on providing confidence that quality requirements are being fulfilled. Quality assurance can be regarded as a means of assuring customers that the product or service provided by a company meets minimum standard requirement and competes favorably with others in the market. Advantages of quality assurance It has a preventive approach compared to quality control It is a means of getting things right first time every time It is cost effective It is an aid to productivity It is a good management practice In a manufacturing company, it is common to find someone or a whole quality assurance department responsible for preparing a plan of action. However, it is the manager or owner of business who must ensure the overall effective implementation of quality assurance in his or her company. 7.5 6 quality improvement This is focused on increasing the ability to fulfil quality requirements. The requirements can be related to any aspect such as effectiveness, efficiency or traceability.

9

THE ROLE OF THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS Called by different names in different countries, this organization helps in establishing national standards and promoting quality. The Bureau of Standards has thus an important role to play in quality matters. Its main responsibility is to provide guidelines on quality standards for all types of products and services offered to the consumers. In most countries where it exists, the Bureau of Standards also offers certification services to industries and customers. There are three types of certification schemes, which are administered by the Bureau of standard or its agents. These are: System certification, Product certification and Consignment Inspection certification. 1. SYSTEM CERTIFICATION The most well known system Certification schemes are the ISO 9000 for quality management systems and ISO 14000 Environmental management systems. These system certification schemes involves the assessment/ audit of a company’s Quality or Environmental management systems to verify compliance with the ISO 9000 or ISO 14000 as well as the effectiveness of requirements. A Systems certificate of compliance is issued by 3rd parties in recognition of the ability of a company to: Operate within pre-established/controlled conditions Rein-in non-compliances without jeopardizing quality of service

to clients As a Quality or Environmentally managed entity 2. PRODUCT CERTIFICATION Product certification includes many of the aspects of systems Certification and in addition, include the requirement that the sample of a product is tested to ensure compliance with a product specification, which may include addition (optional) quality and durability requirements. This product compliance testing is an ongoing activity ensuring continued performance for the buyer and

10

is conducted by 3rd parties. Usually the 3rd party will give permission to the approved product or service provider to attach, emboss or mark the product with the quality mark as a testimony to potential users and users alike that the quality of the product meets certain standards. See fig 4 for examples of quality marks. 3. CONSIGNMENT INSPECTION CERTIFICATION Consignment inspection involves the inspection of batches of products for compliance with the Purchasers requirements. Special certificates are issued for products or service that meet certain minimum requirements imposed by legislation. For example, a regulatory body may certify that an entrepreneur has met safety and environmental standard before issuing a license to manufacture a particular product can be granted. Such certification is a legislative rather than a quality assurance requirement. Batch certification applies also when there is need to assure the quality of imported or exported products and a competent 3rd party is requested to perform the testing and or certification process against some standard. The following are examples quality marks from different countries.

7.4 Quality marks (The British Standards Institute kite mark – left and Botswana Bureau of Standards standard mark – right)

11

7.6 MONITORING PRODUCT QUALITY

The main reasons for monitoring and measuring the quality of products. So that only acceptable products are passed to the next

process. To indicate if the process need some adjustment or

modifications To collect information and give feedback so that causes of

faults are reduced or completely removed. Market surveillances are used by consumer watchdogs and

national standards bodies to verify whether claimed compliance is obtaining at all times.

The most common ways of monitoring product quality are described below: 1. Measurement By using appropriate measuring tools to measure e.g. dimensions, weight, weight, volume, color and density, it is possible to determine whether a product meets the expected quality standard. These measurements are easy to carry out so long as you have the right tool for the right job conducted by the right person under the right testing conditions. Some measuring tests involve subjecting the product to a series of physical or chemical tests to make sure it meets the stated specifications. This can be in the form of:

Non-destructive test Performance test, and Reliability test

Visual inspection involves looking for visible defects such as lack of proportion, cracks, quality of joints and surface finish.

12

Other techniques that are often used in product quality control include: Smell – used for example, in food and beverage industry to monitor the quality standard of odour or aroma. Taste – also used in food and beverage industry to monitor the quality standard of e.g. sweetness. Sound – used for example, in music industry to monitor quality of sound produced by different systems. Touch – to establish the quality of product finish. Stages of inspection Inspection can be performed in the following forms:

Receiving inspection In-process inspection First or last piece inspection Pre-shipment or final inspection

2.Statistical analysis Through accumulated data, it is possible to determine the nature and frequency of a particular problem related to each process in the production line. Histogram, Distribution curves etc are all ways of presenting information on the data collected. 3. Sampling Sometimes it is not possible to carry out proof tests or analyses on every product, especially if it is mass- produced. Sampling is then used whereby a certain determined proportion of the rproduct batch is tested to establish the overall quality of the product.

13

ACTIVITY 2.

1. Collect some samples of products you can come across.

2. Is there any information printed on the packages? Is there any quality mark. What does it tell you?

Carry out tests and see if the products conform to the specifications given. If the product is marked, approach the nearest national bureau of standards, or the consumer affairs department or even a product related laboratory and request them to verify the producer’s claims. Sometimes the laboratory may charge you a fee for the tests to be conducted and so you must find out before you proceed with the enquiry.

14

SUMMARY In this chapter, a number of issues related to quality were discussed. In particular, quality was defined in terms of customer’s needs. The question of who is responsible for quality assurance in a company was discussed. Several methods of monitoring product quality were also covered. It is perhaps important to remind the reader that mentoring of product quality is very much related to your design project work where you are required to evaluate each step of your design activity as it is certainly nearly impossible to inspect quality into a finished product. Although we covered the subject with a bias on product quality, the techniques described in this chapter can be adopted and deployed where services are concerned. For and in-depth coverage on the topic of quality management, other texts are recommended in the bibliography. The main aim of this chapter is to introduce the uninitiated to the vast field of quality and quality management.

15

Bibliography

1) International Organization for Standardization (1994) ISO 8402 Quality

management and quality systems – Vocabulary. Switzerland. ISO


systems – Model for quality assurance in design, development, production,

installation and servicing. Switzerland. ISO

3) International Organization for Standardization (1994) ISO 9004-1 Quality

management and quality system elements Part 1: guidelines. Switzerland.

ISO


management systems – Fundamentals and vocabulary. Switzerland. ISO


management systems – Requirements. Switzerland. ISO


management systems Guidelines for performance improvements

Switzerland. ISO

7) Juran, J. M (ed.) (1988) Juran’s Quality Control Handbook. 4th ed.

McGraw-Hill.

8) Kanji, K. G., Asher, M. (1996) 100 Methods for Total Quality

Management. Sage Publications

9) Lock, D.(ed) (1994) Gower Handbook of Quality Management. 2nd Ed.

Gower

10) Mutsotso, D.N. (2001) BOBS Launches its Quality Management System

The Promoter of Standards and Quality in Botswana. Vol. 17 p3

11) Mutsotso, D.N. (2001) Demystifying Quality The Promoter of Standards

and Quality in Botswana. Vol. 17 p4

Documents

Chapter 7 - QA