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CHAPTER - VII

WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

7.1 General statement

Although water is available on earth in plenty but less than 1% of it is

available for human consumption which is being overexploited and polluted due to

anthropogenic activities involving huge disposal of pollutants into water bodies which

make it unfit for sustenance of life (Ramachandra and Solanki, 2007). Safe drinking

water is the primary need of every human being but has become a scarce commodity

due to over exploitation and pollution of water (Gupta et al., 2009). The surface water

quality within a region is governed by both natural processes such as precipitation,

weathering process, soil erosion and anthropogenic effects such as urban, industrial

and agricultural activities and over exploitation of water resources (Jarvie et al.,

1998). Groundwater on the other side is important source of water for drinking,

irrigation and industrial purposes due to the rapid increase in population, rapid

industrialization and unplanned urbanization, excessive use of fertilizers and

pesticides have a major role in deterioration of quality of ground water (Joarder et al.,

2008; Saravankumar and Kumar, 2011). Groundwater is least polluted and free from

suspended particles but once it is contaminated it is difficult to restore its quality

(Gajendran and Thamarai, 2008). The physiochemical characters of water can be

changed by inflow of different pollutants and nutrients through different sources like

sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff etc. The wastes of industries when

used for irrigation purposes, do contribute for the contamination of both soil and

crops.

The water quality is of vital concern for mankind since it is directly linked

with human health (Sonwane et al., 2009). Anthropogenic activities have accelerated

the release of metals present naturally in the earths crust at various levels into the

ecosystem which causes serious environmental problems posing threat to human

beings (Angelone and Bini, 1992; Lantzy and Mackenzie, 1979; Ross, 1994). Metals

and metal chelates are present in industrial wastes create water pollution which results

in deterioration of water quality and making it unfit for human consumption and

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sustaining aquatic life (Amman et al., 2002; Das et al 1997; Ghosh and Vass., 1997).

Agricultural wastes include pesticides that are sprayed on the crops, sediments,

fertilizers, plants and animal debris that are carried into waterways during period of

rainfall as runoff and during the irrigation of farmland are responsible for pollution of

water (Misra et al., 1992). Over pumping of aquifers, discharge of toxic chemicals

and contamination of water bodies with substance that promote algae growth are

major cause for water quality degradation. Direct contamination of surface water due

to discharge of metals from mining, smelting and industrial manufacturing, is a long

standing phenomenon. The water with bad taste, color, odor, turbity, hardness,

corrosiveness and frothing are because of impurities added by domestic wastes from

urban and rural areas, industrial wastes, agricultural wastes (Mahananda et al., 2010).

The composition of different kinds of heavy metals like zinc, iron, copper,

manganese, lead, nickel etc are responsible for changes which have adverse impact on

quality of water (Sonwane et al., 2009).

7.2 Water Quality

Quality of water is just as important as its quantity, all surface and ground

water contain salts in solution that are derived from locations and past movement of

the water. The quantity and the type of mineral matter dissolved depends upon the

chemical composition and physical structure of the rocks as well as the hydrogen ion

concentration (pH) and the redox potential (Eh) of the water, Co2 in solution derived

from the organic process in the soil assists the solvent action of water as it moves

underground. The quality of ground water supply depends on its purpose, whether for

drinking use, industrial use and irrigation purpose (Todd, 2004).

The surface and groundwater are important sources of water supply for

drinking, agriculture and industrial purposes. In the entire study area the rapid

development of surface mining, industrialization, change in land use/land cover,

population growth and other human activities have led to deterioration of surface and

groundwater resources. So it is essential to examine pollution level of water which

plays a significant role in water born diseases in the study area. The hydrochemical

117

study reveals the quality of water by measuring the concentration of some physico-

chemical parameters and comparing them with the drinking water standards.

7.3 Results and discussions:

The Physico-chemical characteristics of surface water and ground water

samples which were collected from 27 different locations were analyzed for

concentration of major and minor elements. Drainage network traced from SOI

toposheet were updated from IRS LISS FCC and was used for surface and ground

water sample location for sampling in the area (Figure 7.1). Water is colorless,

odorless, and free from turbidity and should be used for drinking purposes. In the

study area at Ganiyari and Marrak water having slightly brackish taste with turbidity.

According to Zajic (1971) water having temperature above 300C is unfit for public

use. The temperature of the water collected from the study area ranges from 250C to

300C so it is fit for public use. The samples were taken to the laboratory to determine

some physical and chemical parameters. Analysis were carried out for various

parameters such as pH, TDS, Total alkalinity, hardness, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, So4-, Cu,

Ni, Fe++

, Co, Mn, Zn and Cr using standard methods followed by American Public

Health Association (APHA, 1995) and the results are given in the Table 7.1 in mg/l

and the epm values of all major ions are given in Table 7.2.

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119

Table 7.1: Physico-Chemical composition of surface and ground water samples in mg/l

Sample. No Location pH TDS

mg/l

Conductivity

μmho/cm

Hardness

mg/l

Ca++

mg/l

Mg++

mg/l

Na+

mg/l

K+

mg/l

HCO3

mg/l

Cl-

mg/l

So4-

mg/l

Cu++

mg/l

Ni

mg/l

Fe++

mg/l

Co

mg/l

Mn

mg/l

Zn++

mg/l

Cr

mg/l

Sw1 Rihand River

near bridge 7.75 334 117.7 68 17.635 5.85 63 0 130 454.4 4.115 0.006 0.013 0.753 0.010 0.094 0.017 0.004

Sw 2

1/2 km away

from Rihand

bridge

7.8 340 126.4 48 20.842 1.95 63 0 130 227.2 63.371 0.005 0.012 0.395 0.009 0.041 0.019 0.003

Sw 3

Kachni river

along

Tusa/sasan

road

8.5 755 259.8 84 27.254 3.90 108.5 1 260 340.8 109.459 0.007 0.014 0.216 0.009 0.054 0.019 0.000

Sw 4

Kachni river

along Pipra

road

7.6 1043 355.2 124 30.461 11.70 121.5 8 312 454.4 136.618 0.007 0.020 0.472 0.012 0.137 0.048 0.002

Sw 5 Kota Pump

house at NTPC 7.84 315 116.6 28 17.635 3.90 63 0 91 369.2 234.555 0.006 0.014 0.15.5 0.006 0.019 0.056 0.000

Sw 6 Ash pond 7.79 394 150.6 36 19.238 2.92 58.5 3.5 65 312.4 32.097 0.007 0.023 0.072 0.009 0.005 0.037 0.000

Sw 7 GB Pant sagar 7.9 480 176.2 60 22.445 4.48 60 0 143 284 35.389 0.005 0.019 0.135 0.007 0.065 0.014 0.079

Sw 8 Baliya nalla 8.4 1425 458.5 144 36.874 12.67 102.5 30.05 208 454.4 75.716 0.013 0.034 2.273 0.016 0.153 0.058 0.113

Sw 9 Modwani dam 8.6 1148 354.2 112 38.477 3.89 115 15 260 511.2 572.808 0.008 0.020 0.543 0.008 0.018 0.038 0.168

Sw 10 Morwa near

railway station 7.85 675 228.7 68 25.651 1.95 89 8 156 425 422.199 0.004 0.018 0.684 0.009 0.136 0.015 0.200

Gw 11 Dudichua

crossing 8.7 1347 437.9 60 19.238 2.92 206 1 455 454.4 58.433 0.003 0.016 0.030 0.008 0.002 0.014 0.235

Gw 12 Jayant

crossing 8.25 1614 487.6 104 41.683 0.00 154 8 585

1249.

6 121.804 0.007 0.030 0.040 0.015 0.222 0.209 0.220

Gw 13 Devra along

tussa/sasan 8.16 1022 308.8 112 17.635 16.57 121.5 5.6 390 681.6 337.43 0.006 0.025 0.074 0.008 0.004 0.021 0.223

Gw 14 Ganyari along

tussa/sasan 8.47 1240 404 124 19.238 18.52 166.5 3.5 377 880.4 197.52 0.006 0.023 0.000 0.013 0.002 0.032 0.236

Gw 15 Waidhan

southern side 8.03 1613 519.6 96 46.493 4.87 108.5 5.6 299

1448.

4 136.618 0.011 0.029 0.191 0.014 0.014 0.284 0.266

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Gw 16 Waidhan

northern side 8.1 1272 388.9 112 27.254 10.72 96 5 403

1306.

4 55.141 0.009 0.023 0.034 0.011 0.011 0.023 0.016

Gw 17 Majan chowk 8.31 1143 869.5 136 11.222 26.31 173 10 507 2186.

8 58.433 0.007 0.019 1.451 0.015 0.052 0.256 0.022

Gw 18

Naugarh along

waidhan/

Pipra road

8.1 1364 401.2 148 27.254 19.49 108.5 3.5 364 823.6 30.451 0.026 0.019 0.238 0.009 0.017 0.370 0.009

Gw 19 Parsauna 8.25 853 249.2 124 20.842 17.54 79.5 0.5 416 596.4 14.814 0.007 0.012 0.534 0.009 0.018 0.169 0.010

Gw 20 Garhara 8.5 907 257.8 140 24.048 19.49 108.5 1 455 397.6 13.168 0.008 0.018 0.030 0.010 0.008 0.735 0.010

Gw 21 Pipra 8.54 937 271.2 120 17.635 18.52 105.5 3.5 299 454.4 2.469 0.008 0.020 0.063 0.014 0.012 0.091 0.012

Gw 22 Ranibari along

blaiya nalla 8.2 447 160.4 52 22.445 1.95 89 5.6 156 340.8 23.044 0.034 0.009 0.309 0.004 0.009 0.086 0.004

Gw 23 Marrak near

ash pond 8.6 674 215.2 120 28.858 11.70 76 0 377 482.8 8.23 0.068 0.020 0.064 0.011 0.046 0.193 0.009

Gw 24 Gorvi crossing

along jayant 7.9 176 69.6 48 9.619 5.85 50 0 130 312.4 45.265 0.007 0.019 0.636 0.006 0.022 0.797 0.011

Gw 25 Singrauli

market 7.83 512 155.2 72 28.858 0.00 59 0 221 397.6 63.371 0.020 0.012 0.042 0.005 0.015 0.479 0.010

Gw 26 Mehrauli 8.45 527 186.4 52 20.842 0.00 71 1 234 1107.

6 130.857 0.008 0.013 0.203 0.009 0.011 0.118 0.009

Gw 27 Gorvi colony 8.02 1845 536.2 124 36.874 7.80 82.5 17 416 1050.

8 62.548 0.009 0.022 0.081 0.011 0.026 0.779 0.011

DESIRABLE LIMIT 6.5 500 400 μmho/cm

100 100 30 mg/l 50 mg/l 10

mg/l

200mg

/l

200

mg/l

200

mg/l 0.5mg/l

0.020

mg/l

0.1mg/

l

0.05m

g/l 5mg/l

0.05

mg/l

PERMISSIBLE LIMIT 8.5 2000 500 500 150

mg/l

70

mg/l

15m

g/l

600

mg/l

1000

mg/l

400

mg/l

1.5

mg/l 1mg/l

0.5

mg/l 15mg/l

.01

mg/l

Sw = Surface water Gw = Groundwater.

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Table 7.2: Major ions concentration in surface water and ground water samples in epm

Sample.No Water source Location Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Bicarbonate Sulphate Chloride

1 Sw Rihand River near bridge 0.038 0.000 0.880 0.481 2.131 0.086 12.819

2 Sw 1/2 km away from rihand bridge 0.045 0.000 1.040 0.080 2.131 1.319 6.409

3 Sw Kachni river along tussa/sasan road 0.059 0.026 1.360 0.321 4.261 2.279 9.614

4 Sw Kachni river along Pipra road 0.066 0.205 1.520 0.962 5.114 2.844 12.819

5 Sw Kota Pump house at NTPC 0.038 0.000 0.880 0.321 1.491 4.883 10.415

6 Sw Ash pond 0.042 0.089 0.960 0.241 1.065 0.668 8.813

7 Sw GB Pant sagar 0.049 0.000 1.120 0.369 2.344 0.737 8.012

8 Sw Baliya nalla 0.080 0.768 1.840 1.042 3.409 1.576 12.819

9 Sw Modwani dam 0.084 0.384 1.920 0.320 4.261 11.926 14.421

10 Sw Morwa near railway station 0.056 0.205 1.280 0.080 2.557 8.790 11.989

11 Gw Dudichua crossing 0.042 0.026 0.960 0.241 7.457 1.217 12.819

12 Gw Jayant crossing 0.090 0.205 2.080 0.000 9.588 2.536 35.251

13 Gw Devra along tusa/sasan 0.038 0.143 0.880 1.363 6.392 7.025 19.228

14 Gw Ganyari along tusa/sasan 0.042 0.089 0.960 1.523 6.179 4.112 24.836

15 Gw Waidhan southern side 0.101 0.143 2.320 0.401 4.901 2.844 40.859

16 Gw Waidhan northern side 0.059 0.128 1.360 0.882 6.605 1.148 36.854

17 Gw Mahajan chowk 0.024 0.256 0.560 2.165 8.310 1.217 61.690

18 Gw Naugarh along waidhan/ Pipra road 0.059 0.089 1.360 1.603 5.966 0.634 23.234

19 Gw Parsauna 0.045 0.013 1.040 1.443 6.818 0.308 16.824

20 Gw Garhara 0.052 0.026 1.200 1.603 7.457 0.274 11.216

21 Gw Pipra 0.038 0.089 0.880 1.523 4.901 0.051 12.819

22 Gw Ranibari along blaiya nalla 0.049 0.143 1.120 0.080 2.557 0.480 9.614

23 Gw Marrak near ash pond 0.063 0.000 1.440 0.962 6.179 0.171 13.620

24 Gw Gorvi crossingalong jayant 0.021 0.000 0.480 0.481 2.131 0.942 8.813

25 Gw Singrauli market 0.063 0.000 1.440 0.000 3.622 1.319 11.216

26 Gw Mehrauli 0.045 0.026 1.040 0.000 3.835 2.724 31.245

27 Gw Gorvi colony 0.080 0.435 1.840 0.641 6.818 1.302 29.643

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7.3.1 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)

The pH value of a solution is the negative logarithm of the concentration of

hydrogen ions in mole per litre. pH is a measurement of the acidity and alkalinity of a

solution. When substance dissolved in water they produce charged molecules called

ions. Hydrogen (H+) ions are more in acidic water whereas Hydroxyl (OH

-) ions are in

basic water. The pH scale ranges from 0 -14 with 7 being neutral for pure water.

Acidic water has pH values less than 7, with 0 being the most acidic, likewise the

basic water has values greater than 7, with 14 being the most basic. A change of pH

from 7 to 6 indicates that there is a ten fold increase in the hydrogen ion

concentration. Similarly a change of pH from 7 to 8 indicates a tenfold increase in the

hydroxyl ions (Karanth, 2001;

http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/phdiagram.html;http://extension.usu.edu/files/publication

s/publication/NR_WQ_2005-19.pdf). The pH value of the water is due to the

interaction of number of minerals and organic matter (Jothivenkatachalam et al.,

2010). In the given samples of the study area pH value ranges from 7.6 to 8.7 which

indicate the alkaline nature of water. Although pH cannot cause any harm but if the

value is more then 11, it may cause eyes irritation, skin disorder and if the value is

less than 6.5 can cause corrosive action to the irrigation (Ahlawat and Kumar, 2009;

WHO, 2011).

ArcMap 10 has been utilized in this study to know the variation in spatial

distribution of pH in the study area. pH values of ground water were imported to the

ArcMap 10 software for generation of spatial distribution map of pH which depicts

the range of pH value at different location under different land use/land cover

categories in the study area (Figure 7.2). The pH map has been superimposed on the

land use/land cover map of 2010 which shows the pH value ranges in the area from

7.83 to 8.7. The higher concentration of pH has been observed at the central part

along the east and west especially near mining areas, thermal power plants, ash pond,

Pipra village where new thermal power plant is in construction phase where most of

the land cover type is occupied by forest, settlement and agriculture land. Low pH

values from 7.83 to 8.15 are observed near Singrauli town, Gorvi colony, along Bijul

river towards the north side, which is occupied by forest cover, Rocky area, and

agriculture land. The increase in pH values ranging from 8.25 to 8.38 has

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124

been observed towards the North East and North West side of the area. In the North

West agriculture is the dominant land cover type and in North East forest cover is

dominant. In Southern portion most of the area like G. B. pant sagar, Tusa/Sasan,

Mayar river, Pratappur village, Bhairi village shows pH value ranging from 8.27 to

8.29, which is also same for the Mining area, Muher RF and Teldha in central portion,

represented by forest, agriculture area, mining area and settlement land cover type. At

waidhan along the road near Devra village, Ganiyari village, and Majan chowk pH

values increases and ranges from 8.30 to 8.38, where settlement and agriculture the

dominant land cover type. Most of the land use/land cover categories like forest and

agriculture land show pH value range from 8.16 to 8.38 which depict alkaline nature

of water in the study area.

7.3.2 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Total dissolved solids (TDS) comprise inorganic salts and small amount of

organic matter that are dissolved in water. The principle constituents are usually the

cations calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium whereas the anions carbonate

bicarbonate, chloride and sulphate. Total dissolved solids in water supplies originate

from natural sources, sewage, urban runoff, agricultural runoff and industrial waste

water (Karanth., 2001). Total dissolved solids (TDS) in study area ranges from 176

mg/l to 1845mg/l, with desirable limit of 500mg/l (W.H.O, 2011). The samples Sw 1

(Rihand river near bridge), Sw 2 (1/2 km away Rihand bridge), Sw 5 (Kota pump

house), Sw 6 (Ash pond), Sw 7 (G. B. pant sagar) and Gw 24 (Gorvi crossing) have

value less then desirable limit and other samples which are also under fresh water

category are Sw 2, Gw 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25 and 26 whereas the 9 samples Sw 4, 8, 9,

Gw 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,16,17,18 and 27 fall under Brackish water category (Table 7.3).

The presence of high level of TDS may be due to pollution caused by the waste water

runoff from mine dumps, industries, residential area and atmospheric dust fall which

eventually get added into the water bodies, whereby mineral ions migrates down the

water table increasing the TDS in ground water (Shyamala et al,. 2008).

125

The TDS values of ground water samples were incorporated in ArcMap 10 for

generation of spatial distribution map of TDS at different locations under different

land use/land cover categories in the study area (Figure 7.3). When TDS map was

superimposed on the land use/land cover map of the 2010 it clearly shows variation in

TDS at different locations. The highest TDS values ranging from 1567 to 1843 has

been observed around Gorvi mine in the North east and in central part near mining

area at Dasauti which is mostly covered by forest, settlement and agriculture area.

TDS value ranging from 1289 - 1566 has been observed in the South east around the

ash pond, water reservoir (G. B. pant), in south west around Pipra village, Garaha

village and in the north around the Singrauli town towards mining area, where

dominant land use/land cover types are forest cover, agriculture land, settlement and

mining area. TDS value ranging from 458 – 1288 cover most of the study area in

south, South East, South west, North, North West and North East portion. The

dominant land use/land over in these categories is Forest, agriculture, settlement,

wasteland and water body. TDS values at Singrauli town range from 180 – 457

covered by forest and settlement area.

Table 7.3: Classification of water based on TDS (After Fetter, 2000)

Category TDS (mg/l) Samples No.

Fresh water 0- 1,000 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,

25, 26 (55.5%)

Brackish water 1,000- 10,000 4, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 27

(44.4%)

Saline water 10,000- 100,000 0

Brine water > 100,000 0

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7.3.3 Hardness

Hardness results from the presence of divalent metallic cation, of which calcium and

magnesium are the most abundant in ground water (Todd, 2004). Hardness is reported

in terms of CaCO3. It is the measure of capacity of water to react with soap. Hard

water requires more soap to produce lather. According to Sawyer and McCarty

hardness classification is given in Table 7.4.

Table 7.4: Hardness Classification of Water (After Sawyer and McCarty 1967)

Hardness, mg/l as CaCo3 Water Class Sample No.

0-75 Soft 11

75 - 150 Moderately Hard 16

150 - 300 Hard 0

Over 300 Very hard 0

Hardness in water sample ranges from 28 – 148 mg/l which indicates the

water is soft to moderately hard in the area (Saravankumar and Kumar, 2011). Eleven

samples Sw1 Rihand, Sw2 (½ km away from Rihand), Sw 5 (Kota), Sw 6 (Ash pond),

Sw 7 (G. B. pant), Sw 10 (Morwa), Gw 11 (Dudichua), Gw 22 (Ranibari), Gw 24

(Gorvi), Gw 25 (Singrauli) and Gw 26 (Mehrauli) show soft water whereas samples

Sw 3 (Kachni river along Tusa/sasan), Sw 4 (Kachni river along Pipra road), Sw 7 (G.

B. pant sagar), Sw8 (Baliya nalla), Sw 9 (Modwani dam), Gw 12 (Jayant colony), Gw

13 (Devra along Tusa/sasan), Gw 14 (Ganyari along Tusa/Sasan), Gw 15 (waidhan

southern side), Gw 16 (waidhan northern side), Gw 17 (Majan chowk), Gw 18

(Naugarh), Gw 19 (Parsauna), Gw 20 (Garhara), Gw 21 (Pipra), Gw 23 (Marrak near

ash pond), Gw 27 (Gorvi colony) indicates moderate hardness. Figure 7.4 shows field

photograph of Naugarh village having highest value of hardness.

The hardness values of ground water samples were incorporated in ArcMap 10

to know the spatial distribution of hardness with respect to different land use/land

cover categories at different locations in the study area (Figure 7.5). When hardness

128

map was superimposed on the land use/land cover map of the 2010 it clearly depicts

that in the North West, South West and along North east of the area the hardness

value ranges from 99 mg/l to 147 mg/l which is mostly occupied by forest cover,

Agriculture land settlement and also mining area in centre. In South East and North

East the value ranges from 48 mg/l to 98 mg/l. The hardness values shows increase in

the value from mining area in centre towards the Mahajan chowk, Naugarh, Parsauna

village around Kachni river in south west, whereas hardness value has also been

increasing from waidhan town, thermal power plant area towards Pipra village in the

west which ranges from 82 to 147 and shows higher value then desirable limit which

is covered mainly by forest, agriculture and settlement area.

Figure 7.4: Naugarh village has hard water

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130

7.3.4 Electrical conductance

Most of the salts in water are present in their ionic forms such as chloride,

nitrate, sulphate and phosphate anions (ions that have negative charge) or sodium,

magnesium, calcium, iron and aluminum (ions that carry positive charge) which are

capable of conducting current, conductivity is a good indicator to assess groundwater

quality. Electrical conductivity is an indicator of the concentration of total dissolved

solids and major ions in a given water body (Deshpande and Aher, 2012).

Conductivity is also affected by the temperature, warmer the water higher the

conductivity for this reason conductivity is measured at 25 degrees Celsius. The basic

unit of conductivity is the mho or Siemens. Conductivity is measured in micromhos

per centimeter (μmho/cm) or microsiemens per centimeter (μs/cm)

(http://water.epa.gov/type/rsl/monitoring/vms59.cfm). The electrical conductivity with 400

µmhos/cm at 25o

C is considered suitable for human consumption (WHO, 2011),

while more than 1500 µmhos/cm at 25o C may cause corrosion of iron structures. The

electrical conductivity (Ec) value in the study area varies from 69 μmho/cm at

Singrauli and Gorvi crossing to 869 μmho/cm at Mahajan chowk which shows value

ranges from low class (> 500 μmho/cm) to medium conductivity 500 μmho/cm -

1000 μmho/cm (class I) Table 7.5. The electrical conductivity value in samples Sw 1

(Rihand river near bridge), Sw 2 (1/2 km away from Rihand Bridge), Sw 3 (Kachni

river along Tusa/sasan road), Sw 5 (Kota Pump house at NTPC), Sw 6 (Ash pond),

Sw 7 (G. B. pant sagar), Sw 10 (Morwa near railway station), Gw 19 (Parsauna), Gw

20 (Garhara), Gw 21(Pipra), Gw 22 (Ranibari along Baliya nalla), Gw 23 (Marrak

near ash pond), Gw 24 (Gorvi crossing along Jayant), Gw 25 (Singrauli market) and

Gw 26 (Mehrauli), Sw 4 (Kachni river along Pipra road), Sw 8 (Baliya nalla), Sw 9

(Modwani dam), Gw 11 (Dudichua crossing), Gw 12 (Jayant crossing), Gw 13 (Devra

along Tusa/sasan), Gw14 (Ganyari along Tusa/sasan), Gw 16 (Waidhan northern

side), Gw 18 (Naugarh along waidhan/ Pipra road) and Gw 27 (Gorvi colony) are

slightly more than desirable limit but falls in low conductivity class. The only two

sample Gw 15 Waidhan southern side, Gw 17 Mahajan chowk falls under class I type

having medium conductivity. The higher Ec values are mostly observed in ground

water samples near the mining areas, settlement and industrial areas due to the

excessive interaction of chemical and higher TDS values in the water.

131

Table 7.5: Classification on the basis of EC (After Sarma and Narayanaswamy, 1981)

Class EC (µS/cm at 25o C) Sample No

Low Conductivity < 500

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,

16, ,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27

(92.5%)

Medium Conductivity Class I 500- 1000 15, 17, (7.4%)

Medium Conductivity Class II 1000- 3000 0

High Conductivity Class III > 3000 0

The conductivity values of ground water samples were incorporated in

ArcMap 10 to know the spatial distribution of conductivity with respect to different

land use/land cover categories in the study area. Conductivity values were imported to

the ArcMap 10 for generation of spatial distribution map of conductivity to know the

range of conductivity at different locations in different land use land cover types in

study area (Figure 7.6). When conductivity map was superimposed on the land

use/land cover map of the 2010 it clearly shows that in the North east around

Singrauli town, South east near Ash pond, Ranibari and Thermal power plants area

the value ranges from 69 μmho/cm to 220 μmho/cm where the most dominant land

use is forest type. Most of the area show conductivity values ranging from 221

μmho/cm to 387 μmho/cm in South west around Pipra village, Parsauna village,

Garhara village and in North West around Teldha village with major land use land

cover types are forest, settlement and Agriculture. The values are increasing towards a

common location from all the directions and the highest value has been observed

around Mahajan chowk where the values range from 538 μmho/cm to 869 μmho/cm.

The conductivity values ranges from 388 μmho/cm to 537 μmho/cm in North West

around Usak village and in South West around Tusa Sasan, Whaidhan, Kachni and

Gharauli village which is mostly covered by agriculture and settlement area. Most of

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133

the settlement areas have conductivity in between the range of 320 μmho/cm to 537

μmho/cm which shows that in most of the area conductivity is slightly above then the

desirable limit of 300 μmho/cm (W.H.O, 2011).

7.3.5 Total alkalinity

Alkalinity measure the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to the

equivalence point of the carbonate and bicarbonate. Alkalinity usually comes from

natural source the primary source is the dissolved carbon dioxide in rain and snow, as

it enters the soil dissolve more carbon dioxide. Decay of organic matter may also

release carbon dioxide for dissolution. Other common natural components that can

contribute to alkalinity include borate, hydroxide, phosphate, silicate, nitrate,

dissolved ammonia, and sulfide. The pH of the water indicates the form in which

carbon dioxide is present, pH less than 4.5 indicates presence of carbonic acid, the

value is between 4.5 and 8.2 indicates the presence of bicarbonates and the pH value

more than 8.2 indicate carbonate (Karanth., 2001; Addy et al., 2004). The

phenolphthalein alkalinity value in the samples is zero indicating absence of

carbonate and hydroxyl ions. The maximum total alkalinity was recorded as 585mg/l

in sample No. 12 (Jayant crossing) and the minimum was recorded as 65mg/l in

sample Sw 6 (Ash Pond). The eight samples Sw 1 (Rihand river), Sw 2 (½Km away

from Rihand bridge), Sw 5 (Kota pump house), Sw 6 (Ash pond), Sw 7 (G. B. pant),

Gw 22 (Ranibari along Baliya nalla) and Gw 24 (Gorvi crossing) have total alkalinity

value within the desirable limit of 200mg/l (W.H.O 2011) whereas rest of samples

which show value higher than the desirable limit are Sw3 (Kachni river), Sw7 (G. B.

pant sagar), Sw8 (Baliya nalla), Sw 9 (Modwani dam), Gw11 (Dudichua crossing),

Gw12 (Jayant colony), Gw13 (Devera), Gw 14 (Ganyari), Gw 15 (Waidhan southern

side), Gw16 (Waidhan northern side), Gw 17 (Majan chowk), Gw 18 (Naugarh), Gw

19 (Parsauna), Gw 20 (Garhara), Gw 21 (Pipra), Gw 23 (Marrak), Gw 25 (Singrauli),

Gw 26 (Mehrauli) and Gw 27 (Gorvi colony). The higher alkalinity at nineteen

locations indicates water pollution. The value is more than the desirable limit so the

water quality is poor as per alkalinity (Nayak et al,. 1982 and Ghosh and George,.

1989).

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7.3.6 Calcium

Calcium is the major constituents of various types of rocks. Source of calcium

in ground water are silicate mineral groups like plagioclase, pyroxene, and amphibole

among the igneous and metamorphic rocks, whereas greatest concentration come

from sedimentary rocks like limestone, dolomite and gypsum. The major component

of water hardness is calcium usually in the range of 5 to 500 mg/l as CaCO3 (Karanth,

2011; http://www.aquapurefilters.com/contaminants/115/calcium.htm).

Calcium concentrations in the samples were found to vary from 9.61 mg/l to

46.49 mg/l. The calcium concentration in the water sample is under desirable limit of

75 mg/l. It’s important for bones and teeths also used in nerve functioning, and

muscle functioning and blood clotting. Deficiency of calcium causes Osteoporosis,

loss of muscle tone, colon cancer, high blood pressure (Hypertension), irregular

heartbeat or palpitation and rickets in young ages. It’s also responsible for incrustation

in boilers.

7.3.7 Magnesium

Magnesium is the major contributor to the water hardness, main component of

basic igneous rocks like dunite, pyroxenite, amphibolites; volcanic rocks such as

basalt; metamorphic rocks such as talc and termolite-schist and sedimentary rock like

dolomite (Karanth, 2001). Magnesium in the water sample ranges from 1.95 mg/l to

26.31mg/l. The entire water samples in the study area posses the magnesium value

under desirable limit 30 mg/l. There is no evidence of health effects if the value

increases slightly but if it reaches the level of 400 mg/l it may cause nausea, muscular

weakness and paralysis in human body (Adak and Purohit, 2001).

7.3.8 Sodium

Sodium is naturally present in all foods, fruits and vegetables (WHO, 2011).

The Major sources of sodium are feldspars (albite), clay minerals, evaporates such as

halite and industrial waste. Most sodium salts are readily soluble in water but cannot

take part in chemical reaction (Karanth., 2001; Todd., 2004). Sodium ranges from 50

135

mg/l to 206 mg/l shows high concentration of sodium above the desirable limit 50

mg/l but Sample No.Sw1Rihand river, Sw2 ½ km away from the Rihand bridge, Sw5

Kota pump house near NTPC, Sw6 Ash pond, Sw7 G. B. pant sagar, Gw24 Gorvi

crossing, Gw25 Singrauli market shows value below permissible limit whereas the

rest of the samples show higher values. The water samples were classified on the

basis of sodium percentage for irrigation purpose and can be determined using the

following formula.

% Na = (Na) × 100/ (Ca + Mg + Na +K)

Here all the concentration of Na, Ca, Mg and K are expressed in milli-

equivalent per liter. The value of sodium percentage vary from 54.9 to 87.9, so it is

observed that out of twenty seven samples only four samples Sw8 Baliya nalla, Gw

19 Parsauna, Gw 23 Marrak near ash pond and Gw 27 Gorvi colony falls under

permissible limit whereas twenty two sample fall under doubtful category and one

sample in unsuitable category (Table 7.6). Most of the samples in the study area show

high concentration of sodium ions in water which reduce the suitability of water for

irrigation or domestic use. High sodium water alters the soil chemistry and absorption

properties, eventually sealing the soil surface. Sodium absorbed by clay particle

displaces calcium and magnesium ions. The sodium also exchanges the Ca++

and

Mg++

in water and reduces soil permeability and ultimately results in soil with poor

internal drainage (Belkhiri et al., 2010). Water with high sodium concentration is

harmful for the person suffering from cardiac, renal and circulatory disease. Sodium

deficiency results in muscle cramps, headache, poor appetite and dehydration but the

main sign is fatigue (Selinus et al., 2005).

Table 7.6: Sodium percentage of water class (After Sadashivaiah et al., 2008)

Sodium % Water class Samples No.

< 20 Excellent 0

20 - 40 Good 0

40 - 60 Permissible 4

60 - 80 Doubtful 22

> 80 Unsuitable 1

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7.3.9 Potassium

Potassium K is the most abundant cation in the human body, main source of

potassium minerals are the silicate minerals orthoclase, microcline, nepheline, leucite

and biotite, in igneous and metamorphic rock. The concentration of potassium in

water is one tenth or one hundredth that of sodium due to less abundance in the

igneous and metamorphic rock (Karanth, 2001). The concentration of potassium in 26

samples are within the desirable limit except sample Sw 8 Baliya nalla shows higher

value then desirable limit 30 .05 mg/l (W.H.O, 2011) whereas four samples Sw 5, Gw

23, Gw 24, Gw 25 show zero value. Potassium deficiency (hypokalemia) due to

insufficient intake or excessive excretion can cause skeletal muscular weakness,

smooth muscle paralysis resulting in anorexia, nausea, vomiting and constipations and

cardiac arrhythmias, intolerance of carbohydrate due to declining insulin secretion,

impaired renal function due to reduced blood flow (Selinus et al., 2005). Figure 7.7

shows Baliya nalla where concentration is higher than desirable limit.

Figure 7.7: Baliya nalla where Potassium concentration is higher than desirable limit.

137

7.3.10 Chloride

Chloride is the most dominant anion in the water and the chief source of it is

sedimentary rock (evaporates) and the minor constituents are sodalite and chlorapatite

minerals of the igneous and metamorphic rock. The bulk of chlorine in water is either

from atmospheric sources or sea water contamination. The solution of halite and other

evaporate deposits in sedimentary rock give rise to high concentration of chloride

content in water (Karanth, 2001; Todd., 2004; Jothivenkatachalam et al., 2010).

Chloride concentration of the all samples ranges from 227.2 mg/l at ½ km away from

Rihand bridge to 2186.2 mg/l at Majan chowk which is above the desirable limit

(W.H.O, 2011). Chloride in more concentration carries unstable taste for drinking

purpose, its also essential component of digestive juices. High concentration of

chloride in the area is due to the wastewater coming from industries, Ash ponds,

municipal waste and combustion of coal on large scale for the production of thermal

power is the main cause of its high concentration in water. Figure 7.8 shows ash pond

which is the source for chloride concentration.

Figure 7.8: Ash pond source for chloride concentration.

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7.3.11 Sulphate

The sulphate content in water is due to the oxidation, precipitation and

solution as the water transverse through rocks which are rich in sulphur minerals,

sulphides of heavy metals which are common in igneous and metamorphic rock,

gypsum and anhydrite in sedimentary rock (Karanth, 2001). The sulphate content in

the samples varies between 13.168 mg/l at Garhara to 572.808 mg/l at Modwani dam.

The 25 samples show values within the desirable limit excluding Sample Sw5 at Kota

pump house and Sw9 at Modwani dam shows higher values due to presence of high

concentration of iron sulphate in coal. Coal mines and thermal power plant are in

nearby to these locations. Runoff from these sites flows directly into these locations

and acid mine drainage may cause the high concentration. Figure 7.9 shows Modwani

dam near Jayant open cast mine.

Figure 7.9: Modwani dam near Jayant open cast mine

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7.4 Trace constituents

The term minor elements and trace elements are considered to be synonymous.

Trace elements are chemical components that occur naturally in minute

concentrations in water generally less than 1.0 milligrams per litre. Trace elements are

essential for the optimal development and metabolic functioning and are required at

low levels for the proper and healthy growth of the plants. The deficiency of certain

trace elements in water and soil retards the growth of plants and affects the plant

metabolism hence nutrient value of trace elements cannot be ignored in water (Selinus

et al., 2005). The minor elements or trace elements like Cu++

, Ni, Fe++

, Co, Mn, Zn++

and Cr concentration in water samples were analyzed and show a considerable

variation in the amount and its effects are as.

7.4.1 Copper

Copper is an essential element in human and animal metabolism and is critical

to such diverse activity as semi synthesis, connective tissue metabolism, bone

development, nerve function and pigmentation (Karlson, 1987; Sarkar 1983; W.H.O,

1973). Copper in the body is capable of binding bacteriotoxins and increase the

activity of antibiotics (Karlson, 1987). Major distributors of copper in the

environment are mining operations, agriculture, solid waste, and sludge from

treatment factories (Selinus et al., 2005). The amount of Copper ions in study area is

estimated to vary from 0.003mg/l at Dudichua crossing to 0.068mg/l at Marrak near

ash pond which indicates copper values are within the desirable limit of 0.5mg/l

(W.H.O, 2011). Concentration of copper above 1 mg/l may cause staining of sanitary

ware and laundry. If the value is above 5 mg/l copper gives a colour and an

undesirable bitter taste to the water (W.H.O, 2011). From the analytical results, it can

be inferred that the water in the area is copper deficient. The inhabitants of the area

are prone to the diseases related to the copper deficiency. The deficiency of copper in

human body could indirectly increase the risk of skin cancer because of the depletion

of stratospheric ozone layer, skin cancer may become more common (Vohra and

Dobrowolski, 1990). Reduced blood concentration of trace elements has been

reported in pregnancy and pathological conditions eg, anemia, renal disorder,

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leukemia and certain type of tumors, invasive diseases caused by worms are also

connected with deficiency of copper in the body (Passmore et al., 1974). Copper

deficiency can also cause heart diseases but long term exposure can cause irritation of

the nose, mouth, eyes and causes headaches, vomiting and diarrhea. High uptake of

copper may cause liver and kidney damage and even death

(http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/cu.htm).

7.4.2 Nickel

Nickel occurs in the environment only at very low levels. Most of the nickel is

inaccessible because it is locked in the iron-nickel molten core, which is 10% nickel.

Nickel may be found in slate, sandstone, clay minerals and basalt. Nickel shows

higher values in sample Sw 6 (Ash pond), Sw 8 (Baliya nalla), Gw 12 (Jayant

crossing), Gw 13 (Devra), Gw 14 (Ganyari), Gw 15 (Waidhan southern side), Gw 16

(Waidhan northern side) and Gw 26 (Mehrauli) these all are located near industrial

waste deposit sites like ash pond, water body where all the water from coal washery

are stored. In 19 samples value is within the desirable limit. So the increase in the

concentration is in the areas which are nearby to the industries. The use of nickel

alloys in aluminum industries may be responsible for the increase in concentration.

Nickel is also released into air by thermal power plants, it will settle down to the

ground after reaction with rain drops which may also increase the concentration.

Humans may be exposed to nickel by breathing air, drinking water, eating food,

smoking cigarettes and skin contact with nickel contaminated soil and water. In small

quantities it is essential, but uptake of too large quantities may cause chances of lung

cancer, nose cancer, prostate cancer, respiratory failure, birth defects and heart

disorder (http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/ni.htm).

7.4.3 Iron

A major constituent of rocks next to oxygen, silicon and aluminium in

abundance is iron. Mineral like pyroxenes, amphiboles, mica among silicates, pyrite

and chalcopyrite among sulphides and magnetite and hematite among oxides are most

141

iron bearing. Iron is present in shale, sandstone and in sandstone as a cementing

matrix whereas in igneous and metamorphic rocks iron is present mostly n the form of

complex silicate minerals (Karanth, 2001). Weathering processes in rocks release iron

into the water (drinking and mineral) as iron carbonate. Iron is a dietary requirement

for most of the organism, and plays an important role in natural processes in binary

and tertiary form. Men require 7 gm iron and women 11gm on a daily basis

approximately 4gm iron is present in human body of which 70% is present in red

blood coloring agents (http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/fe.htm).The iron

content of water samples ranges from 0.030 mg/l to 2.273 mg/l. The eight samples Sw

1 (Rihand river), Sw 2 (½ km away from Rihand river), Sw 4 (Kachni river), Sw 5

(Kota Pump house), Sw 8 (Baliya nalla), Sw 10 (Morwa), Gw 17 (Majan chowk), Gw

19 (Parsauna) and Gw 24 (Gorvi crossing) show values more than the desirable limit

and the rest nineteen samples are within the limit (W.H.O, 2011). The increase in iron

content may be due the removal of rock layers and top soil on the coal. Iron in water

can be objectionable because it gives rusty color to laundry clothes and may change

taste. The deficiency of iron causes disease called anemia, causing tiredness,

headaches and loss of concentration, immune system is also affected, and in young

children negatively effects mental development. When high concentration of iron is

absorbed this may damage pancreas, liver, spleen and heart which are called

haermosiderosis (Bhaskar et al., 2010; Rajappa et al., 2010;

http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/fe.htm).

7.4.4 Cobalt

Most of the earth cobalt is in core having relatively low abundance on earths

crust and in natural water. Cobalt is an essential metal for vitamin B12, and the normal

range for adult is 0.00011mg/l – 0.00045 mg/l. Cobalt is widely spread in the

environment humans may expose to it by breathing air, drinking water and eating

food that contains cobalt. The cobalt content in the samples lies between 0.005 mg/l in

Singrauli market to 0.016 mg/l in Baliya nalla which indicate the concentration

exceeds normal range which shows deteriorated quality of water in all the samples.

Anthropogenic activities like municipal and industrial waste effluents are primary

142

sources of cobalt in the environment. Anthropogenic emissions, largely the burning of

fossil fuels, account for 55% of all cobalt in the air (Nagpal, 1981). When plants grow

on contaminated soil near mining and other industrial area they will accumulate very

small particles of cobalt in their parts which we eat and can cause health effects like

vomiting, vision problem heart problem and thyroid damage. Cobalt dust may cause

asthma like diseases symptoms ranging from cough, shortness of breath and

permanent disability and death (http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/co.htm).

7.4.5 Manganese

Manganese is pinkish grey, chemically active element which exists naturally

in the environment as solid in the soil, small particles in the water and as dust

particles in air. Appreciable quantities manganiferous minerals are found in

metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. The common manganese bearing minerals are

oxide, hydroxides, carbonates and silicates. Igneous rock contain negligible amount of

manganese. In most groundwater manganese content is less than 0.2 mg/l whereas in

reducing conditions and low pH higher manganese content may be attained (Karanth,

2001).

Magnesium concentration is within the desirable limit 0.05 mg/l except

sample Sw 4 Kachni river shows higher values (W.H.O, 2011). Manganese

contributes to the normal development of connective tissue, besides being necessary

for respiratory enzymes. It is present in high concentration in mitochondria fraction of

human kidney, liver, and pancreas. The inhaled manganese dust has been reported to

be toxic to humans, very high doses can cause some diseases and liver damages.

Humans enhance manganese concentration in the air by industrial activities and

through burning fossil fuels. Manganese derived from human sources can also entre

surface water, groundwater. Manganese is an essential element for human health and

its deficiency can cause health effects like fatness, blood clotting, skin problem,

lowered cholesterol levels, birth defects, change in hair colour and neurological

symptoms. Manganese deficiency in animals also resulted in retarded growth, motor

in coordinator and reduced fertility (Underwood, 1977).

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7.4.6 Zinc

Zinc is a lustrous bluish- white metal and occurs naturally in air, water and

soil to certain concentration but its concentration increases unnaturally due to addition

of zinc through human activities. Zinc is an essential trace element found in all food

and potable water as salts or an organic complex. Zinc in surface water and

groundwater usually does not exceed 0.01 and 0.05 mg/l, whereas the concentration in

tap water can be much higher as a result of dissolution of zinc from pipes (Selinus et

al., 2005). Industrial wastes can increase the amount of zinc in water to high levels

that can cause health problems. Zinc plays an important role in exonal and synaptic

transmission and is necessary for nucleic acid metabolism and brain tubulin growth

and phosporylation. Zinc concentration in samples range from 0.014 mg/l in Sw7 at

G. B. pant sagar reservoir to 0.797 mg/l in Gw 24 at Gorvi crossing along Jayant. Zinc

in the area shows concentration within the desirable limit which indicates that water is

free from zinc contamination. Lack of zinc has been implicated in impaired DNA,

RNA and protein synthesis during brain development. For this reason, zinc deficiency

during pregnancy and lactation has shown relation to many congenital abnormalities

of the nervous system of the offspring’s. Further more in childrens in sufficient level

of zinc has been associated with lowered learning abilities, apathy, lethargy, and

mental retardation (Hameed and Vohra, 1990). Zinc is essential for human health and

its deficiency can cause loss of appetite, decrease sense of taste and smell, slow

healing and may cause birth defects

(http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/zn.htm).

7.4.7 Chromium

Chromium does not occur freely in nature, but can b found in water only in

trace amount. Mostly used in metal surface refinery, alloys, leather tanning, audio and

video production and in lasers. Chromium may be present in domestic wastes from

various synthetic materials (http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/water/chromium/chromium-

and- water.htm).Chromium concentration in the area exceeds in 9 samples Sw 7 G. B.

pant Sagar, Sw8 Baliya nalla, Sw 9 Modwani dam, Sw 10 Morwa near railway

station, Gw 11 Dudichua crossing, Gw 12 Jayant crossing, Devra, Gw 14 Ganyari,

144

Gw 15 Waidhan and in eighteen samples concentration is within range. The increase

must be due to the mining operation carried out nearby these locations, burning of

fossil fuel, mineral leaching and water runoff from cooling towers form thermal

power plants. Chromium ingestion over admissible limits leads to allergic phenomena

and lung cancer. Chromium in excess amounts can be toxic especially in the

hexavalent form. Sub chronic and chronic exposure to chromic acid can cause

dermatitis and ulceration of the skin (Hanaa et al., 2000; Pandey et al., 2010).

Chromium (IV) is dangerous to human health and can cause skin rashes, ulcers,

damaged immune system, kidney and liver damage and lung cancer

(http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/cr.htm).

7.5 Irrigation use

Water quality has meaning only with respect to its particular use, good quality

water for household use may not be ideal for irrigation purpose (Kirda, 1997).

Irrigation water quality refers to its suitability for use. Good quality water has the

potential to allow maximum yield under good soil and water management practices

(Ayers and Westcot, 1976). The suitability of water for irrigation is contingent on the

effect of the mineral constituents of the water on both the plants and the soil (Richard,

1954). Poor quality water may affect physical growth of irrigated crop by limiting the

uptake movement of water through modification of osmotic processes, or causing

accumulation of salts in the root zone which results in loss of permeability of the soil

due to excess sodium or calcium leaching or contaminants which are directly toxic to

plants (Todd, 2004). There are several chemical constituents which affect the

suitability of water for irrigation purpose are:

The total concentration of soluble salts.

The relative proportion of sodium, bicarbonate, calcium and magnesium.

The amount of boron in water.

Sodium concentration is important in classifying irrigation water because high

sodium content can bring about a displacement of exchangeable cations Ca++

and

Mg++

from clay minerals of the soil followed by the replacement of the cations by

sodium. Sodium saturated soil peptizes and loses their permeability, so that their

145

fertility and suitability for cultivation decreases (Matthess, 1982). If the percentage of

Na+

to Ca++

+ Mg ++

+ Na+ is considerably above 50 in irrigation water soil containing

exchangeable calcium and magnesium take up sodium instead of calcium and

magnesium causing deflocculating and impairment of the tilth and permeability of

soil (Karanth, 2001). Irrigation water quality criteria developed by US Salinity

Laboratory (USSL 1954) has received wide acceptance in many countries. Total salt

concentration and probable sodium hazard of the irrigation water are the two major

constituents of the criteria. Salinity and sodium hazard were proposed to assess

irrigation water quality, salinity hazard is based on electrical conductivity (EC)

measurement. Sodium Absorption ratio (SAR) is used for possible sodium hazard

which is calculated by using a formula in which the concentration of ions are

expressed in milliequivalents per liter.

Irrigation water has been classified by U.S. Salinity Laboratory classification

on the basis of SAR and conductance values. Electric conductance (Ec X106) values

are shown across the bottom and top whereas sodium values are shown along the left

side. Salinity classification was done using diagram given by the U.S. Salinity

Laboratory (Richard, 1954). The SAR and conductance values are plotted in US

salinity diagram 12 samples fall in C1S1 and 12 samples in C2S1fields where as two

samples fall in C2S2 field and one sample fall in C3S2 field (Figure 7.10). Samples

numbers 1,2,5,6,7,10,19,22,23,24,25 and 26 fall in C1S1 have low salinity with low

sodium. It can be used for irrigation of most of the crops on most soils, with little

chance for development of soil salinity and exchangeable sodium. Some leeching is

required in soils of extremely low permeability. In field C2S1 the sample numbers

3,4,8,9,13,1415,16,18,20,21 and 27 have medium salinity with low sodium. This

water can be used with moderate amount of leeching and plants which have moderate

tolerance can be grown without special practice of salinity control. Samples number

11 (Dudichua) and 12 (Jayant crossing) fall in field C2S2 depict medium salinity and

146

sodium water. Moderate amount of leaching occurs with appreciable sodium hazard in

fine textured soil having high cation – exchange capacity under low leeching

conditions. Plants with moderate tolerance can be grown with salinity control and

water may be used on coarse texture or organic soil with good permeability. In C3S2

field sample number 17 shows high salinity and sodium water at Majan Chowk, this

water cannot be used on soil and may also produce harmful level of exchangeable

sodium in most soils and will also require special soil management, good drainage,

high leaching and organic matter addition. Therefore water quality for irrigation

purpose at most of the locations in the study area is suitable except at three locations.

147

148

7.6 Residual Sodium Carbonate

Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) is another predicator of sodium hazard in

the water and is the sum of carbonate (bicarbonate + carbonate) minus the sum of the

divalent cations (calcium and magnesium) (Bryan et al., 2007). Abundance of sodium

with respect to alkaline earths and boron, and the quality of bicarbonate and carbonate

in excess of alkali earths also influence the suitability of water for irrigation purposes.

This excess is denoted by residual sodium carbonate (RSC) and is determined by a

formula (Richards, 1954), Where concentrations are expressed in milliequivalents per

liter.

RSC = (HCO3¯ + CO3¯ ¯) ─ (Ca++

+ Mg++

)

According to the US Department of Agriculture, water having more than 2.5

epm of RSC is not suitable for irrigation purposes. In the study area the water samples

are classified on the basis of RSC and the results are presented in Table 7.7.

The RSC values in the study area varies from -0.135 at Ash pond to7.508 at

Jayant colony. Based on RSC values eight sample show good quality of irrigation

water at Rihand river, Kota pump house at NTPC, Ash pond, G. B. pant sagar, Baliya

nalla and Morwa near railway station. Five samples show doubtful quality of

irrigation water at Modwani dam, Waidhan southern side, Pipra, Ranibari along

Baliya nalla and Gorvi crossing whereas fourteen samples show unsuitable quality of

water for irrigation at Kachni river along Tusa/sasan, Kachni river along Pipra road,

Dudichua crossing, Jayant crossing, Ganyari along Tusa/sasan, waidhan northern side,

Majan chowk, Naugarh along Pipra road, Parsauna, Garhara, Marrak near ash pond,

Mehrauli and Gorvi colony. So the most of the unsuitable sample are ground water

type and may harm the cultivation and soil properties of the area.

Table 7.7: Water quality based on Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC)

Residual Sodium

Carbonate (epm) Water quality Sample NO. Total samples

< 1.25 Good 1,2,5,6,7,8,10,24 8

1.25 – 2.5 Doubtful 9,15,21,22,25 5

>2.5 Unsuitable 3,4,11,12,13,14,16,17,18,19,20,23,26,27 14

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7.7 Hydro-Geochemical facies

In order to present water composition in a convenient manner by identifiable

group the concept of hydrogeochemical facies have been developed by Back (1961,

1966) and Morgan & Winner (1962). Hydrogeochemical facies are generally distinct

zones that have cation and anion concentrations are described within defined

composition categories (Ophori and Toth, 1989). Hydrogeochemical facies enable a

convenient subdivision of water composition by identifiable categories and reflects

the effect of chemical processes occurring between the minerals within the surface

rock units and the groundwater (Piper, 1944). The piper trilinear diagram is used for

the purpose of characterizing the water type present in the study area. It permits the

cation and anion composition of many samples to be represented on a single graph in

which major grouping or trends in the data can be distinguished visually (Freeze and

Cherry, 1979).

One of the most useful graphs for representing and comparing water quality

analysis is a trilinear diagram. The concentration of major ionic constituents of

groundwater samples were plotted in the piper trilinear diagram to determine the

water type (Piper, 1953). Piper diagram consists of three distinct fields of which two

fields are triangles and a diamond shaped field. In the right triangular field major

anion like Cl, So4, HCo3, Co3 are plotted whereas on left triangular field cation Mg ,

Na, K, Ca are plotted in percentage respectively. The diamond shaped field between

the two triangles is used to represent the composition of water by a single point which

is the intersection point of the projected point from the right and left triangle in the

diamond field with respect to both cations and anions. Piper diagram has been used

for a suitable classification of natural water and also to study their geochemical

behavior. The points for both the cations and anions are plotted on the appropriate

triangular diagram. The plot of chemical data on diamond shaped trilinear diagram

shows that about 85% of the samples fall in the area 7 and 11% falls in the field 9 of

trilinear diagram which specify two type of water with different concentration of

major ions (Figure 7.11). 85% of the samples show water is Na-Cl or Na-HCO3-Cl

type non-carbonate alkali exceeds fifty percent and the chemical properties are

dominated by alkalies and strong acid (Karanth, 2001). But 11% samples show water

falls in which no one cation-anion pair exceeds fifty percent.

150