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Chapter 8Chapter 8
Emotion and Motivation
What Is Emotion?What Is Emotion?
Emotion –A four-part process consisting of physiological arousal, cognitive interpretation, subjective feelings, and behavioral expression
What Do Our Emotions What Do Our Emotions Do For Us?Do For Us?
Emotions have evolved to help us respond to important situations and to convey our
intentions to others
The Evolution of EmotionsThe Evolution of Emotions
Emotions have survival value and have been shaped by natural selection
Individuals vary tremendously in emotional responsiveness
Emotions are not entirely programmed by genetics
Mrs. B. and the 7 Basic Emotions!Mrs. B. and the 7 Basic Emotions!
Anger
DisgustFear
Happiness Surprise
Contempt
Sadness
Cultural Universals in Emotional ExpressionsCultural Universals in Emotional Expressions
Can’t remember those? Then how about this mnemonic device!
A (anger)
Dog (disgust)
Fears (fear)
His (happiness)
Shadow (surprise)
Cats (contempt)
Squirrels (sadness)
•There are, however, huge cultural differences in the context and intensity of emotional displays
Cultural Universals in Emotional Cultural Universals in Emotional ExpressionExpression
Display rules –Permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society
The Emotion WheelThe Emotion Wheel
The discovery of two distinct brain pathways for emotional
arousal has clarified the connections among the many biological structures involved in emotion and has offered
solutions to many of the long-standing issues in the psychology of emotion
Where Do Our Emotions Where Do Our Emotions Come From?Come From?
The Neuroscience of EmotionThe Neuroscience of Emotion
The biological mechanisms at work behind our emotions include:• The limbic system • The reticular formation• The cerebral cortex• The autonomic nervous system• Hormones
EmotionfearCognitive interpretation
“Wolves scare me!”
Physiological arousaltremblingincreased heart rate
James-James-Lange Lange theorytheory
Cannon-Cannon-Bard Bard
theorytheory
Two-Two-factor factor theorytheory
Stimulus:Big Bad Wolf
Stimulus:Big Bad Wolf
Stimulus:Big Bad Wolf
Emotionfear
Physiological arousaltremblingincreased heart rate
Physiological arousaltremblingincreased heart rate
Emotionfear
Psychological Theories of EmotionPsychological Theories of Emotion
Cognitive appraisal theory –Theory that individuals decide on an appropriate emotion following the event
Opponent-process theory – Theory that emotions have pairs; when one is triggered the other is suppressed
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U”Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U”
Describes the relationship between arousal and performance; both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than does a moderate level of arousal
The Inverted “U” Function – Describes the relationship between arousal and performance.
Arousal, Performance, and the Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U”Inverted “U”
Sensation seekers –Individuals who have a biological need for higher levels of stimulation than do other people
How Much Control Do WeHow Much Control Do WeHave Over Our Emotions?Have Over Our Emotions?
Although emotional responses are not always consciously regulated, we can learn to control them
Developing Emotional IntelligenceDeveloping Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence –Ability to understand and control emotional responses
Emotional control can be achieved by learning
Detecting DeceptionDetecting Deception
People can also control their emotions to deceive
Do “lie detectors” really work?
Polygraph – Device that records the graphs of many measures of physical arousal; often called a “lie detector” really an arousal detector
Motivation takes many forms, but all involve inferred mental processes that select
and direct our behavior
Motivation: What Makes Us Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do?Act as We Do?
Motivation: What Makes Us Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do?Act as We Do?
Motivation – All processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities
How Psychologists Use the Concept How Psychologists Use the Concept of Motivationof Motivation
Motivation• Connects observable behavior to internal
states• Accounts for variability in behavior• Explains perseverance despite adversity• Relates biology to behavior
Types of MotivationTypes of Motivation
Drive – Biologically instigated motivation
Motive – Internal mechanism that directs behavior (often used to describe motivations that are learned, rather that biologically based)
Types of MotivationTypes of Motivation
Intrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity for its own sake
Extrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence (e.g. a reward)
Rewards Can Sometimes Squelch Rewards Can Sometimes Squelch MotivationMotivation
Overjustification –The process by which extrinsic rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation, as when a child receives money for playing video games
Types of MotivationTypes of Motivation
Conscious motivation – Having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of the desire
Unconscious motivation – Having a desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire
Theories of MotivationTheories of Motivation
Instinct theory – View that certain behaviors are determined by innate factorsFixed-action patterns –
Genetically based behaviors, seen across a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus
Theories of MotivationTheories of Motivation
Drive theory – View that a biological need (an imbalance that threatens survival) produces drive
Drive Reduction Theory – An action that reduces the driveHomeostasis –
The body’s tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition
Theories of MotivationTheories of Motivation
Locus of control –An individual’s sense of where his or her life influences originate–internally or externally
Maslow’s Humanistic TheoryMaslow’s Humanistic Theory
Hierarchy of needs –The notion that needs occur in priority order, with the biological needs as the most basic
No single theory accounts for all forms of motivation,
because each motive involves its own mix of
biological, mental, behavioral, and
social/cultural influences
How Are Achievement,How Are Achievement,Hunger, and Sex Alike? Hunger, and Sex Alike?
Different?Different?
Measuring the Need for AchievementMeasuring the Need for Achievement
Projection – Process by which people attribute their own unconscious motives to other people or objects
Need for achievement (n Ach) – Mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or reach some goal
A Cross-Cultural Perspective on A Cross-Cultural Perspective on AchievementAchievement
Individualism – View that places a high value on individual achievement and distinction
Collectivism – View that values group loyalty and pride over individual distinction
Hunger MotivationHunger MotivationThe multiple-systems approach to hungerThe multiple-systems approach to hunger
Hunger MotivationHunger Motivation
The multiple-systems approach to hunger• Set point –
Refers to the tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight
• Lateral Hypothalamus• Ventromedial Hypothalamus• Eating Disorders
• Weight control is a complex issue with no simple answers
Thirst and PainThirst and Pain
Volumetric thirst –A drop in extracellular fluid levels
Osmotic thirst –A drop in intracellular fluid levels
The Scientific Study of SexualityThe Scientific Study of Sexuality
Kinsey interviewed 17,000 Americans concerning their sexual behavior
Masters and JohnsonSexual response cycle –
Four-stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution occurring in both men and women
Phases of Human Sexual Phases of Human Sexual ResponseResponse
Sexual MotivationSexual Motivation
Virtually any stimulus that becomes associated with genital touch and orgasm can become a conditioned stimulus that motivates sexual activity
Sexual scripts –Socially learned ways of responding in sexual situations
Both learning and genetics affect our sexual behaviors
The Origins of Sexual OrientationThe Origins of Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation – One’s erotic attraction toward members of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes
Motives in ConflictMotives in Conflict
Approach-approach conflict –A conflict in which one must choose between two equally attractive options
Approach-avoidance conflict –A conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made
Motives in ConflictMotives in Conflict
Avoidance-avoidance conflict –A conflict in which one must choose between two equally unattractive options
Multiple approach-avoidance conflict –A conflict in which one must choose between options that have both many attractive and many negative aspects
How and Why Do WeHow and Why Do WeExperience Stress?Experience Stress?
The human stress response to perceived threat activates thoughts, feelings, behaviors,
and physiological arousal that normally promote
adaptation and survival
Stress and StressorsStress and Stressors
Stress –A physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation
Stressor –a stressful stimulus, a condition demanding adaptation
A Model of StressA Model of Stress
Traumatic StressorsTraumatic Stressors
Traumatic stressor –a situation that threatens one’s physical safety, arousing feelings of feel, horror, or helplessness
CatastropheCatastrophe
Cohen and Ahearn identified five stages that occur in the wake of natural disasters• Psychic numbness• Automatic action• Communal effort• Letdown• Recovery
Posttraumatic StressPosttraumatic Stress
Posttraumatic stress disorder –delayed stress reaction in which an individual involuntarily re-experiences emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of past trauma
The Physical Stress ResponseThe Physical Stress Response
Acute stress – A temporary pattern of arousal caused by a stressor with a clear onset and offset
Chronic stress – A continuous state of stressful arousal persisting over time
The Physical Stress ResponseThe Physical Stress Response
Fight-or-flight response –A sequence of internal processes that prepares the organism for struggle or escape
Tend-and-befriend model – stress response model proposing that females are biologically predisposed to respond to stress by nurturing and protecting offspring and seeking social support
The Physical Stress ResponseThe Physical Stress Response
General adaptation syndrome (GAS) – A pattern of general physical responses that takes essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor
Resistance
Resistance– the body
seems to adapt to the
presence of the stressor
Alarm Reaction
Alarm reaction – the body
mobilizes it’s resources to cope with a
stressor
The General Adaptation SyndromeThe General Adaptation Syndrome
Exhaustion
Illness/death
Exhaustion– the body
depletes it’s resources
Level ofnormal resistance
Successful Resistance
Stress and the Immune SystemStress and the Immune System
Immune system – bodily organs and responses that protect the body from foreign substances and threats
Stress and the Immune SystemStress and the Immune System
Psychoneuroimmunology – Multidisciplinary field that studies the influence of mental states on the immune system
Cytokines – Hormone-like chemicals facilitating communication between brain and immune system
Personality and StressPersonality and Stress
Type A –behavior pattern characterized by intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic responses to challenging situations
Type B –behavior pattern characterizedby a relaxed, unstressedapproach to life
Psychological Responses to StressPsychological Responses to Stress
Learned helplessness – Pattern of not responding to noxious stimuli after an organism learns that its behavior has no effect
Psychological Responses to StressPsychological Responses to Stress
Resilience – Capacity to adapt, achieve well-being, and cope with stress, in spite of serious threats to development
Motivating YourselfMotivating Yourself
Flow – An intense focus on an activity, accompanied by increased creativity and near-ecstatic feelingsInvolves intrinsic motivation