Chapter 8

EXPEDITION TRAINING

SECTION 1. — INTRODUCTION

General

0801. Expedition Training involves potentially dangerous situations when errors ofjudgement can lead to accidents. It is therefore essential that a cadet has had suffi-cient training beforehand in the subjects below, so that the risks are reduced to a min-imum. The standard he must have reached will vary according to the standard of theexpedition to be undertaken. A short expedition in ordinary country will require lesstraining than a long and exhausting expedition in rough country demanding a highstandard of mental and physical effort. Knowledge will be required of the following inall cases:

a. The Country Code — so that the cadet understands how to treat withrespect the land and property over which he moves.

b. Campcraft — so that he knows the basic techniques of how to live andmove in a strange environment during an expedition.

c. Emergency Aid — so that he can manage an incident and give immediatehelp (Casaid) to a casualty until a qualified first aider is available.

d. Use of Map and Compass — so that he can find his way.

e. Skill at Arms — so that he knows how to handle and look after his personalweapon when it is taken on an expedition.

f. Fieldcraft — so that he can cope with any military situation which may beincluded in an expedition.

0802. Because emergency aid, skill at arms, use of map and compass and field-craft are dealt with in other chapters, this chapter deals primarily with the CountryCode and Campcraft.

Safety

0803. The safety rules which must be adhered to during this type of training aregiven in the appropriate sections of the booklet Cadet Training Safety Precautions(Army Code No. 70768), a copy of which is to be carried by all instructors when incharge of cadets on training.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 8-1

Country Code

0804. As can be seen in Section 2, the Country Code is comparatively easy tolearn. The most important thing to remember, however, is to put it into practice dur-ing an expedition, particularly when wet, cold, tired and hungry.

Campcraft

0805. Campcraft is the name given to a collection of skills which must be learntbefore undertaking self reliance training during which the cadet will live and move ina strange environment.

References

0806. All aspects of the elementary stage of expedition training are included indetail. At the more advanced stages, only the essentials are included in this chapterbecause equipment required, techniques and experience must be of a higher stan-dard. The attention of those responsible for, and taking part in, such expeditions isdirected to the following references for further study as appropriate:

a. Army General Administrative Instructions (AGAI): Volume I, Chapter 11,Annex N ‘Mountaineering and Rock Climbing’, and Chapter 18 ‘SafetyPrecautions in Training: The Hazards of Water’.

b. The Highway Code — HMSO.

c. The Code for Water Safety — ROSPA.

d. In the Water On the Water — ROSPA.

e. Safety on Mountains — CCPR.

f. Mountain Rescue and Cave Rescue — Mountain Rescue Committee.

g. Expedition Guide — Duke of Edinburgh’s Award Scheme.

h. Survival Against the Elements — Army Code No. 70499.

i. Camping and Education — HMSO.

j. Notes on Exposure — British Mountaineering Council and Association ofScottish Climbing Clubs.

k. ‘Know the Game’ Series.

l. Mountain Leadership Handbook — Longmuir.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED8-2

m. Mountaineering — Alan Blackshaw.

0807 – 0810. Reserved.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 8-3

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED8-4

SECTION 2. — THE COUNTRY CODE

0811. The Country Code has been written to promote country manners by helpingto reduce or prevent the unintentional damage which occurs every year, particularlyat public holidays. Too many visitors to the countryside are unfamiliar with its ways.They forget that a single careless act — a gate left open, a fence or hedge weak-ened, a dropped cigarette end — can mean a lot of extra work and expense for farm-ers, foresters and other country folk.

0812. The Country Code is a series of ten reminders based on common sense —and common failings. It applies just as much to soldiers and cadets on training as itdoes to holidaymakers and others; in fact, it is even more important to cadets whomay be forbidden to use adventurous and other training areas by the owners if theprovisions of the code are not complied with. The reminders are (see Fig 193):

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 8-5

a. Guard against every risk of fire.Plantations, woodlands and heathsare highly inflammable; every yearacres burn because of casuallydropped matches, cigarette endsand pipe ash.

b. Fasten all gates, even if youfind them open. Animals cannot betold to stay where they are put. Agate left open invites them to crossthe road and wander, a danger tothemselves and to traffic.

Fig 193b.

Fig 193a.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED8-6

c. Keep dogs under proper con-trol. Farmers have good reason toregard visiting dogs as pests; in thecountry a civilised town dog canbecome a savage. Keep your dogon a lead whenever there is live-stock about, also on country roads.

d. Keep to the paths across farmland. Crops can be ruined by peo-ple’s feet. Remember that grass isa valuable crop too, sometimes theonly one on the farm. Flattenedcorn or hay is very difficult to har-vest.

e. Avoid damaging fences, hedgesand walls. They are expensiveitems in the farm’s economy;repairs are costly and need labourwhich is scarce. Keep to recog-nised routes, using gates and stiles.

Fig 193c.

Fig 193d.

Fig 193e.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 8-7

f. Leave no litter. All litter isunsightly and some is dangerousas well. Take litter with you for dis-posal at the end of your exercise.In the country it costs a lot to collectit.

g. Safeguard water supplies.Your chosen expedition may crossa catchment area for the watersupply of millions. Avoid polluting itin any way. Never interfere withcattle troughs.

h. Protect wild life, plants andtrees. Wild life is best observed,not collected. To pick or uprootflowers, carve on trees and rocks,or disturb wild animals and birdsdestroys other people’s pleasureas well.

Fig 193f.

Fig 193h.

Fig 193g.

0813. Pictures and articles from the press, and photographs showing the results offailure to adhere to this code, are a great help in emphasising the meaning of thecode and making it realistic.

0814 – 0820. Reserved.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED8-8

i. Go carefully on country roads.They have special dangers; blindcorners, high banks and hedges,slow-moving tractors and farmmachinery or animals. Motoristsshould reduce speed and takeextra care; walkers should keep tothe right, facing oncoming traffic.

j. Respect the life of the country-side. Set a good example and try tofit in with the life and work of thecountryside. In this way good rela-tions are preserved and those whofollow are not regarded as ene-mies.

Fig 193i.

Fig 193j.

SECTION 3. — CAMPCRAFT

A. INSTRUCTOR’S NOTES

Aim

0821. To train the cadet in the skills of campcraft.

Timings

0822. Four 30 minute periods.

Stores

0823. The following stores are required:

a. A complete set of clothing and equipment as shown in paragraph 0826.

b. A tent and material for an improvised shelter.

c. Cooking equipment.

d. Camp fire equipment/material.

Miscellaneous

0824. To make best use of the instruction time available stores should be preparedbeforehand, displayed as they would be used during an expedition; e.g., a personwearing clothing and equipment correctly, tent and improvised shelter erected, fireburning and cooking equipment in use. The instructor can then take each item in turnand explain them in a short time.

B. CONDUCT OF THE LESSON

The Skills Required

0825. Explain: A definition of the term ‘Campcraft’ is the skills necessary to liveand move in a strange environment during an expedition. To achieve a satisfactorystandard in these skills a cadet must be able to:

a. Prepare, clothe and equip himself correctly beforehand.

b. Understand the emergency procedures which must always be arrangedbefore an expedition sets out.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 8-9

c. Move across country, carrying a load, by a suitable route.

d. Choose a suitable camp site and carry out the essential initial activities onarrival — pitch a tent, cook a meal and construct a latrine.

Clothing and Equipment

0826. Point out the items listed below being worn or carried by a cadet. Explain:These will vary according to the circumstances in which the expedition is to be car-ried out. In many contingents/detachments, lightweight and other specialised cloth-ing and equipment is often available, and although the general requirement is thesame, more can be carried by each cadet.

a. Clothing and Equipment to be Worn. These are:

(1) Beret or Cap Comforter.

(2) Smock, Combat (with shirt and pullover underneath).

(3) Trousers (Combat Suit type).

(4) Boots (with puttees or anklets).

(5) Socks (thick wool).

(6) Underclothes (loose fitting).

(7) Haversack and Water Bottle.

b. Items to be Carried. These are:

(1) On the Person. Map, compass, whistle on lanyard, matches, elas-tic adhesive dressings.

(2) In the Haversack. Mess tin, knife, fork and spoon, reserve rations,mug, towel and washing kit, groundsheet, spare socks, torch.

c. Additional Items. Items which may be carried, or moved independently tocamp sites are:

(1) A kitbag or equivalent per cadet containing blankets or sleeping bag.

(2) Spare clothing and footwear.

(3) Bivouac type tents.

(4) Food and water.

(5) Cooking equipment.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED8-10

Emergency Procedures

0827. Explain: Emergency procedures are those which must be arranged beforean expedition sets out. They must be practical and known to all concerned. Theymust include:

a. The construction of a route card showing the intended route to be taken,together with certain definite places and times at which the expedition intendsto reach them. A copy of this must be left at base with the officer organising thetraining and/or the local police or rescue organisation.

b. A knowledge of the telephone numbers and locations of the police and res-cue authority in the locality.

c. The length of time after the non-arrival of the expedition at a pre-arrangedplace before search parties should be sent out.

d. Checking of frequencies and times of routine calls if a radio is being used.Because of the difficulties of reception in certain types of country, radio contactonly should not be relied upon.

Movement Across Country

0828. Explain: The ability of a cadet to move across country carrying a load, isjudged by his skill in following a suitable route without losing direction. Also that hisload is packed and adjusted so that it does not slip or move in any other way and pro-duce discomfort which affects his performance.

Load Carrying

0829. Explain: The type of load carrier used by a cadet will vary from the 37Pattern web equipment haversack, or fixing a kit bag securely to a man-pack carrier,to the more specialised camping pack which counties and some contingents mayhave purchased for use on a pool basis. The principles below apply to all types ofcarrier:

a. A load is best supported by the human frame when it is applied verticallydown the length of the spine or upon the hips, rather than hanging out from theshoulders.

b. Packing a load should be done to a system (see Fig 194):

(1) Heavy items (tent, groundsheet, food) and items needed first at thenext site should be packed at the top and light kit at the bottom. The tentand its items are then ready to be erected quickly in rain.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 8-11

(2) Equipment needed en route should also be readily available.

(3) Paraffin, if carried, should be kept away from food. A polythene bagmakes a good inner lining.

(4) The load must be evenly balanced.

(5) The contents should be firmly arranged with no movement inside oritems swinging loose outside.

Choosing a Camp Site

0830. Explain: The choice of an ideal camp site should take account of the fol-lowing points:

a. Shelter from the prevailing wind, on a well drained fairly level site facing themorning sun.

b. Away from houses.

c. Close to a good water supply.

d. In the open rather than under trees.

0831. Explain: Having chosen a site (see Fig 195) the camp should be laid out inaccordance with the following principles:

a. Tents to be correctly pitched in a sheltered area.

b. Cooking area to be conveniently close to tents but not too close in case offire.

c. Latrines to be downwind and away from the tent site and the cooking area,and well concealed.

d. Where there is running water, a drinking water point upstream from awashing water point.

e. Vehicle access available if possible.

Initial Activities at a Camp Site

0832. Explain: The essential initial activities to be undertaken at a camp site arelisted below, normally in the order of priority shown. When there are a number ofcadets on the expedition, some of these activities may be done simultaneously on agroup basis, i.e., one cadet prepares a meal, one cadet fetches water whilst two oth-ers construct a latrine and refuse pit respectively (see Fig 196):

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED8-12

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 8-13

Fig 195. — Principles of Laying Out a Camp Site

Fig 194. — Correctly Packed Load

a. Erection of tents.

b. Construction of a fire.

c. Preparation and cooking of a meal.

d. Construction of a latrine.

e. Construction of a refuse pit.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED8-14

Fig 196. — Activities on a Group Basis

Examples of Some Camp Activities

0833. Explain: Some examples of camp activities are as follows (see Fig 197):

b. Construction of Improvised Shelters for use when tents are not available.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 8-15

a. Tent Erection.

(1) Tent poles upright andsecure.

(2) Tent sides extended to fullwidth. Ropes in line with poles.Tent pegs securely in theground and sufficiently inclinedto avoid ropes slipping off.

(3) If the weather is very weta channel round the tent toprevent water entering thetent, to be filled in before leav-ing the site.

(1) A shelter with two groundsheets constructed on thesame principle as the tentabove for two cadets.

(2) A groundsheet shelteragainst a fallen tree trunk forone cadet. The ground sheetmust be on the side of thetrunk away from the prevailingwind.

(3) Another groundsheettype of shelter for one cadet.The rope must be strong andthe open side of the ground-sheet away from the prevailingwind.

Fig 197. — Improvised TentConstruction

c. Preparation and Cooking of a Meal. Points to remember are:

(1) One hot cooked meal a day, normally at the end of a day’s expedi-tion, is essential.

(2) All cadets must therefore know how to prepare and cook a meal offresh, dehydrated and tinned food. This will require them in general termsto be able to boil water, fry prepared meat such as beefburgers andsausages and heat up tinned stews, vegetables and puddings.

(3) In the early stages of training, cooking must be done in the open sothat the cadet has plenty of room and the danger of fire, scalding, etc.,through ignorance and lack of skill is minimal. In the later stages of train-ing, practice under supervision in cooking inside tents may be given, sothat cadets are proficient before taking part in more advanced training.

(4) When cooking over an open fire watch both pot and fire becausewood gives more heat than coal. Use the fierce flame heat for boilingthen, when the fire is too hot, move the pot and put some damp or greensticks on to reduce the heat.

(5) Plan cooking on the following lines:

(a) Collect and cut firewood.

(b) Light the fire, and when smoke has dispersed put on potatoesand vegetables.

(c) Fry or heat up meat.

(d) Heat up pudding.

(e) Boil tea and washing-up water while eating.

d. Camp Fires and Stoves. All cadets should know how to construct anopen wood fire because it may be the only material available. The illustrationsin Fig 198 show a variety of methods. Wood fires are often not acceptable inthe country to landowners and farmers and solid fuel cookers are normallyused.

e. Construction of a Latrine (see Fig 199). Remember:

(1) A latrine will always be constructed in camp.

(2) A hole in the ground not less than 1/2 metre deep is necessary.

(3) Some form of seat or bar is desirable if time permits construction.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED8-16

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 8-17

Fig 198. — Camp Fires and Stoves

Fig 199. — Construction of a Latrine

(4) Earth should be piled to fill in the hole before leaving the site. Whenfilled the site should be marked ‘Soiled Ground’.

f. Construction of a Refuse Pit. A pit about 600 mm (2 feet) deep and 600mm (2 feet) square (depending on numbers) should be dug and the excavatedsoil piled beside it for infilling. Ensure that all unused food and swill is throwninto it and that it is filled in before departure. On no account should it be usedfor rubbish of any description. This must be placed in a sack or similar containerand either returned to base by vehicle, or deposited in a proper refuse con-tainer or on a tip.

Safety Rules

0834. Explain: Accidents only occur in camp sites through lack of thought, care-lessness or untidiness. The following precautions must be taken at all times:

a. Do not light a fire until told by the expedition leader when and where to doso. This particularly applies in dry weather.

b. Always ensure that a fire is completely out before finally settling down forthe night.

c. When a fire has been lit the camp site must never be completely vacatedeven for a short time.

d. Keep a wide area 1.8 metres (6 feet) at least around the fire completelyclear of clothing, equipment, stores and bedding at all times.

e. Do not sleep within 1.8 metres (6 feet) of a fire.

f. Keep away from a fire when eating.

g. Place cooking pots containing boiling water and hot foot on level surfacesat all times.

h. Ensure that axes and other cutting tools, when not in use, are placed withtheir cutting edges in a safe position, i.e., buried in a piece of wood.

i. Do not smoke inside tents or whilst cooking.

j. Whenever possible use solid fuel cookers but if this is quite impossible,use liquid fuel cookers such as gas or paraffin stoves but never petrol.

k. If, in spite of complying with these rules, clothing should catch fire do notrun away. Lie down where you are and roll over and over whilst others put outthe flames by wrapping a blanket or groundsheet round you.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED8-18

Health and Hygiene

0835. Explain: Personal cleanliness is very important during an expedition.Unless rigidly practised a cadet may suffer physically in many ways, from sore feetto an upset stomach, which may prevent him from completing the expedition. So:

Campcraft in More Difficult Conditions

0836. Principles. Explain: The principles of choosing a camp site in a shel-tered lowlands area are in paragraph 0830. There are, in addition, three classes ofcamp site where restrictions are greater and therefore choice is more difficult. Theyare:

a. The Upland Site. This is normally on moorlands or hills below about 450metres. Here a sheltered position is essential but care must be taken to avoidflooding from rapidly rising streams in wet weather.

b. The Mountain Site in Summer. This is normally on hills above 450 metreswhere sheltered positions are difficult to find and where pitching a tent is diffi-cult because of the slope and stony ground. Small grassy ledges beneath out-crops of sound rock are the best places, but space is probably restricted.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 8-19

DO

a. Wash face, hands and feetand clean teeth every eveningand the following morning, anduse foot powder regularly.

b. Wash hands after visiting thelatrine and before cooking a meal.

c. Change wet clothes whennecessary.

d. Obtain drinking water fromthe source provided and thenkeep it clean. It may be necessaryto obtain it from other sources onoccasions but this is not to bedone except under supervision.

e. Cover cuts and sores afterwashing them.

DO NOT

a. Throw dirty washing waterand other refuse anywhereexcept in the refuse pit.

b. Relieve yourself in any wayexcept at the latrine.

c. Keep wet clothes on longerthan is absolutely necessary. Thismay be until the night when youmust have something dry in whichto sleep.

d. Obtain drinking water fromstagnant or slow running streamsor from downstream from thewashing area.

e. Leave cuts and scratches tofester.

c. The Mountain Site in Winter. The conditions here are even more restricted,but snow can be used to level out a pitching area. Snow walls can be built toprotect tents but they should not be too close. This type of camp site is unlikelyto be used by cadets, but they should be aware of it.

0837. Additional Precautions. Explain: When using these sites the skills ofcampcraft are the same but because the conditions of terrain and weather areadverse, specialised clothing and equipment is necessary, which must be tested forserviceability and properly fitted beforehand. The following additional precautions arenecessary:

a. Choosing the Site. The weather in rough country (moors and mountains)can change for the worse in a matter of hours, so it is always best to believethe worst of the coming weather and decide on a camp site on that basis. Itshould, if possible, be:

(1) Protected from the prevailing wind by natural features such as arockcrop, a fold in the ground or a stone wall (see Fig 200).

(2) On reasonably level ground of sufficient size to take not only a tentbut also the guy lines.

(3) Free from the danger of sudden surface drainage after heavy rain.

(4) Reasonably close to a clean water supply.

b. Tent Pitching. A tent, with a fly sheet, should be pitched with a storm inmind, so:

(1) Check the wind direction.

(2) Lay the tent out with the rear towards the wind; fasten the door.

(3) Peg out the corners, then erect the rear end first using the strongerpegs for the main guys. The tent door may have to be opened again toinsert the poles. Pegs must be inserted into the ground at 45° or securedusing one of the methods shown in Fig 201.

(4) Secure the correct guys and erect the front end of the tent.

(5) Place the ground sheet on top of the sod-cloth so that water cannotrun off the tent onto the groundsheet.

(6) Pile heavy rounded rocks on the snow valance.

c. Living in a Tent. The technique of living inside a tent in conditions likelyto be encountered in an expedition in rough country is only developed by con-stant practice, but the basic fundamentals are few. Whilst the most likely provi-

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED8-20

sion is for two cadets to share a tent, many people prefer a larger four man unitwhich slightly reduces the individual carrying-load and enables an expeditiongroup of viable size to live together as one unit.

(1) Economy of Movement.

(a) In wet weather movement in or out of a tent should be kept toa minimum, for a tent without a flysheet will leak if the wet canvasis touched from the inside. When erecting a tent in the rain only theguys should be touched and the material kept as free from folds aspossible.

(b) Frequent trips for water will be avoided if a water bucket isused and kept from falling over by being tied to a guy line just out-side the entrance to the tent.

(2) A Systematic Arrangement of Equipment.

(a) Each item of equipment should be stored in the same place.Those inside the tent should then be able to avoid vigorous searchesor simultaneous movement of bodies.

(b) Wet clothes and boots should be removed in the shelter of thetent and if there is no chance of drying them in the wind, they shouldbe put into a plastic bag or kept under the edge of the flysheet.

(c) In very wet and windy conditions cooking may have to be doneinside the tent when safety precautions are vital and only the cookis allowed to move.

(d) Sleeping head to tail in a tent gives more comfort, while asmall non-absorbent polystyrene mattress, 900 x 600 mm (3 feet by2 feet), will give excellent insulation.

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED 8-21

RESTRICTED

RESTRICTED8-22

Fig 200. — A Well Pitched Tent on a Sheltered Site

Fig 201. — Securing the Guys