Chapter 9Chapter 9

Attention as aAttention as a

Limited Capacity ResourceLimited Capacity ResourceConcept: Preparation for and performance of motor skills are influenced by our limited capacity to select and attend to information

Defining the Term “Attention” andDefining the Term “Attention” andMultiple Task PerformanceMultiple Task Performance

Attention refers to characteristics associated withAttention refers to characteristics associated with–ConsciousnessConsciousness–AwarenessAwareness–Cognitive effortCognitive effort

As they relate to the performance of skills, with As they relate to the performance of skills, with particular reference to the limitations associated particular reference to the limitations associated with those characteristics on thewith those characteristics on the

–Simultaneous performance of multiple skills Simultaneous performance of multiple skills –Detection of relevant information in the performance Detection of relevant information in the performance

environment environment

Attention and Multiple Task Attention and Multiple Task PerformancePerformance

When we simultaneously perform multiple tasks When we simultaneously perform multiple tasks (e.g. driving a car, listening to a CD, and talking (e.g. driving a car, listening to a CD, and talking with a passenger) with a passenger)

–we sometimes experience no difficulties in we sometimes experience no difficulties in performing all the tasks, but performing all the tasks, but

–we sometimes cannot do all the tasks as we would we sometimes cannot do all the tasks as we would likelike

WHY?WHY?–Answer relates to “attention” as a performance Answer relates to “attention” as a performance

limiting factorlimiting factor

Attention TheoriesAttention Theories

Filter Theories (a.k.a. bottleneck theories)Filter Theories (a.k.a. bottleneck theories)–Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because

of limitation due to serial processing of multiple stimuli of limitation due to serial processing of multiple stimuli [[see Fig. 9-1see Fig. 9-1] ]

Alternative Theories (Resource capacity theories)Alternative Theories (Resource capacity theories)–Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because

of limitation due to availability of resources needed to of limitation due to availability of resources needed to carry out tasks carry out tasks

i.ei.e. resource capacity limits . resource capacity limits

–Simultaneous performance of multiple tasks can occur Simultaneous performance of multiple tasks can occur as long as the resource capacity limits not exceededas long as the resource capacity limits not exceeded

Attention Theories, cont’dAttention Theories, cont’dCentral Resource Capacity Central Resource Capacity TheoriesTheories

–Propose one central (i.e., CNS) Propose one central (i.e., CNS) source of attention resources for source of attention resources for which all activities requiring which all activities requiring attention competeattention compete

Kahneman’s Attention Theory: An Example of a Kahneman’s Attention Theory: An Example of a Central Resource Capacity TheoryCentral Resource Capacity Theory– Equates attention with “cognitive effort”Equates attention with “cognitive effort”– Proposed flexible attention capacity limitsProposed flexible attention capacity limits

See Figure 9.3See Figure 9.3

Flexible attention capacity

Task ADriving car

Task BTalking with passenger

Kahneman’s Attention TheoryKahneman’s Attention Theory, , cont’dcont’dArousal level: The factor that Arousal level: The factor that influences the amount of attention influences the amount of attention capacity for a specific performance capacity for a specific performance situationsituation

–Amount of attention resources Amount of attention resources available (i.e. capacity) varies in available (i.e. capacity) varies in relation to a person’s arousal levelrelation to a person’s arousal level

– Maximum amount available only Maximum amount available only when arousal level is optimal for the when arousal level is optimal for the situationsituation

Relate to inverted-U function of Relate to inverted-U function of arousal – performance relationshiparousal – performance relationship

Evaluation of attention requirements Evaluation of attention requirements of multiple tasks to be performedof multiple tasks to be performed

–Critical factor for determining Critical factor for determining whether sufficient attention resources whether sufficient attention resources available – given capacity limits set by available – given capacity limits set by arousal levelarousal level

Miscellaneousdeterminants

Responses

Arousal

Availablecapacity

Allocation policy

Misc.manifestationsof arousal

Enduringdispositions

Momentaryintentions

Possible activitiesEvaluation ofdemands on capacity

Kahneman’s Attention TheoryKahneman’s Attention Theory, , cont’dcont’d3 “rules” people use to 3 “rules” people use to allocate available attention allocate available attention resources when performing resources when performing multiple tasksmultiple tasks

1.1.Ensure completion of at least Ensure completion of at least one taskone task

2.2.Enduring dispositions: Enduring dispositions: InvoluntaryInvoluntary attention allocation, attention allocation, e.g.,e.g.,

a.a. Novel for the situationNovel for the situation

b.b. Meaningfulness of the event Meaningfulness of the event (e.g., “cocktail party (e.g., “cocktail party phenomenon”)phenomenon”)

3.3.Momentary intentionsMomentary intentions Allocate attention according Allocate attention according

to instructionsto instructions

Miscellaneousdeterminants

Responses

Arousal

Availablecapacity

Allocation policy

Misc.manifestationsof arousal

Enduringdispositions

Possible activitiesEvaluation ofdemands on capacity

Momentaryintentions

Multiple Resource TheoriesMultiple Resource Theories

Alternative to theories proposing one central Alternative to theories proposing one central resourceresource

–Propose that we have several sources for attention Propose that we have several sources for attention Each source has a limited capacity of resourcesEach source has a limited capacity of resources

–The multiple sources based on specific information The multiple sources based on specific information processing componentprocessing component

Sensory input (e.g. visual, proprioceptive)Sensory input (e.g. visual, proprioceptive)

Response output (e.g. verbal, motor)Response output (e.g. verbal, motor)

Type of memory code (e.g. spatial, verbal)Type of memory code (e.g. spatial, verbal)

–Performance of simultaneous multiple tasks depends on Performance of simultaneous multiple tasks depends on competition for attention resources within and between the competition for attention resources within and between the multiple sourcesmultiple sources

Procedures for Assessing Procedures for Assessing Attention DemandsAttention Demands

Dual-task procedure determine the attention Dual-task procedure determine the attention demands and characteristics of the demands and characteristics of the simultaneous performance of two different taskssimultaneous performance of two different tasks

Primary task is the task of interestPrimary task is the task of interest

Secondary task performance is the basis to Secondary task performance is the basis to make inferences about the attention demands make inferences about the attention demands of the primary taskof the primary task

Focusing AttentionFocusing AttentionAttentional focus:Attentional focus:

–The marshalling of attention resources to The marshalling of attention resources to direct them to specific characteristics of our direct them to specific characteristics of our performance or performance environment performance or performance environment

–Width of focusWidth of focusFocus can be broad or narrowFocus can be broad or narrow

–Direction of focusDirection of focusFocus can be external or internalFocus can be external or internal

Attention switchingAttention switching –The changing of attention focus The changing of attention focus

characteristics in a situation that allows characteristics in a situation that allows successful performancesuccessful performance

Focusing Attention on Movements Focusing Attention on Movements vs. Movement Effectsvs. Movement Effects

Concerns direction of attentional focus – Concerns direction of attentional focus – Does internal or external direction matter?Does internal or external direction matter?

Action effect hypothesis Action effect hypothesis (Prinz, 1997)(Prinz, 1997)

–Proposed benefit of external focus during Proposed benefit of external focus during performanceperformance

Focus attention on “intended outcome” of Focus attention on “intended outcome” of movements rather than on movements themselvesmovements rather than on movements themselves

Attention and AutomaticityAttention and Automaticity

Automaticity = Performance of a skill Automaticity = Performance of a skill (or parts of a skill) without requiring (or parts of a skill) without requiring attention resourcesattention resourcesAutomaticity of task performance Automaticity of task performance related to amount of practicerelated to amount of practiceQuestion that remains for researchers Question that remains for researchers to answer: How automated does the to answer: How automated does the performance of complex skills performance of complex skills become?become?

Visual Selective AttentionVisual Selective Attention

The study of attention as it relates to the The study of attention as it relates to the use of vision in the selection of use of vision in the selection of environmental information in the environmental information in the preparation and/or performance of an preparation and/or performance of an actionaction

Visual search is the process of directing Visual search is the process of directing visual attention to locate relevant visual attention to locate relevant information (information (i.ei.e., cues) in the environment., cues) in the environment

Visual Selective Attention, cont’dVisual Selective Attention, cont’dEye-movement recordings are commonly used to Eye-movement recordings are commonly used to investigate visual selective attentioninvestigate visual selective attention

Important question is: What is the relationship between Important question is: What is the relationship between eye movements and visual selective attention; does what eye movements and visual selective attention; does what a person is “looking at” (point of gaze) indicate where a person is “looking at” (point of gaze) indicate where visual selective attention is directed?visual selective attention is directed?

It is possible to direct attention to an environmental It is possible to direct attention to an environmental feature without directly looking at it feature without directly looking at it

–Remember, eye-movement recordings identify focal vision not Remember, eye-movement recordings identify focal vision not peripheral visionperipheral vision

It is not possible to make an eye movement without also It is not possible to make an eye movement without also making a shift in attentionmaking a shift in attention

How We Select Visual Cues?How We Select Visual Cues?

Visual search and intended actionsVisual search and intended actions–An active search for “regulatory” conditions based on An active search for “regulatory” conditions based on

action goalaction goale.ge.g. Research by Bekkering & Neggers (2002) showed . Research by Bekkering & Neggers (2002) showed

different visual search patterns for the action goals pointing to different visual search patterns for the action goals pointing to an object and grasping the objectan object and grasping the object

Feature integration theory: Feature integration theory: –Initially search according to specific features (e.g., Initially search according to specific features (e.g.,

color, shape)color, shape)–Direct “attentional spotlight” on environment (wide or Direct “attentional spotlight” on environment (wide or

narrow focus)narrow focus)features of interest “pop out”features of interest “pop out”

Visual Search and Action Visual Search and Action PreparationPreparation

Visual search picks up cues that influence 3 Visual search picks up cues that influence 3 aspects of action preparationaspects of action preparation

–Action selectionAction selection–Constraining of the selected actionConstraining of the selected action–Timing of action initiationTiming of action initiation

Note how these three preparation processes Note how these three preparation processes influenced by visual search in influenced by visual search in

–Open motor skillsOpen motor skills–Closed motor skillsClosed motor skills

See examples in the textbook

Visual Search and Action Visual Search and Action PreparationPreparation

Visual search picks up cues that influence 3 Visual search picks up cues that influence 3 aspects of action preparationaspects of action preparation

–Action selectionAction selection–Constraining of the selected actionConstraining of the selected action–Timing of action initiationTiming of action initiation

Note how these three preparation processes Note how these three preparation processes influenced by visual search in influenced by visual search in

–Open motor skillsOpen motor skills–Closed motor skillsClosed motor skills

See examples in the textbook

Training Visual Search Training Visual Search StrategiesStrategies

Search strategies can be learned, however, they Search strategies can be learned, however, they must be specific to an activity. must be specific to an activity.

There is little evidence of benefit derived from There is little evidence of benefit derived from generalized visual training programs generalized visual training programs

–It ignores the general finding that experts recognize It ignores the general finding that experts recognize specific patterns more readily than do novicesspecific patterns more readily than do novices

Visual search success is experience basedVisual search success is experience based–Often results from implicit learning of relevant visual Often results from implicit learning of relevant visual

cues cues