Chapter 9

Memory

Memory Memory

persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information. We study the extremes.

Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

What events are examples for you?

On page 345, 2nd paragraph, read the questions posed. These should spark some thought and perhaps give you ideas for your journal writing!!

Memory Memory as Information Processing

similar to a computer : write to file ; save to disk ; read from disk. It works sequentially and faster ; we do many things at once (in parallel) but process slower.

Encoding the processing of information into the memory system. Get info. into brain!

i.e., extracting meaning

Storage the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval process of getting information out of memory

Memory

Atkinson-Schiffrin three-stage processing model of memory(Fig.9.1 on page 346)

Sensory Memory the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory

system

Short-Term Memory activated memory that holds a few items briefly look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is

forgotten

Long-Term Memory the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

Working Memory focuses more on the processing (how we attend to, rehearse, and

manipulate info) of briefly stored information. We associate old and new info – altering our schemas – and solve problems.

A Simplified Memory Model

Externalevents

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Sensory inputAttention to importantor novel information

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieving

Encoding: Getting Information In

Automatic Processing unconscious encoding of incidental information about: space; time; frequency well-learned information: word meanings we can learn automatic processing: reading backwards

Effortful Processing requires attention and conscious effort

Rehearsal conscious repetition of info: to maintain it in consciousness; to encode it for

storage

Encoding

Effortful Automatic

Encoding

Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV - The more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 - Time spent learning = amount remembered. Increased retention with overlearning.

Other principles: Next-in-line effect – we don’t recall previous person’s info Spacing Effect - distributed practice yields better long-term retention than

massed practice. Those who learn quickly, forget quickly. Expanding space rehearsal – increase time between rehearsing a piece of info.

Serial position effect – first & last items more easily remembered Our memory system is designed to support our functioning /survival – which psychological perspective is emphasized here? (look at page 11!)

Encoding

20

15

10

5

08 16 24 32 42 53 64

Time in minutestaken to relearnlist on day 2

Number of repetitions of list on day 1

Encoding: Serial Position Effect

12

Percentage of words

recalled

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Position of word in list

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Serial Position Effect--tendency to recall best the last items in a list. With time 1st items become more often recalled.

What Do We Encode?We recall what we encode – our mental model that we constructed!

Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning; including meaning of words. Better memory

when meaningful context provided. Self-reference effect – personal meaning in what you learn

increases your ability to recall.

Acoustic Encoding encoding of sound, especially sound of words. Great memory of

rhyme – “What sobriety conceals, alcohol reveals” Include mnemonics – ‘jingle’, rhyme, “peg-word” systems

Visual Encoding encoding of picture images – Imagery - mental pictures - a powerful aid

to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding Rosy retrospection – recalling more positively mundane events or

forgetting the negative aspects Mnemonics - memory aids - especially those techniques that use vivid

imagery and organizational devices

Encoding

Encoding

Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units (generally no more than 3 or 4

in a chunk) like horizontal organization--1776149218121941

often occurs automatically use of acronyms

HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

Encoding Hierarchies

complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Encoding(automatic or effortful)

Imagery(visualEncoding)

Meaning(semanticEncoding)

Organization

Chunks Hierarchies

Storage:Retaining Information

Sensory Memory Iconic Memory - a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli - a photographic or

picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second Echoic Memory - momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Storage:Short-Term Memory

Short-Term Memory limited in duration and capacity “magical” number 7+/-2

0102030405060708090

3 6 9 12 15 18

Time in seconds between presentationof contestants and recall request

(no rehearsal allowed)

Percentagewho recalledconsonants

Storage:Long-Term Memory

Psychologists study memory “software” and neuroscientists the “hardware”.

Question: What is memory’s physical basis?

How does storage work? “defies comprehension” Karl Lashley (1950) - rats learn maze ; lesion cortex ; test memory.

Conclusion: memory doesn’t reside in one part of the brain.

Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation

increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation – neural explanation for learning and remembering associations – goal is to enhance human long-term memory capability.

Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and retention – and in prolonged stress

cause the opposite.

Storage:Long-Term Memory

Amnesia--the loss of memory

Explicit Memory memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

(declarative memory) hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit

memories for storage in various parts of the brain – to retrieve a memory requires recovery of parts from sites in the brain and integrates them with emotional associations in the amygdala (key to emotional memories) to form a memory

Implicit Memory retention independent of conscious recollection (procedural memory) – they

can learn but cannot recall learning. (example: play a golf course over & over and improve each time, but can’t recall playing the course before)

Cerebellum - neural center where implicit memory locates

This dual system of memory explains research done on brain-damaged people.

Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems

Types oflong-termmemories

Explicit(declarative)

With consciousrecall

Implicit(nondeclarative)

Without conscious recall

Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)

Personally experienced

events(“episodic memory”)

Skills-motorand cognitive

Dispositions-classical and

operant conditioning

effects

Storage:Long-Term Memory

MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)

Hippocampus

Quick Review – Crash Course

Retrieval: Getting Information Out

Recall measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information

learned earlier - as on a fill-in-the blank test.

Recognition Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items

previously learned - as on a multiple-choice test

Relearning memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when

learning material a second time

Priming activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

Like a search engine does, we associate different concepts to our memories. Connections are made amongst many different concepts.

Retrieval Cues

0

10

20

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Water/land

Land/water

Water/water

Different contexts for hearing and recall

Same contexts for hearing and recall

Land/land

Percentage ofwords recalledincreased when the place for testing was the same as whereit was learned.

Retrieval Cues

After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).

Retrieval Cues

Deja Vu (French)--already seen cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier

similar experience "I've experienced this before."

Mood-congruent Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood ;

memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues.

State-dependent Memory what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can

more easily be remembered when in same state

Forgetting

Forgetting – gets a bad rap! Imagine always remembering everything – let it go!! Mental health needs

forgetting.

Forgetting as encoding failure Information never enters the long-term memory. Age, change blindness, selective

attention.

Externalevents

Sensorymemory

Short-term

memory

Long-term

memory

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Encodingfailure leadsto forgetting

Forgetting

Forgetting as encoding failure

Which penny is the real thing?

Forgetting – Storage Decay

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time

12345 10 15 20 25 30

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

Time in days since learning list

Percentage oflist retainedwhen relearning

Forgetting – Storage Decay

The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school

Retentiondrops,

then levels off

1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½Time in years after completion of Spanish course

100%

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentage oforiginal

vocabularyretained

Retrieval Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory

Externalevents

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieval failureleads to forgetting

Retrieval

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

A quick review video!

Forgetting as Interference

Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive (forward-acting) Interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information – ex. multiple phone #s

Retroactive (backward-acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information – ex. New

students names… can’t remember old students

Forgetting as Interference

Forgetting

Retroactive Interference

Without interferingevents, recall isbetter

After sleep

After remaining awake

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables

90%

80

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50

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20

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0

Percentageof syllables

recalled

Forgetting

Forgetting can occur at any memory stage

As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

Forgetting- Interference

Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise memories – protect and enhance our self-image

Repression defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts,

feelings, and memories Many doubt this occurs often. Do we actively forget negative experiences in order

to maintain a ‘normal’ life?

Memory Construction We filter information and fill in missing pieces

Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event;

more likely with leading questions; increases with time ; we convince ourselves of its accuracy.

Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard

about, read about, or imagined (misattribution) ; ex. Reagan’s story of heroic medal winner actually being from a movie!

True & False Memories How memories feel, or how persistent they are does NOT determine their

truth. Memory construction typically overestimate and/or underestimate their memory of feelings/events as well as past ideas/beliefs.

Crucial for police etc. to be trained “cognitive interview” techniques.

Memory Construction

Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

Depiction of actual accident

Leading question:“About how fast were the carsgoing when they smashed intoeach other?”

Memoryconstruction

Memory Construction

Memories of Abuse Repressed or Constructed?

Child sexual abuse does occur; Some adults do actually forget such episodes

False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but

strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

The big question in all of this is how do we discern false memories from the accurate recollection of traumatic sexual abuse.

Quick Review – Crash Course

Memory Construction

Most people can agree on the following: Injustice happens Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting

Improve Your Memory Study repeatedly to boost recall Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material Make material personally meaningful Use mnemonic devices

associate with peg words--something already stored make up story chunk—acronyms

Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation Minimize interference Test your own knowledge

rehearse determine what you do not yet know