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8/13/2019 Chapter 9///environmental science
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ENVIRONMENTALSCIENCE
CHAPTER 9:
Sustaining Biodiversity:The Ecosystem Approach
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Wangari Maathai and the GreenBelt Movement
Began in Kenya in 1977
Organizes poor women in rural Kenya
50,000 members protect forests Planted 20 million trees
Fruits
Building materials Firewood
Similar programs in 30 African countries
2004: Nobel Peace Prize
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9-1 What Are Major Threats to
Forest Ecosystems?
Concept 9-1 Ecologically valuable
forest ecosystems are being cut and
burned at unsustainable rates inmany parts of the world.
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Types of Forests
Forests cover 30% of earths land
surface
Old-growth forests Second-growth forests
Tree plantation
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Fig. 9-2, p. 180
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Fig. 9-3, p. 180
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Years of growth
Weak trees
removed
Seedlings
planted
Clear cut
30 yrs
25 yrs
5 yrs 10 yrs
15 yrs
Fig. 9-3, p. 180
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Natural Capital
Fuelwood
Lumber
Pulp to make
paper
Mining
Livestockgrazing
Recreation
Jobs
Support energy flow and chemical cycling
Reduce soil erosion
Absorb and release water
Purify water and air
Influence local and regional climate
Store atmospheric carbon
Provide numerous wildlife habitats
EcologicalServices EconomicServices
Forests
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Science Focus: Putting a Price Tagon Natures Ecological Services
Estimated value of earths ecological
services
$33.2 trillion per year $4.7 trillion per year for forests
Need to start factoring values into land
use Ecological services can be a
sustainable source of ecological income
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Harvest Methods
Step one: build roads
Erosion
Invasive species Open up for human invasion
Step two: logging operations
Selective cutting
Clear cutting
Strip cutting
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Cleared plotsfor agriculture
New highway
Old growth
HighwayCleared plotsfor grazing
Fig. 9-5, p. 182
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Clear
stream
(a) Selective cutting
Fig. 9-6, p. 182
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Fig. 9-6, p. 182
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Fig. 9-6, p. 182
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Cut 1
year ago
(c) Strip cuttingUncut
Clear
stream
Uncut
Cut 310
years ago
Dirt road
Fig. 9-6, p. 182
( ) S l ti tti
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Stepped Art
(b) Clear-cutting
Muddy
stream
Uncut
Cut 1 year ago
Dirt road
Cut 310 years ago
Uncut
Clear stream
(a) Selective cutting
(c) Strip cutting
Clear stream
Fig. 9-6, p. 182
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Fig. 9-7, p. 182
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Forests and Fires
Surface fires
Burn undergrowth only
Cool fire Ecological benefits
Crown fires
Burn the entire tree
Hot fire
Occur in forests with lack of surface fires
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Fig. 9-8, p. 183
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Loss of Original Forests
Deforestation
46% in 8,000 years, most since 1950
Most in tropical areas, developingcountries
Estimated loss of 40% intact forests
within next 20 years
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Fig. 9-9, p. 184
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Fig. 9-10, p. 184
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Good News on Forests
20002007 net total forested areastabilized or increased
Most of the increase due to treeplantations
Net loss of terrestrial biodiversity
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Return of Forests in the UnitedStates (1)
U.S. forests
Cover ~30% of land
Contain ~80% of wildlife species Supply ~67% of nations surface water
Forest cover greater now than in
1920 Secondary succession
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Return of Forests in the UnitedStates (2)
Second- and third-growth forestsfairly diverse
More wood grown than cut 40% of forests in National Forest
System
Some forests transformed into treeplantations
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Tropical Forests
Cover 6% of earths land area
Habitat for 50% of terrestrial plants
and animals Vulnerable to extinctionspecialized
niches
Rapid loss of 50,000170,000 km2per year
Some second-growth forests
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Causes of Tropical ForestDeforestation and Degradation
Population growth and poverty
Economic reasons
Logging Ranching
Farming
Government subsidies
Fires raise temperatures and reducerainfall
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Fig. 9-11, p. 186
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Fig. 9-11, p. 186
Natural Capital Degradation
Not valuing ecological services
Crop and timber exports
Government policies
Poverty
Population growth
Roads
Fires
Settler farming
Cash crops
Cattle ranching
Logging
Tree plantations
Basic Causes Secondary Causes
Settler
farming
Cattle
ranching
Tree
plantations
Cash crops
Logging
RoadsFires
Major Causes of the Destruction and Degradation of Tropical Forests
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Fig. 9-12, p. 187
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9-2 How Should We Manage
and Sustain Forests?
Concept 9-2 We can sustain forests
by emphasizing the economic value
of their ecological services, removing
government subsidies that hasten
their destruction, protecting old-
growth forests, harvesting trees nofaster than they are replenished, and
planting trees.
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Fig. 9-13, p. 188
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Management of Forest Fires (1)
Fire suppression in all types of forests
Increased amounts of underbrush
Increased probability of crown fires
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Management of Forest Fires (2)
Prescribed fires
Allow some fires to burn
Thin vegetation from forests Thin around vulnerable homes
Decrease flammability of homes
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Fig. 9-14, p. 189
W t R d T i l
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Ways to Reduce TropicalDeforestation
Debt-for-nature swaps
Conservation concessions
Gentler logging methods Encourage use of wood substitutes
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Fig. 9-15, p. 190
Solutions
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Fig. 9-15, p. 190
Sustaining Tropical Forests
Protect the most diverse and
endangered areas
Educate settlers about
sustainable agriculture and
forestry
Subsidize only sustainable
forest use
Protect forests with
debt-for-nature swaps and
conservation concessions
Certify sustainably grown
timber
Reduce poverty
Slow population growth
Encourage regrowth
through secondary
succession
Rehabilitate degraded
areas
Concentrate farming
and ranching in
already-cleared areas
Prevention
Solutions
Restoration
9 3 H Sh ld W M
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9-3 How Should We Manage
and Sustain Grasslands?
Concept 9-3 We can sustain the
productivity of rangeland by
controlling the number and
distribution of grazing livestock and
by restoring degraded grasslands.
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Grasslands
Provide important ecological services
Second most used and altered
ecosystem by humans 42% grazed by cattle, sheep, and
goatsrangeland(open) and
pasture (fenced) Overgrazing
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Fig. 9-16, p. 191
Manage Rangelands
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Manage RangelandsSustainably
Practice rotational grazing
Fence out riparian zoneareas
Suppress invader plants Herbicides
Mechanical removal
Controlled burning
Short-term trampling
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Fig. 9-17, p. 191
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Fig. 9-17, p. 191
9 4 H Sh ld W M d
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9-4 How Should We Manage and
Sustain Parks and Nature Reserves?
Concept 9-4 We need to put more
resources into sustaining existing
parks and nature reserves and into
protecting much more of the earths
remaining undisturbed land area.
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Problems Protecting National
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Problems Protecting NationalParks
Illegal logging
Illegal mining
Wildlife poaching Most parks too small to protect large
animals
Invasion of nonnative species
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Stresses on U.S. National Parks
58 major national parks
Biggest problem is popularity
Damage from nonnative species Threatened islands of biodiversity
Need $6 billion for overdue repairs
Nature Reserves Occupy a
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Nature Reserves Occupy aFraction of Earth
12% of earths land protected
Only 5% fully protected95%
reserved for human use Need for conservation
Minimum 20% of land in biodiversity
reserves Protection for all biomes
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Solutions for Protection
Ecological insurance policy
Buffer zones around protected areas
Locals to manage reserves and bufferzones
United Nations: 531 biosphere
reserves in 105 countries
Science Focus: Reintroducing the Gray
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Science Focus: Reintroducing the GrayWolf to Yellowstone National Park
Reduced to a few hundred in lower 48 by1973
Keystone species
Restoration proposal angered ranchers,hunters, loggers
1995 - reintroduced in Yellowstone, 124 by2008
Positive ripple effect after reintroduction
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Fig. 9-B, p. 193
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Case Study: Costa Rica
Superpower of biodiversity
Conserved 25% of its land, 8
megareserves Government eliminated deforestation
subsidies
Paid landowners to maintain andrestore tree coverage
Boosts ecotourism
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Fig. 9-18, p. 194
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Fig. 9-18, p. 194
Caribbean SeaNicaragua
Panama
CostaRica
Buffer zone
National parkland
Pacif ic Ocean
Protecting Wilderness Protects
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Protecting Wilderness ProtectsBiodiversity
Wilderness
Preserves biodiversity
Centers for evolution
Case Study: Controversy over
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Case Study: Controversy overWilderness Protection in the U.S.
1964 Wilderness Act
Ten-fold increase from 1970 to 2008
4.6% of U.S. land protected, 75% ofthat in Alaska
9-5 How Can We Help to
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9-5 How Can We Help to
Sustain Terrestrial Biodiversity?
Concept 9-5 We can help to sustain
terrestrial biodiversity by identifying
and protecting severely threatened
areas (biodiversity hotspots),
rehabilitating damaged ecosystems
(using restoration ecology), and
sharing with other species much of
the land we dominate (using
reconciliation ecology).
Three Principles to Protect
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Three Principles to ProtectEcosystems
1. Map and inventory the worldsterrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
2. Locate and protect the mostendangered ecosystems, with afocus on biodiversity
3. Seek to restore as many degradedecosystems as possible
Protecting Global Biodiversity
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Protecting Global BiodiversityHotspots
17 megadiversity countries, mostly intropics and subtropics
Two-thirds of biodiversity
Developing countries economicallypoor and biodiversity rich
Protect biodiversity hotspots
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Fig. 9-19, p. 196
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Supplement 4, Fig. 2, p. S16
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Science-based Principles for
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Science based Principles forRestoration
Identify cause of degradation
Stop abuse by reducing factors
Reintroduce species if necessary Protect area from further degradation
Case Study: Ecological Restoration
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Case Study: Ecological Restorationof Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica
One of worlds largest ecological
restoration projects
Restore a degraded tropical dry forestand reconnect it to adjacent forests
Involve 40,000 people in the
surrounding areabioculturalrestoration
Ecotourism
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Restoration Ecology
Creating new habitats to conservespecies diversity in areas wherepeople live, work, play
People learn to protect local speciesand ecosystems
Sustainable ecotourism Golden Gate Park in San Francisco
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Fig. 9-20, p. 198
9-6 How Can We Help to
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9 6 How Can We Help to
Sustain Aquatic Biodiversity?
Concept 9-6 We can help to sustain
aquatic biodiversity by establishing
protected sanctuaries, managing
coastal development, reducing water
pollution, and preventing overfishing.
Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems
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Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems(1)
Destroyed or degraded by humanactivities
Coastal habitats disappearing 2-10times faster than tropical forest
Rising sea levels will destroy coral
reefs and some low islands Ocean floor degradation 150 times
larger than area clear-cut annually
Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems
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Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems(2)
Freshwater habitat disruption
Dams
Water withdrawals from rivers
Likely extinction
34% marine fish species
71% freshwater species Greater than any other group of species
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Fig. 9-21, p. 199
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Fig. 9-21, p. 199
O fi hi
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Overfishing
Fishery
Fishprint
157% overfishing 90% of large open-ocean fishes have
disappeared since 1950
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Fig. 9-22, p. 200
Case Study: Industrial Fish
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Case Study: Industrial FishHarvesting Methods
Trawler fishing
Purse-seine fishing
Longlining Drift-net fishing
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Fig. 9-23, p. 201
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Fig. 9-23, p. 201
Float
Trawler
fishing
Drift-net fishing
Purse-seine fishing
Sonar
Long line fishing
lines with
hooks
Fish farming
in cageSpotter airplane
Deep sea
aquaculture cage Fish caught
by gills
Buoy
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Fish farming
in cage Spotter airplane
Trawler
fishing
Sonar Purse-seine
fishing
Long line
fishing
lines with
hooks
Deep sea
aquaculture cage
Drift-net fishing
Float Buoy
Fish caught
by gills Stepped ArtFig. 9-23, p. 201
Why Is Protection of Marine
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yBiodiversity So Difficult?
Human aquatic ecological footprintexpanding
Not visible to most people Viewed as an inexhaustible resource
Most ocean areas outside jurisdiction
of a country
Solutions for Marine
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Ecosystems
Protect endangered and threatenedspecies
Establish protected marinesanctuaries
Marine reserveswork well and
quickly Integrated coastal management
Protect existing coastal wetlands
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Fig. 9-24, p. 202
Solutions
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Fig. 9-24, p. 202
Managing Fisheries
Fishery Regulations
Set catch limits well below the
maximum sustainable yield
Improve monitoring and
enforcement of regulations
Economic Approaches
Sharply reduce or eliminate
fishing subsidies
Charge fees for harvesting fish
and shellfish from publiclyowned offshore waters
Certify sustainable fisheries
Protect Areas
Establish no-fishing areas
Establish more marine
protected areas
Rely more on integrated
coastal management
Consumer Information
Label sustainably harvested
fish
Publicize overfished and
threatened species
Bycatch
Dump ballast water far at
sea and replace with
deep-sea water
Filter organisms from ship
ballast water
Kill organisms in ship
ballast water
Nonnative Invasions
Depend more on
herbivorous fish species
Control pollution more
strictly
Restrict coastal locations
for fish farms
Aquaculture
Ban throwing edible and
marketable fish back into
the sea
Use net escape devices for
seabirds and sea turtles
Use wide-meshed nets to
allow escape of smaller fish
Three Big Ideas from This
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gChapter - #1
The economic values of the importantecological services provided by theworlds ecosystems need to be
included in the prices of goods andservices.
Three Big Ideas from This
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gChapter - #2
We can sustain terrestrial biodiversityby protecting severely threatenedareas, restoring damagedecosystems, and sharing with otherspecies much of the land wedominate.
Three Big Ideas from This
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gChapter - #3
We can sustain aquatic biodiversitybyestablishing protected sanctuaries,managing coastal development,
reducing water pollution, andpreventing overfishing.
Animation: Ocean Provinces
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Animation: Ocean Provinces
PLAYANIMATION
Animation: Humans Affect
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Biodiversity
PLAYANIMATION
Animation: Habitat Loss and
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Fragmentation
PLAYANIMATION
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Animation: Succession
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Animation: Succession
PLAYANIMATION
Animation: Hubbard Brook
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Experiment
PLAYANIMATION
Animation: Effects of Air Pollution
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in Forests
PLAYANIMATION
Animation: Effects of
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Deforestation
PLAYANIMATION
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Animation: Resources Depletion
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and Degradation
PLAYANIMATION
Animation: Species Diversity By
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Latitude
PLAYANIMATION
Video: Easter Island
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Video: Easter Island
PLAYVIDEO
Video: New Species Found
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Video: New Species Found
PLAYVIDEO
Video: Bachelor Pad at the Zoo
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Video: Bachelor Pad at the Zoo
PLAYVIDEO
Video: Desertification in China
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Video: Desertification in China
PLAYVIDEO
Video: U.S. Forests
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Video: U.S. Forests
PLAYVIDEO
Video: Marine Sanctuary
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Video: Marine Sanctuary
PLAYVIDEO
Video: Sea Turtle Release
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Video: Sea Turtle Release
PLAY
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