Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter ----IIIIIIIIIIII

ETHICS AND ETHICS AND ETHICS AND ETHICS AND SOCIAL JUSTICESOCIAL JUSTICESOCIAL JUSTICESOCIAL JUSTICE

Ethics plays a significant role within the context of Social

Justice. While the society had evolved from the historic hunter-

gatherer communities to so called Global Village, the fundamental

concepts of Justice, liberty, equality and fraternity are the most

essential concomitants had not changed significantly as such

foundations for the social justice system lies within the context of

ethics and moral philosophy. The ultimate goal of a modern society

is to provide social justice in the above context preferably in an open

democratic fashion by securing the dignity of the individual and unity

of the nation. For example the Preamble of Indian Constitution,

serves the purpose by declaring that ‘The people of India’ are the

source of the Constitution, that sovereignty in Indian polity vests in

the people and that Indian polity is democratic with fundamental

rights and freedoms guaranteed to all the people and amity among

the people and dignity of the individual and integrity and unity of the

nation assured.1 Similarly the Bill of Rights proclaimed within the

United States of America constitution (1776) serves to protect the

1 Subhash C. Kashyap., Our Constitution. p. 54.

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natural rights of liberty and property of all individuals within the

coutnry This guarantee a number of personal freedoms, limit the

government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and reserve

some powers to the states and the public.

The aim of any civilized society should be to secure dignity to

every individual. There cannot be dignity without equality of status

and opportunity. The absence of equal opportunities in any walk of

social life is a denial of equal status and equal participation in the

affairs of the society and, therefore, of its equal membership. The

dignity of the individual is dented and direct proportion to his

deprivation of the equal access to social means. V. Indra Sawhney a

well known contemporary social reformer in India observes:

“The democratic foundations are missing when equal opportunity to grow, govern, and give one’s best to the society is denied to a sizeable section of the society. The deprivation of the opportunities may be direct or indirect as when the wherewithal’s to avail of them are denied. Nevertheless, the consequences are as potent.”2

It is difficult to define ‘social justice’ which has wider scope of

interpretations and definitions as it varies from place to person, class

to caste, custom to civilization, and race to rationality depending on

2 Indra Sawhney V. Union of India, AIR 1993 SC 477 at 638.

72

the source of thinkers, in every phase of changing society, in

obtaining peace and prosperity, both internal and external in the

process of struggle for existence under the concept of liberty and

equality which are basic behavioural elements of ‘social justice’.

Webster defines:

“justice’ as the equality of being righteous, rectitude, impartial, and fairness; and ‘social’ as of having to do with human beings living together as a group in a situation in which their dealings with one another affect their common welfare.”3

Hence ‘social justice’ can be defined as ‘the impartial

justification of righteous quality for the common welfare of the human

race in a designed society of common values’. Thus equality and

liberty are the central elements in the concept of ‘social justice’;

which additionally include, economic and political justice as these

are interwoven in one another for full freedom of common human

values.

Man’s dignity and his uniqueness lies in his capacity to use

reason.4 According to Plato, justice is a concept to which one should

perform once vocation. Aristotle in this back ground presented a

3 Webster, New World Dictionary, p. 1351. 4 Samuel Enoch Stumpf, Socrates to Sartre: A History of Philosophy, p.126.

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sober, careful, systematic analysis of justice, as the sum of all

virtues. He also gave narrower and working concept of justice

stating that justice is equality. Thus Aristotle offered a secular

absolute value on the potentiality of all things as conceived by men

with reason. Stoics and Roman legal system further refined the

natural law of reason, justice and equality.

Following David Hume, Kant who introduced transcendental

method in reasoning came to mean the cognition of mind with

perfect freedom. Kant’s basic treatment in this field of practical

reason is freedom of human violation. Free human violation is not

just a faculty of desire but rather the faculty of desire governed by

reason of the subject before the choice is made. It is in this sense

human will is called as free will. The ‘categorical imperative’, which is

supreme principle of presuppositions, governs the operation of the

individual who has free-will:

“The man of free-will with dignity, respect and development of personality enjoys as the individual many new rights in the present day legal philosophy.5

In the modern society, social justice refers to a just society,

where as justice refers to more than the administration of just laws.

5 Samuel Enoch Stumpf, Socrates to Sartre: A History of Philosophy, p.213.

74

It is based on the idea of a society which gives individuals and

groups fair treatment and the just share of the benefits of a society.

Different proponents of social justice have developed different

interpretations of what constitutes fair treatment and a just share.

The concept of social justice with its roots established in ethics

has, now a wider scope of meaning in the present day of

globalisation than it was in the limited society of restricted reasoning

in ancient times. For example caste, race and slavery were hailed

by the majority in the ancient society, under the ignorance and

impression that they were the providence of God by birth. Today

every one hates them, at least by outward appearance and slogan

for public sympathy of social justice, though limited to public speech

and far from practice. On the functional side, this doctrine of free-

willing individual, found expression in Blackstone’s ‘Concept of

Natural Rights of Man’, impressed by the role of the vital concepts

namely ‘protected rights’, and the ‘judicial review’. Both these

concepts came only as an after thought in the American

Constitutionalism; but from the French Revolution onwards, freedom,

equality and fraternity became the new slogans signifying the new

virtues in the social order, continued till today.

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Justice as a concept was seen to provide a base for realizing

liberty and equality. Justice thus became a mathematical mystique

and equality, was its measure. Thus equality like justice is a

foundation value of every democratic society. Yet like justice,

equality is not so easily defined, however self explanatory. Equality

has both intrinsic and extrinsic properties. It is valued for its own

sake, as an attribute of being human. It is also used as an

instrument to obtain other things of validity, which have been

realised in the political revolutions, and led the citizens of many

nations.

The western civilization is the cradle of the rights of man with

all kinds of variations- natural rights, civil rights or human rights. The

citizens with the declaration of the rights of man set the principles

with which France was to be governed. It was based upon Thomas

Jefferson’s declaration of Independence which itself was based upon

the ‘Bill of Rights’ in America. The ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man

and citizens’ has promulgated the following principles, which have

the seeds for arguing social justice:

1. Men are born free and remain equal in their rights. 2. The purpose of the government is the maintenance of these

rights- especially liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.

3. All government power comes from the people.

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4. Liberty means being able to do anything, which does not harm anybody else.

5. The law is there to protect the liberty of all citizens. Laws are framed to reflect the will of the people and are made by an elected assembly.

6. Everybody is equal before the law. 7. Careers and positions of authority should be held by talented

men, not those who use family background or money to secure them.

8. No man can be accused, arrested or detained except in cases determined by the law.

9. Punishments must fit the crime. 10. There should be freedom of speech, the press and of

conscience. Everyone has the right to their own opinion especially in matters of religion unless it causes public order issues.

11. Taxation necessary to maintain government should be shared equally all in accordance with their income.

12. Taxation should be agreed by an elected assembly. 13. Public servants should be accountable for their actions. 14. The right of property belongs to all.

Every constitution and the thrust of its leaders is to attain the

goal of ‘social justice to its citizens’. As an illustration, the Indian

legal system under the British was based on the concept of equality

before law. At times, when political leaders under the motivation of

selfish interests curb or curtail the provision relating to social justice,

the human society under the pressure of need, will no more suffer

the silence, but speak out by its own resources presented by the

creator in creation or reason endowed.

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No one can shun the truth but the final goal is that ‘Truth shall

make every one free.’ There is a free course of relation between

truth and freedom. Where there is truth, there is freedom and where

there is freedom in all its form, there is ‘social justice’. Though

‘social justice’ is the subject of law-framers, it should be the concept

of a common man and with in the frame work of society. The concept

of ‘social justice’ draws the attention of every citizen as every citizen

is entitled to the benefit of ‘social justice’ formed in the frame work of

ethics and developed to safeguard the overall common good of a

nation.

According to Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), a French

philosopher, man is good by nature, and the ideal state will have

justice and order; and each member would be free, and equal of

every other member. These doctrines and vast political systems

which grew out of them were, for various reasons, embraced with the

utmost enthusiasm in France. But the first public official documents

in which these opinions are clearly set forth was the declaration of

independence; though in France, the first article of “The declaration

of Rights of Man and of the Citizen,” adopted in 1789. At the

beginning of the French Revolution, the assertion was, “Man is born

free, and everywhere he is in chains.” And as a logical result of this

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declaration based upon the teaching of Rousseau, the French

Convention (Feb.4, 1794) decreed that Negro slavery should be

abolished in all the French Colonies and that all men should have

the rights of French citizens. This was the first act by which any

nation in Europe decreed the abolition of slavery.6

Violation of natural rights:Violation of natural rights:Violation of natural rights:Violation of natural rights:

By the side of these attacks by the French Philosophers on

slavery as a violation of natural rights, a movement arose at the

same time, mainly in England and in the United States, having the

same object in view, but founded upon convictions of Christian

principles. Conscience was the impulse to action and the result was

earnest, persistent and personal work. The African slave trade was

at first the main point of attack by the abolitionists. In 1772 Granville

sharp (1735-1813) who was a proponent to abolish slavery in the

British Kingdom, urged suppression of slavery on the basis of

religious grounds. Just before the Revolution, State of Virginia

petitioned that no more African slaves be sent into the colony. A few

years later, Thomas Clarkson (1760-1846), another British

abolitionist devoted his life to convincing his countrymen that they

should prohibit the slave trade by law, as violating every principle of

6 Religious Encyclopaedia, Vol. X, pp. 452-453

79

Christian Humanism. Among the religious denominations which body

that took an active part in the abolition of slave trade work were the

Quakers, who presented to the House of Commons a petition for the

abolition of the slave trade in 1784. The Methodists, Presbyterians

and Baptists followed, and in 1789 the general association of the

Baptists of Virginia resolved:

“That slavery is a violent deprivation of the rights of nature, and inconsistent with a Republican Government, and therefore recommend to our Brethren to make use of every legal measure to extirpate this horrid evil form the land.”7

By incessant work by several proponents such as Wilber

Force, Pitt, Fox, and Burke and the publicity in the press,

abolitionists had gained the support of many prominent public men in

England- Such was the feeling roused by the discussion of the

subject, and especially the general conviction of the violation of

Christian duty in maintaining the traffic that forced at last by the

outcry of the public conscience, parliament abolished slave trade in

1807. In the United States the foreign slave trade was prohibited in

1808. Shortly afterward, all the maritime nations of Europe followed

the example of England. The work was crowned by the declaration

7 Samuel S. Hill and others, Encyclopedia of Religion in the South, p. 11.

80

of the European Congress of Vienna in 1815, engaging all the

powers to discourage the traffic, as one reproved by the law of

religion and of nature. Thus the two forces- religion and philosophy

have worked to bring about the abolition of slavery.

In America, the testimony of the Quakers as a Religious Body,

against slavery had been uniform from the beginning. In 1688 the

German Friends residing in German town petition the yearly meeting

to take measures against slave holding. From 1696 to 1776, the

society nearly every year declared “the importing, purchase or sale

of slaves to its members to be a disownable offence.” In 1776 the

holding of slaves was prohibited by the discipline of the Society of

Friends; and since that time its members have been conspicuous in

supporting antislavery opinions and legislation. The highest

judicatory of the Presbyterian Church made formal declaration in

favour of the abolition of slavery no less than six times in between

1787 and 1836. Most of the people recognized the nature of slavery

as a sinful act.

But most of the rich people that are accustomed to use the

services of the servants were against to the movement to abolish

slavery. The caste system while eradicated to much extent

compared to the pre-independence days, it still exists in subtle forms

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For example the Barbour caste in rural areas still t live on cutting the

hair for generations and the washer man caste continue to live on

cleaning the clothes etc.

HumanismHumanismHumanismHumanism::::

The concepts of humanism have an important role to play

within the phenomena of Globalization and have its greater impact

on the current society. By following humanistic principles, all the

evils in the society can be routed out for the common good. The

most important social implication of the Humanism is that in any

given situation, social values must be made available to man based

on his own recognition, without discrimination based on racial, creed,

nationality or the other distinguishing origins. Of all injustices, giving

undue importance and bias based on origin of the individual is not

acceptable by the modern society. Social values must be universal in

nature and made available to all without taking race into

consideration. All systems of societal arrangements must be

measured and judged by their actual contribution to a satisfactory

state of life for all individuals.

Dogmatic adherence to a preconceived pattern of socio-

economic arrangements is found to be not consistent with the

inquiring mind. Presuppositions and postulates should consciously

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be held subject to the change in the light of widening experience and

growing knowledge. The method of testing any system is to find how

it works in meeting human needs and its ability to adjust itself to the

changing demands of the people. There should be a process of

building values into the social order which has to be considered the

major concern to every individual person. It is the primary

responsibility of every person. The social order should sustain and

enhance all aspects relating to man’s existence. Humanism must

aim at a social order designed to meet all the needs of the whole

man and of all men. Since the well being of all men is the objective of

the humanist ideas, efforts must be directed towards a world order

embracing all men.8

Humanism is the belief in the unity of the human race and

man’s potential to perfect himself by his own effort. Humanists

believe in the innate goodness of man or the existence of God while

others do not. Some humanist thinkers for instance like Leibniz,

Goethe and Karl Marx laid more stress on the need to develop

individuality to the greatest possible extent. Everybody has concern

for rules in a society. Agreement is the ultimate criterion for values

8 Ohio, The Humanist. May-June 1951, No.3, Vol. XI American Humanist Association.

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as well as for facts. British humanist, Harold John Blackham (1903 –

2009) writes:

“Human beings become human in being socialized and society is instituted in the rules, customs, procedures by which conduct is regulated and cooperation secured, facilitated, and maintained.”9

In the nature of the relations of man and society, they must

rest on what is permanently human. Yet, even this, slowly changes

and evolves. The relationship of the individual with society as a

concept, is the basis of humanist view of morality of how the

individual should behave towards his fellowmen and how society

should behave towards the individual. There is a conflict between

personal freedom and the needs whether real or imaginary of

society. Society which is the aggregate of individuals applies

pressure to restrict the individual. Even liberal and democratic

societies are not exceptions in this matter. The individual has to

protect his rights himself. Imposing restrictions on individuals for the

benefit of the community are necessary. In the event of any conflict

between the individual and community protection, the individual

should have the maximum possible rights, freedom and choice of

9 H.J. Blackham, Objections to Humanism. P: 16.

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action consistent with the rights of others.10 H.J. Blackham holds

that:

“Morality exists only in a society and is a function of that society. An independent absolute is not a fact of fundamental importance. The conditions laid down in society are the conditions of morality.”11

Although man is not born human, he becomes human in a

society. A human infant that survives outside the care of other

human beings, remains for a time potentially human and then

possibly becomes incapable of development as a human being. The

child becomes neither man nor wolf when brought up by wolves.

Accordingly first truth about man is “.Man is the product of culture

and becomes specifically human in a particular culture”,

A popular humanistic saying “Man is the future of man” is

based on the notion that man is the measure of all things. Historical

developments have gone far enough to enable men to overrule fate

and edge their destiny towards a destination. Man is successful and

becomes a person when he is able to choose and make himself

amenable because he finds alternatives, if his existence is not

10 Ian Edwards (Ed), ‘A Humanist View’. P: XIV. 11 H.J. Blackham, ‘Humanism’. P: 17.

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linked closely with animal existence. Human life is man’s

participation in a certain social order. Blackham defines:

“Open society as a society founded on democratic political procedures and institutions that are comparable and complementary to scientific cultural procedures and institutions which are rationally grounded in human experience and open for further experience.”12

He holds that the laissez-faire liberal society differs from the

open society in respect of non-intervention as a criterion evolved to

have good government and interdependence as the basis for

independence. The values of a liberal society, private initiatives and

choices can be enjoyed by all in the lives of independence solely on

the basis of organized interdependence. A human being as

Blackham remarks should try to maintain a temporal balance in his

life so that each phase of his development is lived and enjoyed for its

own sake and at the same time draws on the past and prepares for

the future. This is stated to be a main condition of identity, continuity

and achievement and another main form of balance is between

independence and interdependence, personal interests, and social

responsibility. The rules to live and work together which express and

12 H.J. Blackham, Humanism. P: 48.

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regulate our independence are a necessary condition of

independence in a modern society.

Therefore the public spirit which is observed faithfully requires

others to do the same is in mere recognition that all should be

equally free to pursue their own interests. It is the spirit of Good faith

and fair mindedness among equals. The equality of human beings

as human beings is not escapable and is perhaps best expressed as

interdependence. The humanist seeks equality and agreement as

the basis of society and of good faith. He identifies himself with

others in the society sharing the same ultimate conditions. Sylvain

Levi observes:

“We do believe in the unity of mankind, we know, or we assume, that we belong to the whole of humanity and that the whole of humanity is connected with us: wherever a man lives, works, suffers, he is ours. We have to understand him to clear away the casual differences which time and space may produce in order to reach the permanent element of brotherhood which we are sure, lies at the bottom of mind and heart.”13

The aspiration of humanism is to help and develop a

cosmopolitan society of freemen and women where in personal life,

13 Sylvain Levi, Eastern Humanism. Pp: 3-4.

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conduct, social relationships and institutions should be informed with

the spirit of individual creativeness and enlightened cooperation.

Man is the architect of society. Since man is the measure of

everything, quest for freedom and search for truth constitute the

basic urge of human progress. In fulfillment of this urge, man as the

maker of his world, must shape his society as a suitable environment

for the pursuit and attainment of freedom.14

“The basis of society and the source of it is man’s self.”15 But

the individual’s position in the organism of human society is to be

determined by his intellectual ability and a concomitant sense of

responsibility. Socrates expounded brilliantly the Humanist maxims

such as ‘know thyself’, and ‘the good individual in the good society’,

which indicate that the goodness of the individual is capable of

transforming the society to be good. Socrates also said that the

unexamined life is not worth living. This is stated to be the starting

point of Humanism. It is not the final goal to be taken for granted

because when the examination is conducted we may arrive at

different conclusions.16

14 Ellen Roy, Sibnarayan Roy, In Man’s Own Image. P: 18. 15 Nathan Rotenstrecih, ‘Humanism in the Contemporary Era’. P: 13. 16 Heetor Howlon, ‘The Humanist Revolution’. P: 41.

88

While Humanism believes in imparting ethical training in the

process of self-cultivation with sufficient attention, it also believes on

equal terms in laying the emphasis on individual in relation to

society, his unending debt to the collective culture of mankind and

his corresponding obligation to serve the common good. Humanists

are explicit in making certain, that the social good which is inclusive

of all humanity is the supreme ethical goal, but they realize that it is

not a goal. Humanism favours the development of those basic

impulses of love, friendliness and cooperation that impel a person to

consider constantly the good of the group and to find his own

happiness in working for the happiness of all. Sometimes, an

individual’s loyalty to the larger social good, may, under certain

circumstances cost him his very existence or atleast considerable

suffering. But it has to be admitted frankly that a man’s

uncompromising dedication to the happiness of others may lead to

his own unhappiness.17

Amidst tensions of the present age and the challenges posted

within the society due to the globalization, Humanism is still firm in its

vision of the social good for the entire human race. Humanism holds

for this worldly happiness, freedom and progress, economic, cultural

17 Ibid. P: 207.

89

and ethical of all mankind, irrespective of nation, race or religion as

its highest goal. The humanist strives hard to further the good of his

family, his local community, city, town or villages – his state and his

nation, he continue sly looks beyond his native land to the world at

large and thinks about the well-being of all the peoples of the earth.18

Political implications:Political implications:Political implications:Political implications:

In any given country the political change in the society is

possible through politicians and the legislative bodies. The politicians

who are responsible for policy making should adopt the

administrative techniques on the basis of humanism which purifies

the political society. The alternatives to democratic procedures are

likely to bring greater disadvantages to many people. Its authority is

wielded by an arbitrary; basing on the evidence of experience, it can

be said that they are more likely to legislate and act in their own

interests. In any case there is no incentive, no sanction to bring their

own interest in line with the general interest. The basis of power and

government has to be the people. Rule by a party or a coalition,

representing a majority and answerable to an electorate based on a

universal adult franchise is a historically established procedure. This

18 Corliss Lamont, The Philosophy of Humanism. P: 214.

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has proved more service able to the interests of more people than

any alternative device.

The laws and policies established by democratic procedures

are open to revision and reversal in the light of the experience. A

democratic decision expressed in a statute or in a public policy is the

most rational and responsible. The interests affected are adequately

consulted and the information relied on is the fullest and soundest

available. Modern techniques of communication and of collecting

and organizing information should improve the standard of rationality

while taking the account of relevant information and of responsibility

in considering effected interests.19

In exceptional cases, one may follow the dictates of

conscience by taking the law into his hands, but he may have to

suffer the consequences. The cases of this nature are rarely

exceptional and justifiable. Legislation and policy arrived at by

democratic procedures are morally agreeable as knowledge

established by scientific procedures is intellectually agreeable.

Democratic political procedure and institutions are comparable and

complementary to scientific cultural procedures and institutions. Both

of them are grounded in reason and repeated experience. Both are

19 Blackham, H.J., Humanism. P: 47.

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provisional and open to further experience and establish provisional

knowledge or provisional laws and experience. They are open to

revision in the light of further experience or in the event of new

situations. They are self correcting and progressive. Politics

represents some tolerance of different values and also recognizes

that rival interests should be taken into consideration. Political rule

involves listening to other groups in order to find possible conciliation

and giving them legal status, a sense of security and freedom of

expression.20

In the democratic system due consideration has to be given to

the minority opinion and then dissenting views should not be

suppressed unless they pose a clear threat to the public order.

Expression of views on public issues by means of street meetings or

processions should be accordingly afforded legal protection in a

democracy.21

The central problem of democracy is that since it is a system

of ‘rule by the people’ or people are persuaded, and in theory and

practice they are the rulers, when one or two necessary adjustments

from the old order have been made, it releases such forces of

20 Ian Edwards, A Humanist View. P: 85. 21 Ibid. P: 114.

92

individual and national initiative, inventiveness and hope, but when

tried on a world scale, it is in danger of becoming self destructive.

So, means have to be found to harness it to a philosophy of life,

which makes cooperation and toleration seem both natural and

inevitable. Change is inherent in democracy. Change is inimical to all

systems of authority which believe in the possession of absolute and

final truths. Speaking about the operation of democracy in a

successful manner which is global to the extent and finding man’s

place in it, French philosopher Charles Waddington (1819–1914)

observes:

“To operate successfully in a world context, democracy must be related to a view of the world and man’s place in it that is capable of judging national and ideological differences in historical perspective and of generating, within them a sense of participation in the human history, sufficiently strong and sufficiently universal to act as a solvent to national and ideological hostility.22

Unlike autocracies, which have complete and uncontrolled

power and capable of imposing their won systems and social

regulations from above, there is need for the democracies to

generate their own dynamic force from below. Government by the

22 Julian Huxley, The Humanist Frame. P: 108.

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people cannot successfully work unless the people themselves direct

by participating in developing their own lives to live and are

conscious of a purpose of their own choosing. The democratic power

operates only within a frame work of consent. Something more than

consent is needed if democracy is to be more than negatively

successful: Julian Huxley points out:

‘There must be a common belief in the value and importance of what is being done and a common sense that all have in some measure the opportunity of contributing to it.’23

It seems that man in his true stature as the highest product

and only agent in the evolutionary process is called upon to explore

and extend the frontiers of knowledge to understand his own nature

and the environment where in he lives. Man is provided with a frame

within which conflicts of world political systems fall into place, not as

a struggle of absolutes of all or nothing, decisive and final, but as

stages in a continuous process of change where in each new

development brings new needs and calls for new adjustments. In

such a frame, the difference between political and social

organization and the factors that are in common can be seen as a

23 Ibid., P: 102.

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part of a natural chain of action. Contemporary ethicist Thomas M.

Thompson holds:

“By democracy we mean respect for the personality of the individual which involves giving the individual every opportunity to develop fully his intellectual capacity.”24

The atmosphere that prevails today is marked by the elements

of collective loyalty, aggressiveness, intolerance and fear of cynicism

and destructiveness is the least suitable to establish the society on

democratic lines. In this atmosphere only highly coercive totalitarian

states which pursue the policy of regimentation and war, controlled

by fascists and unscrupulous demagogues can grow and prosper.

This atmosphere has to be completely changed before laying down

the stable foundation for democracy. The cultural atmosphere of

democracy has to be one of cosmopolitan Humanism in which the

scientific spirit of enquiry, Openness, toleration and precise thinking

must guide human behaviour. The democratic culture will

progressively eliminate all barriers such as divisions and boundaries

between man and man, geographic, racial, political, economic and

cultural. According to Indian philosopher M.N. Roy (1887–1954)

‘freedom of the individual is said to be the essence of democracy’.

24

The Humanist, December 1946, Vol. VI. p: 134.

95

He further says about the meaning of democracy in the following

words:

“The meaning of democracy is that the State being a creation of man, has no right to demand subordination of the individual. On the contrary, it should be controlled by its citizens so as to serve the purpose of protecting individual liberty and promoting general welfare.”25

M.N. Roy maintains that democracy is possible only on the

basis of humanist philosophy which suggests that a democratic

society and its political organization can be built. Provided there is

the foundation of voluntary, intelligent and purposeful cooperation of

man who are conscious in pursuing the ideal of freedom to be

experienced individually. He holds that only humanist political

practice indeed can build a democratic state on the basis of

individual liberty and reorganization of society as a cooperative

common wealth of free men who would guarantee their own freedom

by zealously defending the freedom of others.26

Contemporary education philosopher, V.P. Varma rightly

observes that the basic values of a humanistic political system can

be termed as liberty, equality, justice, fraternity, international

25 The Humanist, July 1949, Vol. IX, No.2, P: 122. 26 The Humanist, July 1948, Vol. IX, No.2, P: 124.

96

fellowship and fearlessness. Humanism supports the democratic

way. He aptly puts it in the following words:

“Man’s capacity for justice makes democracy possible but man’s inclination to injustice makes democracy necessary.”27

Voltaire and his fellow French Encyclopaedists voiced those

ideals of international peace and cosmopolitanism of human

freedom and democracy which are integral to the Humanist outlook.

A true democracy is one which welcomes differences and

disagreements and cherishes a creative force in society, minority

criticisms of existing institutions and prevailing patterns of thought.

Democratic spirit is not dogmatic as it recognizes the value of

constant challenges to basic assumptions. The idea of democracy

has developed in a humanistic way without the need or support or

sanction in supernatural revelations or meta-physical guarantees.

The belief in democracy as the goal and in the democratic process

as the method is not derivative from extra-human sources. A social

philosopher and Harvard University professor, Corliss Lamont says:

27 Viswanath Prasad Varma. Philosophical Humanism and Contemporary India,

p. 218.

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“Humanism declares categorically that no country is truly democratic when racial the constitutional and other rights of citizens in general. The notion of inherent white superiority in a world of peoples predominantly black, brown or yellow in colour has no standing from a democratic, ethical or scientific view point. It is utterly contrary to the Humanist outlook.”28

Many definitions of justice have been posited in the history of

the world, but only the one definition which could never be

reasonably refuted still stands. Plato pointed out that the just life of

an aristocratic person arises from a natural harmony among internal

elements of the soul, while the unjust life of a oppressive person can

maintain its characteristic imbalance only by the force of an

enormous effort. Thus, it is simply easier to be just than to be

unjust.29 This argument makes sense even independently of Plato's

larger theory; it is a generalized version of the fairly common notion

that it is easier to be honest than to keep track of the truth along with

a number of false stories about it.

Plato defines that “Justice is another’s good.” It is in this

definition that happiness takes its place as a “by-product” to that

which is the best for man. Justice, in this sense, is something that

28 Corliss Lamont, The Philosophy of Humanism. P: 223. 29 Plato., Republic, 580a

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caters to that part of our being that is less conspicuous but more

important because it deals with the eternal rather than the temporal.

For all the other definitions of justice, there seems to be a focus in

the wrong direction. While the other philosophers scurry around with

their heads looking down at the ground for the definition of justice,

Plato embraces the truth as he looks on a higher level into the soul.

Because the soul is the rational component of the person, and

Plato’s definition of justice is the best for the soul, it is reasonable to

say that it would then be good for the collective soul and well being

of people in the society.

The establishment of the kingdom of God on earth is a

cooperative enterprise between God and man. As man is a co-

sharer in the work of creation and his dignity is upheld. The Gītā

says:

Yasmānnōdvijathe loko lokānnodvijathe cha yaḥ! Harṣamarṣa bhayodvegaiḥ! Mukthoyassa cha me priyaḥ!” 30

(He by whom the world is not agitated (afflicted), and who cannot be agitated by the world, who is freed from joy, envy, fear and anxiety, he is dear to me). Lord Kriṣṇa says to Arjuna in Gīta:

30 Ramakrishnanandagiri swami., Geethathathrya Pradeepam,Ch. 12-15, p. 292.

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“Adveshṣtā sarvabhuthānām Maithraḥ karuṇa eva chaḥ! Nirmamō niraḥamkāraḥ samadukḥa sukḥa kṣsaḥ mee!” 31

(He who hates no creature, who is friendly and compassonate to all, who is free from attachment and egoism, balanced in pleasure and pain and forgiving is dear to me.)

There is infinitude in the finitude of man which summons the

individual to bring about a unity out of the multiplicity with which he is

confronted. The tension is present between the finite and the infinite

throughout the process of the world which comes to an important

stage in the human consciousness. He enters into the eternal bliss

and the kingdom of God, where the eternal varieties of absolute love

and freedom dwell by sinking his individuality. The whole of the

finiteness of man is transformed into infiniteness and humanity into

divinity. But as finite, man cannot read the fruition or attain the final

achievement. The individual soul which fights with the lower nature is

the highest in the world but it is not the higher realizable. The

discordant soul of man which strives should attain the joy of the

absolute. Only when the god in him realizes itself; only when the

ideal reaches its fruition is the destiny of man fulfilled.32

31 Ibid., Ch. 12-13, p. 291. 32 S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy. Vol. I, P: 206.

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We have to love our neighbour as ourselves because all are

one in reality. All are one in our inner most self provided the

superficial and ephemeral distinctions are transcended. The true self

is absolutely and eternally valid. It is beyond the fluctuating

particulars of time and space and all finds its place in them. For the

growth of the soul or the realization of the highest, the obstacles

must be subdued. The moral life is supported by understanding and

reason and not of mere sense and instinct. There is need to

recognize the ideal prescribed by reason and if the higher moral is

not accepted, our life will be one of animal existence without any

goal or aim where we are randomly busy, loving and hating,

caressing and killing without purpose or reason. Contemporary

Indian philosopher, P. T. Raju explicates:

“The presence of reason is indicative of something higher than nature and requires people to transform their natural existence into a human one with meaning and purpose. It is through reason that man is a part of cosmic reason.”33

Buddha is humanistic in a sense that it is a religion of love and

values. It gave voice to all the inarticulate forces that were working

against the established order and the ceremonial religion. It stood for

33 Raju, P.T., The Concept of Man. P: 246.

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the uplift of poor, the lowly and disinherited. Radhakamal Mukherjee

says that:

“Buddhism has shown not only a marked spirit of socialism and humanitarian service for the have-nots but also forbearance, mutual accommodation and co-existence in several regimes and cultures in Asia without reference to its remarkable organizational power.”34

Jainism believes that no overall good of individuals or society

can arise from violence. Jainism teaches that untruth, stealing,

taking more than one's fair share, immoderate pursuit of sensual

pleasures and possessiveness are aspects of violence. All these

involve passions, mental violence of self and of others. Dale Riepe

observes:

“The ethics of Jainism is naturalistic in so far as it is humanistic. The Jain does not depend upon any supernatural deliverance or intervention to achieve mokṣa. He realize bliss on the basic of his own powers as a human being.”35

Traditionally, social justice policies rarely focus on equality

issues other than economic or income inequality; and equality

policies rarely include economic inequality. The strategies for

34 Radhakamal Mukherjee, The Way of Humanism – East and West. P: 205. 35 Dale Riepe, The Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought. P: 114.

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dealing with social justice and equality are quite different, yet are

closely interwoven. For example, people living in poverty are more

likely than others to be disabled; and wealthy people are more likely

than able-bodied people to become poor. In order to understand the

interrelatedness of social justice and equality, there is a need to

study the issues of inequalities and the social disadvantages, which

need to be recognized.

Man must have equal opportunities for which even Indian

constitution gives the provision for equal rights; there by everyone is

equal before law. The incorporation of fundamental rights into the

Constitution which uphold the human values is not of a sudden

incident. Several discussions were held on each and every right

before it is made as a part of the constitution. According to Indian

legal expert, Justice Bhagwati:

“Fundamental rights represent the basic values cherished by the people of this country since the Vedic times and they are calculated to protect and create conditions in which every human being can develop his personality to the fullest extent. They weave a ‘pattern of guarantee’ on the basic structure of human rights and impose negative obligations dimensions.”36

36 Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, AIR 1978 SC 597.

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The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law

or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India. .

Equality before law was one of the demands of national freedom

struggle. Equality before law does not mean mechanical equal

treatment of all persons in all circumstances. Like another concept

it is not an absolute concept. All are equal before law; and no man is

above the law. Every man either from high or low in status is subject

to jurisdiction of the ordinary courts. The rule of law means absence

of arbitrary power. It denotes supremacy of law.

While globalization encompasses a wide range of

interconnected spheres, including culture and technology, it is the

transformation of the global economy which is of greatest relevance

to any analysis of global justice. Again, while a highly unequal global

economy is not new –– what is new is the degree of global economic

integration, as well as the increasing integration of information

resources and cross pollination of culture across the Globe The

result of this confluence demands a comprehensive response to the

most pressing challenges in the fields of Information Ethics,

Professional Ethics with a foundation based on the utilitarian concept

of Social Justice which are further covered in the next chapters.