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1.1. CONCEPT, MEANING AND DEFINITION OF STRESS
Stress is a term heard to often that its meaning is frequently distorted and its
implications are taken for granted. In today’s world, everybody, radio and
newspapers. Stress is an universal feature of life and no one can live without
experiencing some degree of stress. On may assume that only serious or intensive
physical or mental injury can cause stress. This is not true ; in fact ; traveling in a
crowded bus / train or even sheer joy is enough civilization, human organism is
subjected to stressful events ; and it is self-evident that birth itself is stressful like
other biological milestones such as crawling and walking. Infants also experience
stress although independent of their own action in which aversive or defensive
coping behaviour (such as crying) are likely result. For the pre-school child,
environment plays an important role in experiencing stressful events. Stressful
experience may exert different effects at different events. Stressful experience
may exert different effects at different ages. Almost any unanticipated happening
or an anticipated events, with full of threat, causes the speeding-up of bodily
processes. Any kind of excitement is also a stress, in the physiologist’s sense of
interpretation. The term ‘stress’ means different things to different people ; and
the laymen and professional alike are familiar with it.
The term ‘stress’ has been derived from technical sciences where it
indicates an excessive and detrimental overloading of objects. Metals like steel
have a certain strain capacity, but on exceeding certain values a rupture or fracture
occurs. The term was used in this sense in the nineteenth concept appeared in
medical sciences to indicate overloading of the human body. Cannon (1935)
related it to homeostatic tendencies in the body. He contributed much to the
relation between stress and the development of somatic disorders like
cardiovascular diseases. Selye (1956) believed that if sympathetic nervous system
and endocrine system are activated in a certain way, for example, by extreme
coldness or great excitement an individual can be said to be under stress. Extreme
stimulations of a divergent nature bring about a certain typical endocrine reaction
pattern. Specific stimulations are not connected with specific reactions : Selye
was not particularly interested in the causes (stimuli) ; more importance to him was
to universal reaction pattern (General Adaptation Syndrome or GAS) occurring in
characteristics phases.
Although stress reaction depends on what an individual considers dangerous
or threatening, people very greatly in general vulnerability to stress. If a person is
marginally adjusted, the slightest frustration or pressure may be highly stressful.
Lack of external supports – either personal or material – makes a given stress more
severe and weakens an individual’s capacity to cope with it.
Generally, the determinants of stress include :
a) personality characteristics
b) role overload
c) role conflict
d) role ambiguity
e) role stagnation and mid-life crisis
f) absence of social support and
g) role incompatibility
In a study of managerial stress experiences, Shukla (1990) has concluded
that it may be more accurate to look at stress as a pattern of inter-related
experiences rather than as one single experience. The stress due to lack of freedom
at work is as the experience of stress due to an inter-personal encounter. He has
also conceded that pattern of stressful experiences appears to be unique to an
individual, or a group of individuals and it may be determined by the life-situations
of the individual(s), as well as their personality.
Every human being has his own understanding of stress, because all
demands of adaptability do evoke the stress phenomenon. Selye (1974) beautifully
summarized the nature of stress in the following words :
“Everybody knows what stress is and yet nobody knows what it is”.
The term ‘stress’ has been used in so many different contexts that there is
confusion regarding the exact meaning of the term. Few definitions of stress are
given below ; and they are useful according to scope and clarity.
“Stress is any condition and disturbs normal functioning”. (Arnold, 1960)
“Stress is a non-specific response of the body to any demand” (Selye, 1974)
“Stress refers to physiological, behavioural and cognitive response to events
appraised as threatening or exceeding one’s coping responses and options”.
Stress is the state of an organism where he perceives that his well-being is
endangered and that he must divert all his energies to its protection” (Coffer
and Appley, 1964)
“Stress is a dynamic state within an organism in response to a demand for
adaptation”. (Wolff, 1968)
“Stress is a stimulus or situation to whih man reacts with learned coping
mechanisms activated by homeostasis principle and fuelled by energies
which are in finite supply.” (Caplan, 1964, Marshal and Cooper, 1979)
Perhaps, no construct in psycho-social research has been more difficult to
define that stress. Therefore, there is clearly no satisfactory definition of stress
which encompasses the social, psychological and biological issues as they pertain
to individual. Stress is multi faceted in nature and stress respnse arousal involves
every set of organs and tissues in our body. Thoughts and feelings are clearly inter
wined with these physiological processes.
1.2. STRESSES IN LIFE
When we consider work stress in particular, research indicates six major
sources of pressures (Cartwright and Cooper, 1997). These are as follows :
Factors intrinsic to the job : When a person’s role to poor working
conditions, shift work, long hours, travel, risk and danger, poor technology,
work under load and overload.
Role in the Organization : When a person’s role in a organization is
clearly defined, stress can be kept to a minimum. Whereas Cartwright and
Cooper mention only three aspects, Pareek (1993) has provided a fairly
comprehensive list of stresses commonly encountered with reference to
one’s role in the organization.
Relationships at work : As early as in 1946, Selye has pointed out that
‘good relationships between members of a group are a key factor in
individual and organizational health’. There are three critical interpersonal
relationship at work relationship with one’s boss, those with one’s
subordinates, and those with one’s colleagues.
Career development factor : Includes the degree of job security, fear of
job loss, obsolescence of one’s skills and capabilities and retirement. For
many workers, career progression is of overriding importance. Performance
appraisals (actual or even the fear of potential appraisal) can be an
extremely stressful experience.
Organizational structure and climate : Non-participation at work and a
general lack of control in the organization are related to a variety of stress
related symptoms.
Non-work pressures : Include pressures on the home front due to job
stress. Another commonly seen effect is that due to dual careers, especially
for women. The dual career family model may be a source of stress for men
a swell. The amount of time they are able to devote to their jobs, the degree
of mobility they have, the acceptance of transfers change if the wife is also
working.
On the basis of this description, the causes of stress may be summarized as
follows :
Sources at Home
Daily hassles of life
Major life stresses
Stress and the life cycle (adolescence, adulthood, old age)
Relocation (due to man-made projects, natural calamities, bereavement of spouse,
retirement, old age)
Sources of Work
Daily hassles at work
Organizational role stress
Interpersonal relationships stress
Career development associated stress
Stress due to the organizational culture and climate
Since no individual is totally relegated to the home or the work sphere, the
various sources interact with each other. This produces a third source of stress.
Sources from the Home-Job Interface
Intrapsychic pressures due to the peculiar personality of the person, for
example, excessive anger, depression proneness, Type A authoritarian attitudes,
irrational thinking Dual career stress in the husband, the wife and children.
Transfers and relocation due to jobs
Stress associated with non-traditional families, e.g., single parent, divorce,
separation.
1.3. STRESS EXPERIENCED BY SCHOOL STUDENT
Student-life coincides with adolescence, and stress can manifest in children
as a reaction to the changes in life in addition to academic pressures. Children
become more self aware and self-conscious, and their thinking becomes more
critical and complex. At the same time, children often lack in academic motivation
and performance, as their attention is divided among a lot many things, especially
creating and identity for themselves.
Stress is created by parental pressure to perform and to stand out among
other children. When they cant rise up to the expectation, or during the
process of meeting it, children my suffer from frustration, physical stress,
aggression, undesirable complexes, and depression.
Students who are under-performers, develop negative traits such as shyness,
unfriendliness, jealousy, and may retreat into their own world to become
loners.
Over scheduling a student’s like can put them under stress. A child’s in
school and after school activities should be carefully arranged to give them
some breathing space. Parents may want him to learn music, painting or be
outstanding in a particular sport. So many things are crammed in to their
schedule, unmindful (often) of the children’s choices and capabilities that it
puts a lot of mental pressure on them in an effort to fulfill their parents
wishes.
School systems cram students with a tremendous amount of homework,
which they usually have to complete spending their evenings, weekends and
most of the vacations. Unable to find enough time of their own, students
often lose interest in studies and under perform. They often feel stress by
being asked to do too much in too little a time.
When ‘effortless’ learning does not take place, these students lose
confidence, motivation and interest, and this creates more stress.
Another major student stressor is perhaps the middle school malaises, which
refers to the physio-psychological transition of students from elementary to junior
high school. Researchers at the University of Michigan have studied this transition
from elementary to middle school and have found that :
On average, children’s grades drop dramatically during the first year of
middle school compared to their grades to their grades in elementary
school.
After moving to junior high school, children become less interested in
school and less self-assured about their abilities.
Compared to elementary schools, middle schools are more controlling, less
cognitively challenging and focus more on competition and comparing
student’s abilities.
CHAPTER – II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.0. Introduction
2.1. Need for Related Studies
2.2. Classification of the Studies
2.2.1. Studies Conducted in India
2.2.2. Studies Conducted in Abroad
2.3. Analogy of the study
CHAPTER – II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.0. Introduction
This chapter presents a review of studies related to the present investigation.
This chapter includes four sections. The first section deals with the need for the
study. In the second section, the studies conducted in India are presented briefly.
The third section explains briefly, the studies conducted in the related area abroad.
The fourth section covers the synthesis of the related studies.
2.1. Need for Related Studies
A review of related literature pertaining to the problem on the investigation
is a fundamental importance of the research. Every investigator must know what
source are available in his field of enquiry, which of them, the investigator is likely
to use and where and how to use them.
According to Best (1977) “A brief summary of previous research and the
writings of recognized experts provide evidence and research is familiar with what
is already known and with what is still unknown and untested. This step helps to
eliminate the duplication of what has been done and provides useful hypothesis
and helpful suggestions for significant investigation”.
for any worthwhile study in any field of knowledge the researcher needs an
adequate familiarity with the literary and its many resources ; Only there will
achievement of an effective search for specialized knowledge possible. Though a
time consuming process, review of related literature is a very fruitful process for
research programme.
2.2. Classification of the Students
The investigator reviewed 23 studies related to the present one and two
classifications, the first one deals with 12 studies identified on self and other
Psychological variables among Head Mistress / Head Mistresses and teachers in
primary school. The second one reports the 11 studies conducted abroad on stress.
2.2.1. Studies Conducted in India
The investigator identified 12 studies conducted in India on stress and other
psychological variables. As the investigator did not find more studies exactly on
stress, the investigator has taken the studies consisted on other psychological
variables like anxiety, emotion, attitude etc. Among not only he heads of the
institutions but also the teachers of different standards.
The study was conduced in simulation as well as in read classroom
situations using a non-equivalent control group design for both the pilot and the
final phases. The sample consisted of 30 (10 for pilot and 20 for final study) male
student-teachers of the B.Ed., class offering English as one of their teaching
subjects from teacher-education departments of two affiliated colleges of
Gorakhpur University, and 250 (50 for pilot and 200 for final study) students of
class VII of three practicing schools of those two teacher education departments
situated in rural areas. The tools of study were a self-made achievement test of
English language comprehension, the Baroda General Teaching competency scale,
observation schedules and evaluation pro-from as for each skill, and an audio-type
recorder. Child-square and t-test were the main statistical techniques used for
testing the hypotheses.
The major findings of the study were :
1. Student teacher treated with the technique of skill-based microteaching
were found to be more effective in General Teaching Competency then
those trained in the traditional method of teaching English.
2. Microteaching technique had proved itself to be a more effective teacher
training technique than the traditional method when subjected to factorial
analysis of variances.
3. Each of the five skills depicted significant improvement in the case of
microteaching when compared on the basis of the data of post teaching
sessions of both the methods under study.
4. The analysis of data demonstrated significantly higher effectiveness of
microteaching technique in the academic achievement of students in real
classroom settings.
Khan 91987) made a comparative study of Personality Characteristics of
Physical Education Teachers and General Education Teachers.
The purpose of the study was to evaluate and compare the personality
characteristics of physical education teachers and general education teachers in the
following areas : (i) home adjustment, (ii) health adjustment (iii) social adjustment
(iv) emotional adjustment (v) occupational adjustment (vi) general adjustment (vii)
neuroticism (vii) medical fitness and (ix) motor fitness.
The sample for the study consisted of 300 randomly chosen teachers from
selected districts of Jammu and Kashmir State. Out of these 300 teachers, 150
belonged to physical education and 150 to general education category.
The findings were
1. On the whole physical education teachers were found significantly better
adjusted, socially, emotionally, occupationally and also with respect to
health as well as home adjustment than the general educational teacher.
2. The neurotic tendency among the general education teachers was
significantly more predominant than among physical education teachers.
3. More than 50 percent of the physical education teachers failed to maintain
even normal physical fitness.
A study of meaning in Life, Stress and Burnout in Teachers of Secondary
Schools in Calcutta was conducted by Misra 91986).
The objectives of the inquiry were
1. To study if teachers varied in the degree of overall meaning in life and if
they showed a trend toward low or high meaning.
2. To identify important sources of meaning in the personal and professional
life of teachers and to investigate if teachers varied in the degree of meaning
derived from these sources.
3. To find out the relationship, if any, among the different measures of
meaning in life.
4. To identify the main sources of stress in teaching and to investigate if
teachers varied in the extent to experienced Stress.
5. To study if teachers varied in the extent of perceived burnout, and
6. To study the relationship between stress and burnout, meaning in life and
stress and meaning in life and burnout in teachers.
The tools used for data collection were moholick’s (1969) purpose in Life
Test, Maslach and jackson’s (1981) Inventory for study of Burnout, and a scale
and interview schedules prepared by the investigator for measurement of stress and
other background variables. The sample comprised 345 teacher training
institutions of the study. Descriptive and non-parametric statistical techniques
were used for analysis of data.
The findings of the study were
1. Meaningfulness of life of the teachers was quite high according to their own
perception.
2. Meaning in professional life was derived primarily from psychic rewards
obtained from task-related outcomes and relationships with students.
3. All the measures of meaning in life, namely, self-reported meaning in life,
sources of meaning in life, and sources of meaning in teaching had a
positive relationship with meaning of life.
4. The relationship between stress studied through test and stress reported by
teachers was highly significant.
5. Age difference was significant with regard to stress of teachers
6. The sample teachers had a lower degree of burnout.
7. Sex difference was significant on the burnout variable
8. Stress was positively related to burnout with regard to emotional exhaustion
of depersonalization
9. There was a negative relationship between meaning in life and stress and
stress variables measured by tests as well as self-reporting items.
10. A comparatively low level of meaning in life was identified among the
sample teachers.
Mistry (1985) conducted a study on need achievement, job satisfaction, job
involvement as a function of role Stress locus of control and participation in
Academic climate. A study of college and secondary teachers. The investigation
was an attempt to fill some of the gaps in the existing field of knowledge regarding
job satisfaction, job involvement and n-achievement as outcome variables of locus
of control, motivational climate, participation in academic climate and various
types of role stresses the teaching population faced.
In the study, six different research tools were employed to collect the data
the satisfaction – dissatisfaction Employer’s Inventory developed and standardized
by pestonjee, used to assess job satisfaction ; the social relation inventory
developed by Rotter and adapted by Hasan, used to assess the internality
externality dimensions of personality, a “Your feelings about your role” scale
developed by Pareek, used to measure the extent of role stress, a Motivational
analysis of organizations (MAO) questionnaire developed by Parreek, used to
asses organizational academic climate, a Psychological participation Index
developed and standardized pestionjee, used to assess the extent of psychological
participation and General inventory prepared for the study to gather general
information about age, tenure, socio-economic condition etc., and information
pertaining the job. Two hundred and two subjects were selected from colleges and
secondary schools of Ahmedabad. Multiple regression analysis was carried out to
estimate the contribution of various independent variables to three dependent
variables job satisfaction.
Major findings were
1. No significant relationships were observed between locus of control and
various dimensions of job satisfactions.
2. The climate of academic motivation was found to be significantly
associated with such dimensions as job satisfaction, involvement as well as
overall satisfaction.
3. The climate of control was found to be negatively correctively with on the
job aspect of job satisfaction and with total job satisfaction.
4. The climate of dependency has no effect on various aspects of job
satisfaction and job involvement.
5. Job involvement was found, to be significantly and positively related with
difference job satisfaction.
6. Self-role distance was found to be significantly but negatively correlated
with all the dimensions of job satisfaction.
7. Inter-role distance, role-stagnation, role-ambiguity, role-overload, role-
inadequacy and overall indices of role-stress had been found to be
negatively associated with all but social relations dimensions of job
satisfaction.
An evaluation of the factors that affect the teacher moral in school setting
was conducted by Mohan (1985). The objective of the study was to make an
evaluation of the various factors that affected teacher morale. The study employed
the normative survey method of reach. The toal sample included 400 teachers
working in secondary schools of Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, and East Godavari
districts of Andhra University. The stratified sampling technique was employed.
Six variables, viz, six, educational, qualifications, designation of a teacher,
teaching experience, nature of school management and locality were considered
for drawing the sample. A secondary school teacher morale opinionaire – I
(SSTMO-I) was constructed on the lines of the Likert method of summated ratings.
This tool measured ten factors, viz, satisfaction with teaching, service conditions,
fringe benefits, teaching load, recognition, personal characteristics, a vocational
activities, change proneness, academic improvement and sharing of
responsibilities. The statistical techniques of central tendency, variability, skew
ness, kurtosis, t-ratio, Anova and correlation were employed for the analysis of the
data.
1. Six factors, viz academic improvement, change proneness, a vocational
activities, teaching load, recognition and personal characteristics, which
belonged to the major factor of professional growth, influenced teacher
morale.
2. Factors such as sharing of responsibilities, service conditions, satisfaction
with teaching and fringe benefits had no marked effect on teacher morale.
3. Factors relating to professional growth revealed that academic
improvement, change proneness and vocational influenced teacher morale.
4. Teaching load, recognition, personal characteristics of the teacher
influenced teacher morale to some extent.
Prabakaran, (2000) made a stud on learner’s and teachers stress in computer
science courses at tertiary level. The purpose of the study was to identify different
factors that are responsible for learners and teachers stress in computer science
courses at tertiary level. The sample for the study consisted of 260 learners and 18
teachers randomly selected from two college one is privte and the other is
government college at Salem. Two types of questionnaires were used for data
collection (one for learners and another for teachers). Descriptive and parametric
statistical techniques were used for the analysis of data. The salient findings of the
study were when compared with learners, teachers, undergo more stress, learners,
of high economic group have more stress and there exists relationship between
parental occupational background and learners stress scores.
A study of the Self – concept of the Prospective Teachers was conducted by
Rai (1983).
The objectives of the inquiry were :
i. To study the nature and extent of self-concept of prospective teachers.
ii. To study sex, rural-urban, religious and caste differences in the self-concept
of prospective teachers.
iii. To study the relationship of self-concept with intelligence and adjustment
and
iv. To predict self-concept on the basis of intelligence and adjustment scores.
The study was conducted with a normative survey design on a sample of
603 prospective teachers drawn from seven teachers training institutions of
Varanasi. The data were collected with the help of Joshi’s group test of general
mental ability, Sexena’s Adjustment Inventory and a teacher self-concept scale
constructed and standardized by the investigator. For analyzing the data and
drawing conclusions mean, SD, t-test, analysis of variance, coefficient of
correlation and multiple regression analysis were used.
Some of the important findings were :
1. The self-concept of prospective teachers was positive
2. Female unmarried, post graduate and Hindu prospective teachers had
significantly better self-concept than their male, married graduate and non-
Hindu counterparts respectively.
3. The relationship between self-concept, adjustment and intelligence was
positive and significant.
RAJ 91984) Made a study of the Organization and administration of student
teaching programmes in the secondary teacher education institution.
The purpose of the study was to provide and adequate description of the
present status of student teaching programmes in teacher training colleges in the
northern region of India. The objectives of the study were :
1. To determine the current organizational and administrative practices in the
student teaching programmes.
ii. To study the current supervisory practices in the student teaching
programmes.
iii. To ascertain the preparation of the student before going into actual student
teaching experience.
iv. To determine the current duties of the person in charge of students teaching
the college supervisor, and the cooperative teacher of the cooperating
school.
v. To identify innovative concepts in the student teaching programme
vi. To explore the most desirable features of the student teaching programme.
vii. To obtain opinions of teachers in charge of secondary student teaching for
the improvement of the present programme, and
ix. To make recommendations for the improvement of student teaching
programmes.
Statistical techniques such as percentage, frequency, measures of central
tendency and chi-square test were used. A representative sample of 80 out of 186
secondary teacher education institutions of the northern region of India was taken
for the study.
The findings of this study were
1. The nature of the organization and administration of student teaching
programmes showed considerable diversity in terms of practices.
2. The recommendations of several expert committees, seminars, conferences,
study groups and commissions regarding and qualitative improvement of
student teaching programmes had not been implemented in the teacher
training institutions so far.
3. In general, pre-student teaching experience provided to students by the
teacher training institutions was not sufficient in terms of skills and
techniques of teaching required and his classroom situation.
4. Many institutions had audio-visual materials and equipment available with
them but were not utilizing them properly.
5. In a majority of institutions the title of the person looking after the student
teaching programme was ‘In charge of student teaching’. These persons
devoted about 20 percent of their time for the student teaching programme.
Consequently, they could not attend to many important duties related to the
organization and administration of the student teaching progamme required
of the In charge of student teaching.
6. In general, the In charge of students teaching the college supervisor, and the
cooperating teacher held adequate academic and professional qualifications.
7. The majority of institutions assigned 20 student teachers to each college
supervisor.
A study of Role conflict and its effect on role performance of extrovert and
introvert senior secondary school teachers of Delhi University, Ramgopal (1987).
The objectives of the study were to find out (i) the role performance of
extrovert and introvert school teachers with regard to their high and low role
conflict, (ii) the difference between the high and low role conflict grous of
extrovert school teachers (iii) the difference between the high and low role conflict
groups of introvert school teachers.
The sample of the study consisted of 200 teachers selected from 20 schools
of two zones of the north district of the Delhi Administration. The tools used in
the study were :
1. The locally prepared Teacher’s Role conception inventory
2. The locally prepared Principal’s Friend’s and students Expectations of
Teacher’s Role Inventory.
3. The locally prepared Teacher’s Role performance Inventory
4. The Maudsley Personality inventory adopted by jalota dn Kapoor. The data
were analyzed with the help of t-test.
The findings of the study were :
1. The extrovert teachers who had high role conflict demonstrated poor role
performance as compared to those extrovert teachers who had low role
conflict.
2. The high role conflict resulted in poor performance among introvert
teachers.
3. The extrovert school teachers were not equally affected by the role conflict
persisting in their schools.
4. The introvert school teachers differed significantly with regard to their high
and low role conflict group.
5. The extrovert and introvert school teacher having high role conflict did not
differ with regard to their role performance.
A study of qualities, values, attitudes, activities and adaptation of teacher
educators, special reference to Avadh Area, was conducted by Srivastav, (1986).
The objectives of the investigation were to study the social, economic and
educational qualities of teacher educators.
1. To know the quantity and quality of their work
2. To study their service conditions, participation in co-curricular activities,
etc.
3. To analyze the attachment of teacher-educators to certain values.
The investigation was a survey type study. The sample of the study
consisted of 73 teacher-educators working in all the ten affiliated college of Avadh
University having B.Ed., classes. The tools of the study were a questionnaire and
a two-point scale for measuring job satisfaction. Besides these tools, personal
discussion with the educators and perusal of office, university and teachers
organization records was also undertaken. The data were tabulated and analyses
using percentages.
The main findings of the study were :
1. Teacher educators were mostly upper-caste Hindu, male, married and were
mostly upper-caste Hindu, male, married and were permanent and service.
None of the training departments of colleges had female teacher-educators.
2. Mostly the educators were form joint families. Their parents were more
educated than their grandparents. A sizeable number came from families
related to the teaching profession.
3. The educational background of the teaching-educators was of medium
level. They were not found to be much interested in co-curricular activities
during their student life.
4. A few teacher educators had also experience of teaching at primary level.
Vyas (1982) made a study on Relationship of selected factors with the
teaching success of prospective teachers of Rajasthan.
The main purpose of the study was to examine the relationship of certain
factors (predictors) such as age, academic achievement, verbal and nonverbal
intelligence, personality adjustment, self-perception, attitude towards teaching,
teaching aptitude and socio-economic status of the prospective teachers with their
teaching success criteria such as supervisor’s ratings, self rating, university
practical marks, total practical assessment university theory marks and university
total marks. Apart from this, other subsidiary objectives were
1. To study the relationship among the proposed predictors and teaching
success of prospective teachers in the case of total sample.
2. To study the relationship among the proposed predictors and the teaching
success of the prospective male teachers.
3. To study the relationship among proposed predictors and the teaching
success of prospective female teachers.
4. To study the relationship among the proposed predictors in the case of total,
male and female prospective teachers.
5. To study the relationship among the proposed criteria in the case of total
make and female teachers.
The findings of the study were :
1. Age was significantly related to the criterion variable, supervisors ratings in
the case of the total sample. It was also significantly related to criterion
variables, university practical marks and total practical assessment, in the
case of total and male sample. But age was not significantly related to the
criterion variables, self-rating, university theory marks and university total
marks, in all the categories of the sample.
2. Academic achievement was significantly related with supervisor’s rating,
university practical marks, total practical assessment, university theory
marks and university total marks, in the case of total, male and female,
samples of prospective teachers.
3. Verbal intelligence was significantly related with supervisors rating,
university practical marks, total practical assessment, university theory
marks, and university total marks in case of total and female samples. In
the case of the male sample this predictor variable revealed a significant
relationship with supervisors ratings and university theory marks.
Wangoo, (1984) conducted a study on Teacher personality Correlates and
Scholastic Competence as related to Teacher Effectiveness.
The major aim of the inquiry was to study teacher personality correlates and
scholastic competence as related to effective teaching.
The sample consisted of 500 teachers drawn from higher secondary schools
of Srinagar district and its out skirts (Jammu and Kashmir State), teaching science,
mathematics and English to pre-university classes. Only male teachers falling in
the age group of 30-35 years and holding an M.A / M.Sc., degree in his subject
along with a B.Ed., degree were taken into account. Further, only those teachers
were considered who had been teaching the same subject in the same school for
the last three years.
The major finding was : Personality adjustment, democratic leadership, a
high degree of intelligence and emotional control were the main characteristics that
went with teacher effectiveness.
A study of Relationship between Personal Values, Needs, Job Adjustment,
Temperament, Academic career of Secondary School Teachers with their teaching
behaviours, was conducted by Zuberi, (1984)
The objectives of the investigation were to study
1. Classroom behaviors of teachers
2. Classroom behaviors of indirect-direct teachers, and
3. The relationship between values, needs, job adjustment, temperament,
academic careers of school teachers and their teaching behaviours.
Data on the classroom behaviours of teachers were collected from a sample
of 200 male teachers with the help of a modified version of Flanders’s Interaction
Analysis category system. the relationship between these five independent
variables and teachers behaviours was studied by the help of the product-moment
coefficient of correlation and t-test for the significance of difference between
means.
The major findings of the study are (1) about two-thirds and one-sixth of the
total interaction time was spent on teacher and pupil talk respectively. About a
fifth of the time was utilized in activities that promoted learning but required to
taking.
2.2.2. Studies Conducted in Abroad
The investigator identified 11 studies conducted abroad. Many studies
conducted abroad were located by the investigator on Stress, but the samples
selected in the study were neither heads of their institutions nor teachers. The
samples selected on the study were elate adolescent women, newly married
couples, on co logy in nurses, older good and poor sleepers, workers and so on.
Balfour et al (1993) conducted a study on dietary dis-inhibition, perceived
Stress, and glucose control in young type 1 diabetic women.
Examination the relationship of stress, dietary dis-inhibition and blood
glucose control in diabetic young women was the goal of this study. 654 diabetic
girls and women, ranging in age from 12 to 26 years, completed eating behaviors
and perceived stress scales during regular clinic visits. Blood glucose control was
assessed by concurrent glycosylated hemoglobin measurements. Multiple
regression analyses indicated that high levels of perceived stress predicted dietary
disinhibition and that within the age range studied, young women were more likely
than early adolescent girls to perceive their life as stressful. Contrary to previous
findings that failed to show that stress can indirectly affect glucose control by
interfering with compliance behaviours the present work indicted a stress. Dieter
disinhibition, Disinhibition interaction in predicting glucose control. Blood
glucose control was poorest in those diabetic women who both perceived their
lives as stressful and reported medium to high disinhibition. Blood glucose control
was unrelated to stress in young women who reported low levels of disinhibition.
These results have implications for the development of specific interventions for
young diabetic women who perceive their lives as stressful and who respond to
stress by eating.
Cohen et al (1993) made a study on Negative live events, perceived stress,
negative affect, and susceptibility to the common cold.
After completing questionnaires assessing stressful life events, perceived
stress, and negative affect, 394 healthy SS were intentiionally exposed to a
common cold virus, quarantined, and monitored for the development of
biologically verified clinical illness. Consistent with the hypothesis that
psychological stress increases susceptibility to infectious agents ; higher scores on
each of the 3 stress scales were associated with greater risk of developing a cold.
However, the relation between stressful life events and illness was mediated by a
different biologic process than were relations between perceived stress and illness
and negative affect and illness. That these scales have independent relations with
illness and that these relations are mediated by different processes challenges the
assumption that perceptions of stress and negative affect are necessary for stressful
life events to influence disease risk.
Daley et al (1997) made a study on Predictors of the generation of episodic
stress ; A longitudinal study of late adolescent women.
The effects of depression and Axis I co morbidity on subsequent self
generated life stress were examined in a longitudinal sample of 134 late adolescent
women. The results indicated that specific forms of psychopathology constitute a
risk factor for future self-generated episodic stress, even when controlling for prior
chronic stress. Co morbid depression had a particularly salient effect in the
prediction of stress related to interpersonal conflicts. The effects of family
psychopathology and sociotorpy were mediated through participant psychiatric
status, whereas autonomy made an independent contribution to the prediction of
episodic stress. These results support C.Hammen’s (1991) stress generation model
in a community sample, demonstrating how individuals with depression play a role
in the creation of stress, and also refine prior work by showing that only the
comorbid from depression is associated with subsequent conflict-related stress.
Daley et.al (1998) conducted a study an Axis II Symptomatology,
depression, and life stress during the transition from adolescence to adulthood.
This study examined 2 models of the relationship between personality
disorder symptomatology and depression, incorporating life stress as an
intervening variable. In a community sample of late adolescent women, symptoms
of Cluster B disorder predicted interpersonal chronic stress and self generated
episodic stress over 2 years, controlling for initial depression. Cluster A symptoms
also predicted subsequent chronic interpersonal stress, over initial depression.
Cluster C pathology did not predict subsequent stress. Personality disorder
symptomatology was also associated with mediation model whereby women with
higher levels of initial personality disturbance in Clusters A and B generated
excessive amounts of episodic tress and interpersonal chronic stress in the next 2
years, which, in turn, increased vulnerability for depressive symptoms. A
moderation model, whereby the presence of greater personality disorder symptoms
would increase the likelihood of depression in response to stress, was not
supported.
Davila et.al (1997) conducted a study on Material functioning and
depressive symptoms : Evidence for a stress generation model.
The present study applied C.L.Hammen’s (1991) stress generation model to
depressive symptoms in the context of marriage. The authors predicted that
depressive symptoms would lead to increased marital stress, which would in turn
lead to increased depressive symptoms. Social support processes were
hypothesized to function as a mechanism by which dysphonic spouses generate
stress. Hypotheses were tested in a sample of 154 newlywed couples. Depressive
symptoms, marital stress, support perceptions, and support behaviour (assessed
using observational procedures) were assessed initially and 1 year later. Results
provided evidence of marital stress generation among wives, and social support
processes functioned as a mechanism of stress generation for wives. Results
highlight the cyclical course of dyphoria and stress among wives.
Decker et. al (1993) made a study on Dimensions of work appraisal : Stress,
strain, coping, job satisfaction, and negative affectively.
Stress, strain and coping were measured by S.H Osipow and A.R.Spokane’s
(1987) Occupational stress Inventory with 249 adults in 75 occupations ; results
supported the validity of the inventory. Higher stress predicted higher strain and
lower job satisfaction ; the converse was true for coping, although the coping-
satisfaction link was weak. In hierarchical regression analysis, predictor variables
were gender, age, education, job tenure, negative affectivity, 6 stress measures, and
4 coping measures. Outcome variables were 4 measures of occupational strain
(vocational, psychological, interpersonal and physical) and 3 measures of job
satisfaction (intrinsic, extrinsic, and general). The 7 hierarchical regressions
revealed strong strain and stress-job satisfaction relationships ; negative affectively
had variable impacts on strain but little influence on job satisfaction.
Florio et. al (1998) made a study on the structure of work-related stress and
coping among oncology nurses in high-stress medical settings : A transactional
analysis.
A transactional approach was used to examine stress and coping among 59
oncology nurses. Nine work stress clusters were identified: Physician-Related
stress. Organizational factors, observing suffering, ethical concerns, death and
dying, carryover stress, Negative self-thoughts, inadequate resources, and
coworker stress, with the first 3 rated as most frequent and most intense. Ten
coping clusters were also identified : Coworker support, positive reappraisal,
developing a growth balancing work stress, negative coping, apathy, withdrawal,
and catharsis, with the first 3 rated as most frequently used and most effective.
The relationships among the clusters, as well as the theoretical and clinical
implications of these results, were discussed.
Friedman et.al (1995) made a study on Perceptions of life Stress and
chronic insomnia in older adults.
This study compared the level of self-reported Stress of 42 older good
sleepers (M age =68.2 years) and 42 poor sleepers 9M age = 68.7 years). The
relations among subjective ratings of sleep, level of perceived stress, and negative
mood were analyzed for each group. Good and poor sleepers reported similar
amounts of life stress, but the relations between life stress and sleep perceptions
different for the 2 groups. Specifically, within the group of poor sleepers, those
with higher life stress had greater difficulty falling asleep and less early morning
waking than did poor sleepers with lower life stress. There was no association
between life stress and any sleep measures for good sleepers. These results are
compatible with the any sleep that good and poor sleepers may have different
susceptibilities to poor sleep despite experiencing similar stressful life events.
Kiselica et.al (1994) made a study of Effects of stress inoculation training
on anxiety, stress, and academic performance among adolescents.
The effectiveness of a preventive stress inoculation program for adolescents
that consists of a blend of progressive muscle relaxation, cognitive restructuring,
and assertiveness training was examined. Trainees were compared with an
empirically derived control group on measures of anxiety, stress, and academic
performance. Compared with the bi-directional relation between life events and
self-reported depression was examined across a 1-year period. With time 1
depression controlled, Time 2 stress accounted for an additional 10% of time 2
depressive symptoms. Health related stress family violence, and financial stress at
time 2 predicted times 2 depressions after control for time 1 depression. With time
1 stress controlled, time 2 depression accounted for 8% of the variance in time 2
stress. Time 2 depression predicted time 2health related stress, financial stress,
household changes, spouse partner stress, family violence stress, and substance
abuse stress, controlling for each of these stressors at time 1. The results describe
a complex relation between stress and depression and suggest that the relation
between stress and depression is moderated by the type of stress.
Patterson et.al (1995) conduced a study on stress-induced
hemoconcentration of blood cells and lipids in healthy women during acture
psychological stress.
This study examined the effects of psychological stress on hemo
concentration in women. Hematological and homodynamic variables were
assessed in 17 women before and after a 3-min speech task. Significant changes in
hematocrit, hemoglobin levels, read and white blood cell (WBC) count, and
calculated plasma volume occurred during psychological stress (all ps<.05).
Significant increases ere also observed for total cholesterol, triglycerides, high
density lipoprotein cholesterol, low density lipoprotein cholesterol, and free fatty
acid (FFA : all ps<.05) during stress. After statistically correcting for the
homoconcentration effects of decreased plasma volume during stress, only WBC
count and FFA concentration remained significantly elevated during the stress task
(p<0.006) and p<.05, respectively). In sum, acute stress alters hemoconcentration
in women, which in turn can account for most stress induced changes in lipids.
Vagg et.al (1999) made a study on the job stress survey : assessing
perceived severity and frequency of occurrence of generic sources of stress in the
workplace.
The authors are pleased that (a) the need to assess the perceived severity
and frequency of occurrence of specific sources of occupational stress was
acknowledged and (b) job pressure and lack of organizational support were
recognized as key dimensions of stress in the workplace. In addressing concerns
about the independence of jSS severity and frequency ratings and the utility of the
JSS for assessing jobs with extensive person machine interactions, the authors
noted that correlations among JSS severity and frequency scores were relative low,
and that person-focused stressor items were relevant for employees with person-
machine jobs because must workers are required to deal with supervisors and
fellow employees. It was concluded that the JSS provides important information
about sources of occupational stress that can adversely effect the health and
productivity of men and women employed in a wide variety of work settings.
2.3. Analogy of the Study
Out of 24 studies identified by the investigator, 12 studies were conducted
in India and the remaining was conducted abroad. Among the 12 studies in India,
three studies were exactly on stress (Misra 1986 ; Mistry, 1985 and Prabakaran
2000) and the remaining studies were related to other psychological variables like
anxiety, personal characteristics, adjustment, self-concept, intelligence, aptitude,
leadership qualities, emotion etc. All the 12 studies were of the nature of this type.
The sample selected for the study ranges from 73 to 500. While 6 studies
were mdse among teachers of secondary schools, 3 studies were conducted among
the teacher educators of a T.T.I (Rai, 1983 : Raj 1984 and Srivastava 1986) and 2
studies were conducted among college as well as teacher educators of T.T.I.
(Mistry,1985 and Srivastava 1986). The few findings of the studies are, stress
reported by the teachers was significantly high and was positively related to
burnout with regard to emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. It was also
found that overall integers of role-stress had been found to be negatively
associated with all social relations and dimension of job satisfaction.
All the 11 studies conducted abroad, are related to stress. Out of the 11
studies, 6 studies were of survey research and the remaining 5 belonged to
experimental research (Balfour et.al 1993) Cohen et.al 1993 ; Daley et.al 1997 ;
Kiselica et.al 1994 and Patreson et.al 1985). The sample for the survey research
was from 17 to 394 but for the experimental research they were from 59 to 249.
The samples selected for the study were neither teachers nor headmasters but late
adolescent women, newly married couples, oncology in nurses, older good and
poor sleepers, workers etc.
The salient findings for the above studies were, blood glucose control was
unrelated to stress in young women, the relation between stressful life events, and
illness was mediated by different biological process, greater personality disorder
symptoms would increase the likelihood of depression in relation to stress was not
supported, the existence of cyclical course of dysphasia and stress among wives
and so on. Though the studies were not conducted among the headmasters / head
mistress of schools but all the above studies were conducted with relation to stress.
The forthcoming chapter deals with methodology of the study.
CHAPTER – III
METHODOLOGY
3.0. Introduction
3.1. Design of the Study
3.2. Objectives of the Study
3.3. Hypothesis of the Study
3.4. Statement of the Problem
3.4.1. Definitions for important terms
3.5. Methodology
3.5.1. Variables in the Study
3.5.2. Population and Sample of the Study
3.6. Collection of Data
3.7. Toll used in the Study
3.7.1. Scoring
3.7.2. Norms for Interpretation
3.8. Statistical Techniques used
3.9. Limitations of the study
CHAPTER – III
METHODOLOGY
3.0. Introduction
The present chapter deals with the methodology. It has ten major sections.
The first section deals with the introduction. The second section deals with the
design of the study. The third section gives an account of the objectives of the
study. The fourth section reveals the hypothesis of the study. The fifth section
states the statement of the problem and definitions for important terms. The sixth
section provides the methodology in which the type of study. Variables in the
study, population and sample of the study and selection of data in which tool used
for the collection of data is narrated. The eighth section explains the tool used of
the study. The ninth section provides the statistical techniques used for the study.
The tenth section covers the limitations of the study.
3.1. Design of the Study
A carefully drawn research design is like a well-laid path that makes the
reward at its destination. The research procedure has to be clearly spelt out in to
its minute details. Kerlinger (1973) has pointed out that research design is a plan,
structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain to control
variance. Research design is for facilitating the smooth sailing of the various
research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding
maximum information with minimum expenditure of effort, time and money
researcher’s obligation to establish the trust worth ness of all data that he or she
draws from documentary sources. Document analysis should serve a useful
purpose in yielding information that is helpful in evaluating or explaining social or
educational practices. Since there are so many significant areas to be investigated,
setting up studies for the pure joy of counting and tabulating has little justification.
As shown in 3.1 the nature of the study was Normative Survey, the
variables taken up in the study were stress in general and Mild, Moderate and
Severe in particular. The tools used were three point scales. In the present study,
the investigator has taken a selected headmasters / headmistresses of the primary
schools at Theni District as the population for the study. By suing the systematic
random sampling technique, 310 Head Mistress / headmistress were selected as
sample for the study. Further classification made on the variables used among the
sample was Sex, Educational Qualification, Caste and years of Experience. The
tool used in the study was Stress measurement psychological testing standardized
by Dr.Latha Sathish in English and was translated in to Tamil by the investigator.
The statistical techniques used in the used were Mean, Standard Deviation and ‘t’
test.
3.2. Objectives of the Study
The general objectives of the study was to find out the stress levels of heads
of the institutions and the difference on the means cores of stress among the
different categories of the heads of the institutions.
The specific objectives were :
1. To find out the significant difference in stress level among male and female
heads of the institutions.
2. To find out the significant difference in stress level among male and female
heads of the institutions with qualifications such as +2, U.G. and P.G.
3. To find out the significant difference in stress level among male and female
heads of the institutions with respect to different community they belong
such as Sc, MBC and BC.
4. To find out the significant difference in stress level among male and
female heads of the institutions on the basis of different years of
teaching experience such as 1-10, 11-20 and more than 20 years.
5. To find out the significant difference in stress level among male and
female heads of the institutions with respect to Sex, Qualifications,
Community and different years of experience.
3.3. Hypothesis of the Study
1. There is no significant difference of the mean scores of stress among the
different categories of the heads of the institutions in total.
2. There is no significant difference among the male and female heads of the
institutions on the mean scores of different categories of stress such as mild,
moderate and severe.
3. There is no significant difference among the heads of the institutions that
are having different qualifications such as +2, U.G. and P.G on the mean
scores of different categories of stress.
4. There is no significant difference among the heads of the institutions with
respect to different community they belong such as SC, MBC and BC on
the mean scores of different categories of stress.
5. There is no significant difference among the heads of the institutions on the
basis of different years of teaching experience such as 1-10, 11-20 and
above on the mean cores of different categories of stress.
6. There is no significant difference on the mean scores of partial control over
different stress among the different categories of heads of the institutions
with respect to sex, qualifications, community and different years of
experience.
3.4. Statement of the Problem
The teachers in the teaching learning activities to participate, way of making
them to use A.V. Aids, Activity Based Teaching, Joyful Learning etc in the
classroom teaching, prevailing conducive organizational climate, making the
students to develop their personalities to the maximum extent, all depends on the
level of stress on has. The level of stress among the heads of the institutions
determines the efficacy of the output of the institutions. The investigator
conducted a study on “Stress Experienced by the Primary School Head Mistress
while Participating in Different Activities.
3.4.1. Definitions for Important Terms
The important terms in the problem are ‘Stress’, Primary School and
Headmaster. The operational definitions for the terms are given below.
a. The Penguin Medical Encyclopedia defines “Stress in any influence which
disturbs the natural equilibrium of the body, and includes within its
reference, physical injury, exposure, deprivation and all kinds of emotional
disturbances”
Generally the Stress refers to the imbalance between the perceived demand
and perceived capacity, which may come for variety of reason. In the present
study Stress refers to the pre occupation of the mental strain upon the head master /
headmistress of an institution. It means that if a heads of the institutions degree of
stress arise, efficiency in managing the school activities will be less and vice versa.
b. Primary School : The school, which has the standards from 1 to V. The
investigator selected the headmasters / headmistresses of those institutions
for collecting the date.
c. Head Mistresses : The female heads of the institutions which have the
standards from 1 to V is termed as head Mistresses / Head Mistress. In he
present study,178 headmasters and 132 headmistresses were selected.
3.5. Methodology
The investigator selected the Normative survey Research, as the investigator
felt of the type or research will be more suitable among all other types research.
The details of the nature of the study are given in the following headings.
3.5.1. Variables in the Study
The major variable in the study is Stress in general and Mild, Moderate
Severe Stress in particular among the headmistresses. The analysis on the sub
samples was made on the variables such as Sex, Educational Qualifications, Caste
and Years of Experience.
3.5.2. Population and Sample of the Study
The total number of Head Mistress / Head Mistress working in Theni
Educational District is the population in the study. The total number of population
is 1045 and out of them the required samples were selected.
3.5.3. Selection of Sample
Systematic Random Sampling Technique was used to select the sample of
the study. By the classification on Sex, Educational Qualifications, Caste and Year
of Experience, the Head Master / Head Mistress were selected systematically as a
sample. The total number of samples selected was 310. The sub sample is as
fellows.
Sex
Male - 178
Female - 132
Educational Qualifications
+2 - 157
U.G. - 069
P.G. - 084
Caste
SC - 054
MBC - 102
BC - 154
Experience
1-10 Years - 037
11-20 Years - 063
21 Years & above - 210
3.6. Collection of Data
The tool Stress Measurement – Psychological Test with three point scale
was administered to 310 samples of different categories. The collected data, was
discussed under the 3.5.4. the collected data were classified on the basis of Sex,
Educational Qualifications Caste and Year of Experience. While administering the
questionnaire the investigator requested the Head Masters / Head Mistresses to
read all the items carefully by taking their any time and put tick mark under the
appropriate place in the three point scale. The collected questionnaire were scored
systematically for data analysis in the study.
3.7. Toll used in the Study
The questionnaire of measuring Stress-psychological test was developed by
Latha (1988) in English. As the investigator wanted to administer it in mother
tongue it was translated in to Tamil. Then the material was given to the two
teacher educators to verify the accuracy of the translation by referring the English
version. After the translation was over the scale were tried out on a sample of two
teacher educators and 30 heads of the institutions. The item reliability value was
0.82.
The tool consisting of 52 items arranged from mild stress (last affecting the
every day affairs), moderate to severe stress (which affects the adjustment and
efficiency of an individual). The tool also has a control Index, where the subject
has to record whether he / she had complete, partial or no control over the
experienced stress situation.
The questionnaire studied the day to day problems encountered /
experienced by people and the way they react to it. If the subjects are experienced
with the list of events / situations / problems, they have to mark, ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ if
they have no experienced. If they find any situation, which is not applicable, they
may delete them. Moreover, they are expected to indicate the account of control
such as ‘Partial’, ‘Complete’ and ‘No control’ over the situation in which they
have given Yes response.
3.7.1. Scoring
The questionnaire with 52 items is divided into 3 categories of stressors
according to its severity in affecting an individual normal life.
The items from 1 to 17 are classified as Mild Stressors, items from 10 to 35
are classified as Moderate Stress and items from 36 to 52 represent Severe
stress. The score is obtained by adding the ‘Yes’ response.
The control Index was decided by giving a weight age of 1, 2 or 3 marks
against ‘yes’ items scored as Complete control, Partial control and No
control respectively. The index ranges from 0 to 156.
3.7.2. Norms for Interpretation
The fully filled questionnaires were taken for the scoring. Based on the
scoring procedures, the questionnaires were scored. Those who scored from 0.51,
52.105 and 106.156 will be termed as Complete control over stress, Partial control
over stress and No control over stress. Thus the tool was modified for the use in
the study by the investigator.
3.8. Statistical Techniques Used
The collected data in the study was analyzed by applying different statistical
measures ; mean and standard deviation were calculated for all the variables. ‘t’
test was used in the present study to find out the significant difference between the
two variables on the basis of sex, education qualifications, caste and years of
experience. The framed null hypothesis were accepted to rejected based on the ‘t’
values.
3.9. Limitations of the Study
The study has been conducted to the Head Mistress / Head Mistresses of
three blocks.
The investigator conducted the study with 310 samples due to lack of time
The investigator found very limited research studies conducted in India
regarding stress among the head Mistress / Headmistresses for primary
schools.
The ensuring chapter deals with the Data Analysis.
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