CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION

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CHAPTER-I

1.1 INTRODUCTION

John Clements (2009) A martial art, in essence, can be said to be

something that originates in skills of war, hence its martial or warlike quality.

Fighting disciplines range from oral traditions and folkways of tribal self-

defense customs, to collected sets of techniques and finally systematic methods

with established curriculum and ranking hierarchies. Considerable literature has

been produced over the last few decades on the question of what defines a

martial art, and there is no need to review these arguments. However, that these

debates have occurred almost exclusively without regard to, or consideration of

the martial arts of Renaissance Europe. What is frequently agreed upon, though,

is that mere fighting techniques alone, whether as self-defense skills for the

individual or war skills for groups of armed men, do not constitute an Art of

fighting.

1.2 MARTIAL ARTS

The martial arts industry is currently undergoing unprecedented growth

and according to Dale & Ford (2001), Sport & Recreation Queensland (2000,

2000a) and Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002, 2002a, 2002b) the

participation rate is ever increasing. Is this a positive thing for the participants

and society as a whole is the question posed. A review of the literature has

revealed overwhelming support for the positive aspects of traditional martial arts

training and has reinforced the need for the traditional values and methodology

to be maintained with the only negative results being from non-traditional

schools.

Indeed, according to the research of Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) in their

famous Bobo doll study, martial arts training should actually increase aggressive

behaviour because it aggression is supposed to be learned through the imitation

of violent behaviour. The theory of Bandura et al. seems to support the intuitive

response to the perceived violence of martial arts training and this has lead to

many martial arts instructors experiencing difficulty in having martial arts

training accepted in schools as part of the curriculum.

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Traditional martial arts training is not to be confused with the

competitive fighting skills that are glorified in popular culture and are

increasingly taught in many eclectic martial arts transmitting desirable values

and over time, indoctrinates students with the idea of respect, a sense of

consequence, a sense of personal responsibility, and a sense of connection to the

self through a strong mentor / student (i.e., the sempai / kohai in Japanese martial

culture) relationship.

Traditional martial arts have Buddhist/Taoist philosophy and ethics, as

well as specific training methods and goals. Traditional martial arts training is an

effective way of The purpose of this article is to investigate if the theory of

Bandura et al. (1961) is correct and that martial arts training promotes aggression

or if the contrary is true and that it not only decreases violence and aggression

but promotes other, albeit invisible, positive outcomes of good martial arts

training by a professional (at least in attitude) martial arts teacher.

Overall, the philosophy is pacifistic (i.e., it abhors initiation of conflict

and teaches minimization of harm to any would-be assailant) as typified by the

famous phrase by the ‘father’ of modern karate Funakoshi Gichin, “There is no

first attack in Karate”. Investigation of the traditional martial arts, known as

bushido (literally, ‘the way of the warrior’), indicates that the core principles and

values are all to be considered positive. The author of the primary modern text

on bushido, Nitobe (1905), cites the primary virtues as: rectitude; courage;

benevolence; respect; honesty; honour; and loyalty. Many modern authors, such

as Morgan (1992) have adapted and translated the original code into a modern

context, even addressing such culturally sensitive issues as suicide (Morgan,

1992, pp. 177-195). In addition to the obvious self defence benefits, the aim of

traditional martial arts training according to Zivin et al. (2001) “is to develop a

centred, calm, discriminating mind that is subsequently applied in all areas of

life; the antithesis of a mind set for aggression, whether impulsive or not”. It

must be added that the aim for children participating in martial arts is often

different to that of their parents but the two are not necessarily mutually

exclusive. In the experience of the author, the parent’s aim is usually to have

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their child develop a respectful attitude, physical skill, mental clarity, and an

understanding of the body and of the physics of action, whilst the child is

looking for something ‘cool’, fun and stimulating.

These mental benefits are achieved partially through the challenging

physical training, and partially through the incorporation of philosophy into the

training. The specific philosophies differ considerably from style to style, and

even school to school, but the basic principles they share include respect

accorded to “seniors” (such as instructors and parents) as well as peers,

consideration of the younger and weaker, perseverance at difficult tasks, and,

most importantly perhaps, integrity of self and doing what is “right”(Vockell &

Kwak, 1990, Abernathy, 1995, Wiley, 1995; as cited in Ripley, 2003).

There is a positive correlation between length of time practicing or belt

rank and self-confidence (Duthie, Hope & Barker, 1978; Konzak & Bourdeau,

1984), independence, self-reliance (Konzak & Bourdeau, 1984; Kurian, Verdi,

Caterino & Kulhavy, 1994), and self-esteem (Richman & Rehberg, 1986).

Simply put, the longer someone trains, the more benefit they gain from the

training. Daniels & Thornton (1992) found that martial arts practices cultivate

decreases in hostility, Brown et al. (1995) found it decreased feelings of anger,

whilst Madden (1990; 1995) found a reduction of feelings of vulnerability to

attack.

Pyecha (1970) found that martial arts practice also lead to more

easygoing and warm-hearted individuals, Spear (1989) noted increases in self-

confidence, Finkenberg (1990) noted increases in self-esteem, whilst Brown et

al. (1995) noted increases in both self-esteem and self-control. This has led to the

use of martial arts training to engage and teach youth and achieve positive

outcomes and these programs have been well documented. The literature review

by Binder (1999) provides a review of empirical evidence that supports

anecdotal reports about the positive psychosocial consequences of martial arts

practice. Traditional martial arts provide exactly the experience that will engage

people who are at clear risk for delinquent acts or impulsive violence, and even

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Starting them on positive life paths (Cannold, 1982; Fuller, 1988; Penrod, 1983;

Wesler, Kutz, Kutz & Weisner, 1995; Zivin et al., 2001).

Twemlow & Sacco (1998) reported that martial arts training "can be an

extraordinarily helpful, ego-building form of psychotherapy” and noted that this

was particularly true for “control of aggressive impulses". Trulson (1986)

reported that data suggest that training in the traditional martial arts is effective

in reducing juvenile delinquent tendencies.

Furthermore, researchers have presented descriptive, cross-sectional data

showing lower scores on hostility and aggression and/or higher scores on self-

esteem and positive outlook for traditional martial arts students when compared

to students of non-traditional martial arts or other sports. These positive

characteristics increased with greater length of traditional martial arts training

(Daniels & Thornton, 1990; Kurian, Verdi, Caterino & Kulhavy, 1994; Lamarre

& Nosanchuk, 1999; Nosanchuk, 1981; Trulson, 1986). Further investigation

demonstrated that the improvements were not due to natural attrition of more

aggressive students (Nosanchuk & MacNeil, 1989).

It should be noted that Nosanchuk & MacNeil, found aggression actually

increased with greater length of training in a non-traditional school, as did

Trulson (1986). This is likely to be due to the overemphasis of the self-defence,

competitive and violent aspects of the training and a de-emphasis of the ethical

framework. This would support the learned aggression model of Bandura et al.

(1961). It must also be noted that to date, no studies found increased aggression

or hostility to correlate with length of traditional training.

Reynes & Lorant (2001) investigated the possibility that martial arts

attracted more aggressive people. They found that children attracted to martial

arts training were not more aggressive than other 8 year old children in their

study of judo but in a follow up study one year later they not find any reduction

of aggression either (Reynes & Lorant, 2002).

In reference to the reduction of aggressive tendencies Grabert (1996)

went so far as to say “the strong emphasis on mastering techniques in karate,

repetition in training and the delaying of participation in competition involving

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combat are considered to be devices towards achieving this goal”. King &

Williams (1997) found “a goodness of fit between martial arts and task

orientation” (goal setting). This is not surprising given the structured approach to

goal setting engendered by the belt ranking system within martial arts.

Nosanchuk & MacNeil (1989) examined the aggressive tendencies of

participants at 7 schools offering karate, tae kwon do, or jujitsu. At each school,

they evaluated the relative importance of meditation in the class, the amount of

respect the students showed towards the sensei, the dojo, and each other, the

level of contact allowed to vital areas of the body, and the relative importance of

kata. Based on this evaluation, they classified 4 of the schools as ‘traditional’

(more meditation, respect and kata, less contact to vital areas) and 3 of them as

"modern". At the commencement of the study beginning students in both

traditional and modern schools had similar scores for aggression. It was noted

that the more advanced students in the traditional schools showed lower scores

for aggression than beginning students. At the end of the study there was no

change in the scores of the students at the schools with the ‘modern’ emphasis.

Both Trulson (1986) and Regets (1990) obtained similar results. In contrast,

Egan (1993) found that both traditional and modern styles of training led to

improvements in general mental health. However, the traditional martial arts

students showed significant increases in scores for self-acceptance which were

not reported for the students with a modern emphasis in training. Most The

Positive Aspects of Martial Arts research supports the hypothesis that it is the

training environment and style of instruction influencing these differences.

One of the most cited studies in the area of aggression and martial arts

was conducted by Trulson (1986). At the end of the six month study, the

students in the “traditional tae kwon do’ group showed a decrease in

aggressiveness and anxiety and an increase in self- esteem. In contrast, the

modern tae kwon do group showed an increased tendency towards delinquency

and an increase in aggressiveness. Students in the training group showed an

increase in self-esteem, but no other significant changes.

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Columbus & Rice (1998) conducted a phenomenological analysis of the

reasons people trained in martial arts and found a number of themes where

positive results were reported. These included experiences of self, others,

feelings and emotions, situation outcomes and adaptive functioning. Bouchard,

Focht and Murphey (2000) linked martial arts to improvements in the pain

threshold and the use of martial arts training in pain management.

Biddulph (2003) posits that the modern lifestyle has caused increased

pressure on families, and that this increased pressure is often manifested in

behavioural issues for boys. According to Biddulph, this modern lifestyle has led

to a decrease in contact with fathers and the attendant male role models and

mentors. The statistics on divorce (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002c, 2004)

and single parent families (Rich, 2000; Gold Coast City Council, 2004) appear to

heavily support this position. Rich also found that decreased socioeconomic

status brought about by divorce and single parent lifestyle also led to educational

disadvantage and increase risk of unemployment and juvenile crime.

Figures from the Queensland Police Service (2005) would seem to

support this evidence. Biddulph (2003) clearly supports the practice of martial

arts explicitly (p. 144) and implicitly with his position on positive male role

models and mentors, which can be found in any good, traditional martial arts

school. Lakes & Hoyt (2004) found that martial arts training for children led to a

significant improvement in cognitive self-regulation and classroom conduct with

boys showing greater improvement than girls. This would tend to support

Biddulph’s assertion.

Martial arts training as therapy for children with Attention Deficit

Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) has also been investigated. Ripley (2003)

found that “martial arts training may help AD/HD children improve their overall

behaviour and lead to better school performance (i.e., higher grades) whilst

Morand (2004) concluded that martial arts training increased the percentage of

homework completion, academic performance, and percentage of classroom

preparation and decreased the number of classroom rules broken and times

inappropriately leaving the seat for children with AD/HD. Both studies lend

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empirical support to martial arts as a positive intervention for children with

D/HD and when taken in context with Trulson (1986), Regets (1990), Biddulph

(2003), and Lakes & Hoyt (2004), then martial arts training in a traditional

environment seems to have overwhelmingly positive psychosocial benefits for

the practitioner, and by inference, the family and community at large.

It must be noted however that Winkle & Ozmun (2003) identified

considerable barriers to implementing martial arts programs in school

curriculum’s, no matter how desirable this may be. These barriers include a lack

of suitably qualified instructors. One of the challenges facing a martial arts

instructor in having their programs approved for addition to (or within) a

school’s curriculum is often the question of ‘qualifications’ or ‘accreditation’. In

the Australian context there is a challenge to sort out the confusion about things

like: does the instructor have to a certain certificate or a certified NCAS level or

belong to a particular martial arts association.

1.3. INDIAN MARTIAL ARTS

Indian martial arts have a rich heritage and tradition, highly acclaimed in

India and abroad were quite varied in nature. Each region in India is unique in

practicing martial arts in great vivacity and enthusiasm. A number of ancient

Dravidian martial arts were originated in South India. In Tamil Nadu `kai por

vilaiyattu is a special art of fighting with empty hands. Another famous art form

, Varma Kalai or the art of vital points is also widely practiced. The most

important one of the martial art is silambam(stick movements).

A number of ancient Dravidian martial arts were developed in South

India, including Kai por vilayattu (empty hand combat), Varma Kalai (the art of

vital points), Silambam(stick movements), thekan kalaripayattu and Adithada

(attack and defend) in Kanyakumari tamilnadu and vadakkan Kalarippayattu

(way of the arena) in Kerala. (from dhanus "bow" and veda "knowledge") is the

term for the "science of archery" in Puranic literature, later applied to martial arts

in general.

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The theories behind Yoga, Ayurveda and Tantra, such as Kundalini

(coiled energy), Prana (life force), Nadi (meridians), Chakra (aura) and Marmam

(pressure points), were also present in Indian martial arts.

Kaaladi, or footwork patterns, are a fundamental aspect of silambam.

There are sixteen of them among which four are very important. Traditionally,

beginners practice only kaaladi for many months before learning any techniques

but this is not often done today. Training in kai por vilaiyattu allows the

practitioner to get a feel of silambam stick movements using their bare hands,

that is, fighters have a preliminary training with bare hands before going to the

stick.

Gradually, fighters study footwork to move precisely in conjunction with

the stick movements. The ultimate goal of the training is to defend against

multiple armed opponents. In both kaimurai vilayattu and silambam, kaaladi is

the key in deriving power for the blows. It teaches how to advance and retreat, to

get in range of the opponent without lowering one's defence, aids in hitting and

blocking, and it strengthens the body immensely enabling the person to receive

non-lethal blows and still continue the battle. The whole body is used to create

power. In Kai por vilaiyattu, gymnastic, stretching (yoga), and breathing

exercises are conducted before training. It is also said that Bodhidharma (the

founder of ZEN buddhism) was very good at this art. And on his travelling way

towards Nepal, Tibet and China he observed fights between monkeys, snakes

and other animals. Than he implemented this to Kai por vilaiyattu and gave a

Starting to the Chinese Martial Art which we now call as "Kung Fu".Kai por

vilaiyattu is one of the ancient arts of India which is dying.

VarmaKalai is a martial art and esoteric healing art originating

from ancient Tamil Nadu in South India. The name literally translate as "The Art

of Vital Points". It is an element of the Tamil martial art Kai por vilaiyattu.

VarmaKalai teachers are highly selective in their choice of students. Disciples

must meet a number of criteria; beyond martial arts competence they are

required to have an understanding of biology, mathematics, political science,

astronomy, physics, chemistry, Saamuthriga Lakshanam, Yoga, military tactics,

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horsmanship, elephant riding, charioteering and Hindu philosophy (Saiva,

Vaisnava, Saktha, Koumara, Boutha, Samana) etc. The VarmaKalai martial

artist is not allowed to teach the art to others until he receives Deeksha from his

Aasan(master) or Periyaasan (Grand Master) as in recognition of him as an

Aasan.

1.4 SILAMBAM

Silambam (Tamil: சில ப ) or Silambattam (Tamil : சில பா ட ) or

Chilambam, is a traditional Dravidian martial art based on stick fighting. This

style supposedly originates from the Kurinji Hills in present day Tamilnadu

5,000 years ago, where natives used bamboo staves to defend themselves against

wild animals. As per Sangam literature, the Kurinji Hills was one of the five

physiographic divisions within Tamilakam, which became known as Keralam

after the arrival of Brahmins. The kuravar of the Kurinji Hills used a staff called

Chilambamboo as a weapon to defend themselves against wild animals, and also

to display their skill during their religious festivals. The Hindu scholars and

yogies who went to the Kurinji mountains to meditate got attracted by the

display of this highly skilled spinning Chilambamboo.

1.5 OVERVIEW

Silambam is a mainly a form of stick or walking staff fighting. The length

of the staff is roughly 1.68 meters (five and a half feet). Size of the staff is

related to the height of the silambam player. It should just touch the forehead

about three fingers from the head, although different lengths were used in

different situations. The 3 feet stick called "sedikutchi" can be carried covertly.

Separate practice is needed for staves of different lengths. The usual stance

includes holding the staff at one end, right hand close to the back, left hand about

40 centimeters (16 inches) away. This position allows a wide array of stick-and-

body movements, including complex attacks and blocks. Unarmed silambam

utilizes several routines based on the movements of animals, primarily snake and

eagle forms.

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1.6 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF SILAMBAM

Silambam was introduced by Agathiya Maha Muniver and he was written

the book of mayakkanadi. It includeds silambam, kalari, mallu, pottu privu,

varmam, adithada, kai por vilayattu. After that Silambam was patronized by the

ancient Chola, Chera and Pandya kings of South India during the Sangam

period. It has been extensively used by Travancore army.

Silamabam is an age-old art of patronized by the chera, cholo, and

pandiya kings who ruled Tamilnadu in ancient India. It received Royal

Patronage from all kings of Tamilnadu beginning before the Sangam Era (B.C.

2000). The origin and historical development of silambam may have being with

the early Dravidians of ancient Tamilnadu.

Raja Gopalan (1982)“The early tools of man – in Ancient Tamilnadu

must have been river pebbles and blocks of wood and bone. At that time

Silambam stick made of bamboo, used for defense and attack. The forest of

South India abounded with bamboo, right from primitive times and the palaeo–

Lithic and Neo-Lithic man (Ancient Dravidian) found it quite handy and useful

as a weapon for defence and attack against their animal and human enemies”.

A.P. Chandraselaran (1959) The knowledge and practices of this mighty

weapon was not confined to North India. South India knew this weapon well

from the beginning of its written history. The huge figures of warriors

particularly that the Arjuna carved out in the Meenakshi temple of Madura well

might prove its existence in South India as an efficient instrument of fighting –

Apparatus of war in ancient India

K.K. Pillai (1978) “Veddas an ancient people of Sri Lanka are fast

dying out. At present there are just a few thousands of them in jungles of the

island. They still continue their traditional occupation of hunting. The time

honored bow and arrows are still part of their outfit.

The British Cal. Welsh (1927) “ChinnaMaruthu (A Poligar of Siva

Gangai) first taught me to throw the spear and hurl the collery stick (Boomerang)

a weapon.

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Thurston (1926)“The boomerangs of Southern India, (Tamilnadu) the

madras museum possesses three (two invory, one wooden) from the Tanjore

armoury concerning them, the Dewan of Pudukottai writes to me as follows, “the

valari or valaitadi (bent stick) is a short weapon, generally made of some hard-

grained wood. It is also sometimes made of iron. It is crescent –shaped, one end

being heavier than the other, and the outer end is sharpened. Men trained in the

use of the weapon hold it by, the lighter end, whirl it a few times over their

shoulders to give it impetus, and then hurl it with great force against the object

aimed at. It is said that there were experts in the art of throwing the valari, who

could at one stroke dispatch small games and even man. No such experts are

now-forth coming in the Pudukottai state, through the instrument is reported to

be occasionally used in hunting hares, jungle fowl, etc., its days, however, must

be counted as past. Tradition states the instrument played a considerable part in

the poligar wars of the last century. But it now reposes peacefully in the house

holds of the descendeants of the rude kallan and maravan warriors, who plied it

with such deadly effect in the last century, preserved as a sacred relic of a

chivalric past, along with other old family weapons in their puja (workship)

room. Brought out and scraped and cleaned on occasions like the Ayudha puja

day (when workship is paid to weapons and implements of industry), and

restored to its place of rest immediately afterwards.”

1.7 VARIETY OF SILAMBAM

Silambam is an famous martial art in Tamil nadu, Silambam fight or stick

fight. It is very crucial movement in this art. It should be various division in this

art like touch point, self demonstration, group demonstration, fire demonstration,

single stick fire demonstration, double stick fire demonstration, star fire

demonstration, chine fire demonstration, chest fire demonstration, balance water

(rathal demonstration), Paring: face to face demonstration, (athir bana) cheetah

fight(kurun kambu fight or sedi kuchi), kathi Knife and stick fight

(pichuvakathi), maan kombu(maduvu) and stick fight, padai vichu(one man

show with cover more person in attack that man. Various houses like four side,

Eight side, sixteen side, thirty two side, sixty four side, etc., vichu varisai, chine

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star, ring dive with one man and two man, Alangara vilaiyattu, it should be

divided in various stages like kathadi suthu(outer rotation with single stick and

double stick, nenchu suthu(chest rotation single stick and double stick), pin

pidari vichu or kaluthu suthu(neck rotation inner and outer),kaal suthu(leg

rotation) pin suthu(back rotation),mun suthu(frond rotation)Eduppu suthu(hip

rotation)mun suthu pin suthu(frond with back rotation). Adi varisai. This fight

create the formation like two men stick fight and four men stick fight and Eight

men stick fight sixteen men stick fight thirty two man stick fight etc.,, Multhandi

Kodari fight, Eati sandai(aero stick fight) surul vichu(blade rotation with single

and double hands) Kerala is the hub of special forms of Indian martial arts

like vadakkan Kalarippayattu (way of the arena) and Adithada (attack and

defend). Kalarippayattu is an important martial art form, mainly developed in the

11th century, during the rule of Chola dynasties. Kalarippayattu is an Indian

martial art practiced in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It integrates strikes, bangs,

grapple, martial dance, and arms, as well as curative techniques it is also

interesting is that Indian martial arts were improvised due to certain ancient

theories like Yoga, Ayurveda and Tantra, Kundalini, Prana, Nadi, Chakra and

Marmam.

1.8 VERSATILITY (STYLES) OF SILAMBAM

Multiple attackers Silambam practitioners do not held out their sticks as

they do in man to man combat. Instead they use pose. There were numerous

poses in silambam (snake, tiger, eagle and so on). Using poses makes difficult

for the opponents to predict the attack and counter attack.

There were numerous sub sects in Silambam like Nagam-16 (cobra-16),

kallapathu (the thieves ten), kidamuttu (the goat head butting), kuravanchi,

kalyanavarisai (similar to quarterstaff, thulukkanam (Turkish sequence) and so

on. Each of these sub sets is unique and may differ from one another in grip,

pose, foot work used, method of attack, length of the stick, movement of the

stick etc.

Much of the vast techniques and styles in Silambam have been lost due to

various invasions of the Tamil Nadu, especially the British. The use of guns

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means the stick has lost much of its combat superiority. Also, the British who

ruled for nearly 200 years completely banned the art.

Its emphasis on the staff distinguishes Silambam from Northern

Kalaripayattu considered similar to Southern Kalaripayattu where fighting

techniques emphasize empty hands or simple sticks or swords.

Silambam, Kaimurai vilayattu, a bare hand technique literally meaning

punching sequence, maduvu (deer horn), surul or churul (long double edged

flexible blade), kathi kuthu (knife thrust), Val payattu or val veesu or vaal

veechu (sword play), sheela or cheela (two finger defense) were all closely

related and can be called as a single group of martial arts.

The state of Tamil Nadu is considered to be the cradle of modern and

scientific staff stick movements, popularly known in Tamil as Silambam. The

Pandya kings ruling in Tamil Nadu promoted Silambam stick movements, as

did their Chola and Chera counterparts. Silapathiharam Tamil literature, dating

back to 2nd century A.D., refers to the sale of silamabam staves, swords, pearls

and armour to foreign traders. The ancient trading centre at Madurai city,

renowned globally, was said to be thronged by Romans, Greeks, Egyptians

among others who had regular sea trade with the ancient Dravidian kings. The

silambam staff was one of the martial art weapons, that was in great demand

with the visitors.

Dr. David Manvel Raj(1988)“Silambam being practiced in almost all

regions of the vast democratic country, India. Maharashtra state silambam is

popularly known as “Lathi”, whereas the same is called ‘Dhal Lakadi’ in Gujarat

state, ‘KarraSaamu’ in Andhra state, ‘LatiLakadi’ in Bengal state,

‘DhantaVarisai’ in Karnataka state, ‘NeduVadi’ in Kerala state and Silamabam

in Tamilnadu state. Silambam under the Kalaripayat System is remembered as

Kettukari, KoluVillayattu or KattaSamu is a system of silambam prevalent in

Andhra state now. Kolu is a Tamil word for stick. Vilayattu is Tamil word for

“playing” and Katta or “Kattai” in Tamil means stick. Samu is a Telugu word

meaning fight. Silambam or KoluVilayattu was practiced in ancient

Gymnasium called GaradiKoodam in Andhra Pradesh”.

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Francois Gautier (1985) Shaolin Boxing and Zen Buddhism travelled

from China to Japan, landing in Okinawa, where Kalari-payat became the art of

the empty hands of Karate. Kalaripayat of ancient Tamilnadu is the ancestor of

all Asian material arts and it still survives in Tamilnadu.

Kalari-payat of ancient Tamilnadu, the ancestor of all Asian material arts,

still survives in Tamilnadu and Kerala. Boddi-dharma of India, the founder of

Zen Buddhism taught the Chinese, this art as shaolin boxing. It then passed on to

Japan to blossom in the art of the empty hand or Karate and Judo. All these

forms have borrowed heavily from the kalari techniques. Kalari-payat when it

became as Shaolin Boxing passed from China to Japan, through the Ryukyu

islands, landing in Okinawa to blossom in the art of the empty hand, later known

as Karate.

Boddi-dharma of India had introduced the bare-hand fighting techniques

called (Verum Kai Adimuraigal) which are still popular in Tirunelveli and

Kanyakumari districts in Tamilnadu, India. Thus, Tamilnadu is the birth place of

all Asian Material Arts.

1.9 ANCIENT IRON WEAPONS AND WARRIORS

Ancient Iron Weapons particularly type of swords have been found in the

Tirunelveli (South Tamilnadu) burials on the bank of TambraParni. We can say

that it was in the later stage of the iron culture of South India may be dated from

2,500-1,800 B.C. The iron industry in South India is more ancient than that

Europe. It began to spread Crete and Greece.

The Prof. Gowland the well-known metallurgist and explorer of the

Japanese islands who expressed the opinion that the smelting of iron may have

been hit upon by sheer accident. The accident might have happened in peninsular

India were according to the best minds the iron industry is much more ancient

than in Europe. After the use of iron became familiar in South India it began to

spread in other countries specially crete and Greece whose architectural

monuments and shrines resemble in several respects those of South India. This is

how crete, Greece and other western countries passed on also to iron culture

from their Neolithic age. The one age men were primarily living on the hills and

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mountain fastnesses and also on the frings of rich forests. Only after the

discovery of iron ore it is reasonable to suppose that primeval man took to the

forest and made it his habits. Therefore it is only iron culture that permitted the

people of the hills to pass on to forest life.”

Development of silambam weapons from AdichaNallur:

Development of the iron culture of AdichaNallur (Tamilnadu) may be

dated from eight to ten thousand B.C the archaelogical evidences are more from

sangam Era

Adihcanallur lies with 20 k.mt of Tirunelvely district in South India. It is

the most important Pre historic burial place and the strong at arghaeological

evidence for the silambam , development from ancient Tamilnadu.

The burial places cover over hundred and fourteen acres of land at

AdichaNallur on the South bank of the Tambraparni (Thennporunai river) in the

Tinnevelly district. These graves at Adichanallur are to be dated in the early Iron

Age which succeeded the Neolithic age in South India”. The Neolithic age in

South India passed on to the Iron Age without any interval long or short.

“The archaeological surprises thrown up at the Iron Age urn-burial site at

Adichanallur do not seem to end. The latest: Some stunningly beautiful motifs in

applique designs on pieces of an urn inside a full urn. The motifs were

apparently made on a full urn which contained a human skeleton. The series of

motifs show a tall, majestic looking woman: a swathe of standing paddy next to

her; a crane; a deer; a crocodile and a lizard too.” (Hindu -2005)

At the same time particularly, above deer horn is a dangerous weapon of

silambam.

Alexander Rea (1915) Spear, Lance, Dagger, Barded javeline, Double

edged sword, Trident, Barded arrow head, Hate hets, Sword, Curved knife,

Hooks with two curved rods, Sacrificed sword, Arrow head, javeline, Axes,

Sulams, Shield, A curious weapon, Small dagger, Small lance, Lance with blade

rectangular in section, Luce, Lance with blade rectangular in section, Hollow

tube handle of lance, Dagger with tapering point, Hatch broadest at the cutting

edge, Lance with long round hollow shaft, Hollow iron handles with rods

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through the centre, Sword with various curved blades tapering with points,

Lance with tapering blades and hollow handles, Knife, Reaping hook or curved

knifes of various format,

Above weapon names were collected from the Tamil Palm leaf

manuscripts by ‘Rea’ Palm-leaf manuscripts describe a plethora of designs and

shapes of iron weapons knives and lances, archeological evidence for which date

back to a mere back to a mere 2800 B.C to 1800 B.C., when wood had given

way to iron. This goes to prove that silambam is probably the oldest material art

in the world.

However the Dravidian have a continuity of culture from Paleolithic to

Neolithic, from Neolithic to megalithic and megalithic to iron age in south India.

By this historic statement alone the material art form of silambam is said

to be the oldest in the world. From the early Tamil Palm leaf manuscript,

literature ‘PuraNanooru’ (A Collection of heroic poems from 400B.C to 600

AD), we know that warlike and material spirit predominated between the

Dravidian kingdoms (Chera, Chola , Pandya)

The well-known warriors, Puli-Dhevar and Maruthu brothers were also

very good ‘Silambam’ fighters. Though they were ruling small territories only

their influence at that time spread far and wide, throughout the whole of the

South Tamilnadu due to their ability in warfare.

VellaiMaruthipandi was the most important Polygor of “Siva Gangai”.

His strong limbs, hardy frames, fierce looking appearance create a fearful exiting

for the viewers. His power in hunting was so much.

Cal Welsh(1893)“Did a royal tiger appear while his guest was surrounded

by hardy and powerful pikeman, Vellimurdoo was the first to meet the monster

and dispatch him”.Puli-Devar was also a poligar of Nelkattan Chevval at

Tirunelveli District.

R. Caldwell “The Puli-Devar soldiers are tall, well made and well-

featured. Their arms are lances and pikes, bows and arrows, rockets and match

locks, but whether with or without other weapons, every man constantly wears

sword and shield. In battle the different arms move in distinct bodies but the

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lance men are rated the most eminent and lead all attacks. This weapon is

eighteen feet long. They tie under the point aloft of scarlet horse-hair, and when

they attack horse, add a small bell. Without previous exercise, they assemble in a

deep column, pressing close together, and advance at a long. Steady step, in

some degree of time, their lances including forward, but aloft, of which the

elasticity and vibration with the jungle and dazzle scare the cavalry and their

approach is scarcely less formidable to infantry not disciplined with five-arms.

The lance referred to is called in tamil a “Vallayam”.

1.10 SILAMBAM IN ANCIENT TAMIL SONGS

VeeraPandyaKattabomman is a valiant war general of Tamilnadu who

made the British forces suffer the humiliation of defeat many a time in the early

eighteenth century till the British Started using arms like machine guns and

pistols against his fort at Paanjaalamkurichi situated in the district of

Thirunelveli. Tamilnadu had its brave soldiers experts in silambam and they

were armed with silambam staves and swords with the help of which they faced

and chased their enemies.

In the songs called ‘KattabommanKummipPaadalgal’ we have various

references to this. Here are some of the lines:

‘Aan pillai poela edhirththu vandu:

Nindradhu aaradaa satra enum anjaamal:

Poonkattuk kambadi (Silambam) veezhaa munnam:

oedippoengaladaavellaiththoongalgalae’

(Roughly translated these lines warn the white men to run away lest they

be attacked by ‘Silambam – ‘Kambadi’.)

These are some of the significant lines in Tamil verses which highlight

the glory and esteem of ‘Silambam’ in our ancient society.

V. Kanaka Sabhai in his “The tamils eighteen hundred years ago” describes…

“When the line of battle was drawn up, the elephants were placed first,

the chariots and horseman were ranged behind them, and the infantry occupied

the rear. The ordinary foot soilders carried in their left hand large bucklers made

of ox-hide and in their right hand a lance or a battle-axe. The archers carried

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long bows in their left hand and quivers suspended at their backs. Both lancers

and archers were armed with swords which were broad in the blade and about a

yard long. The cavalry carried lighter arms and shorter bucklers than those

supplied to the infantry. Those who rode on chariots or elephants were the

generals who led the army and were invariably men of noble birth. They carried

lances or swords, and shields adorned with gold and wore coats of mail. The war

chariots were light cars raised on two low wheels with a railing of stout rattan

round the stand, which afforded room for only two men, the charioteer and the

warrior. Each chariot was drawn by a pair of horses. Large and heavy chariot

drawn by four or seven horses were used only in processions or festive

occasions. When attacking an enemy, the archers discharged their arrows aiming

at the elephants in the opposing army and at the generals who rode on them. If

the men were skillful archers and sufficiently strong in number, the first shower

of arrows compelled the enemies’ elephants to beat a retreat and threw their

army into a confusion: but if the elephants withstood the attack the mounted

soilders threw their javelins at them and the infantry also attacked them with

their long spears; and then engaged the enemy at close quarters fighting with

their swords and battle axes. The elephants always formed the most formidable

part of an army and hence, to cut down a soldier or any number of soilders was

not esteemed so great a feat of valour as to kill or disable an elephant. To fly

from the battle-field or to receive a wound on the back was considered a great

disgrace.

“The fighting men who belonged to the military caste among the Tamils

were very loyal to their kings. “Thou lord of the handsome chariot and troops of

elephants”, says a bard to his chief, pointing to young warriors, “share with this

youth the toddy thou drinkest, for his father’s father gave up his life to save thy

father’s father in a fierece fight; and this youth so full of valour will throw

himself between thee and thy foes, when they aim their lances against thee.”

Even the women of the fighting classes were animated by the same material

spirit which the soldiers possessed. “Alas! How bold is she, the worthy marton

of the warrior tribel” exclaims a bard, “it was only the day before yesterday that

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her father cut down an elephant on the battle-field and fell bravely fighting with

the foes, and yesterday her husband routed a whole array of elephants and was

slaughtered on the same field, and yet today, when she heard the war drum, she

seemed to be filled with joy and gave her only son a white cloth to wear, combed

his hair and putting a lance into his hand, bade him go to the battle-field.” “The

old mother with trembling frame and withered arms” says another bard speaking

of a woman of the military caste, “hearing that her son had fled from the battle-

field, swore that she would cut off her breasts that nursed him, if he had really

turned his back on the foe, and armed with a sword went to the battle-field and

finding among them slain, the mangled body of her son, rejoiced more than she

did when he was born”.

A large area of ground is enclosed with palisades and strong fences. Into

the enclosure are brought ferocious bulls with sharpened horns. On a spacious

loft, overlooking the enclosure, stand the shepherd girls whom they intend to

give away in marriage. The shepherd youths prepared for the fight first pray to

their gods whose images are placed under old banian or peepul trees or at

watering places. Then they deck themselves with garlands made of the bright red

flowers of the kanthal and the purple flowers of the kaya. At a signal given by

the beating of drums, the youths leap into the enclosure and try to seize the bulls,

which, frightened by the noise of the drums, are now ready to charge any one

who approaches them. Each youth approaches a bull, which he chooses to

capture. But the bulls rush furiously with tails raised, heads bent down and horns

leveled at their assistants. Some jump aside and take hold of their tails. The more

wary young men skillfully avoid the horns and clasping the neck cling to the

animals till they force them to fall on the ground. Many a luckless youth is now

thrown down. Some escape without a scratch, while others are trampled upon or

gored by the bulls. A few who succeed in capturing the animals are declared the

victors of that day’s fight. The elders then announce that the bullfight is over.

The wounded are carried out of the enclosure and attended to immediately; while

the victors and the brides-elect repair to an adjoining grove, and there forming

into groups, dance joyously before preparing for their marriage”.

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There are also songs and verses in Tamil wherein we have various references to

the fact that there were Silambam ‘gurus’ (Masters) and also ‘Silamba-koodam

(Shoalin of Silambam) at the foot of ‘Podhigai’ mountain.

Iruvendru amirdhaara sankollum poedhu:

Inbamudan silambirukkum vagai yaichcholli:

Karuvendra pusapilamum kalandhu solli:

Thiruvendra mandhirathin dheerkkam solli:

Sivakayilai podhigayil irundhu kondu:

Guruvaana guruvendu thuaadinaenae.

From these lines the fact that the ‘guru’ of ‘Silambam’ was dwelling in

the mountain region called ‘Podhigai – Malai(hills)’. Thought these lines are

dated 500 A.D.

The Dravidians belong to one of the oldest ethnic group in India. St.

Agathiyar is considered as the originator of ‘silambam- ’. Agathiyars and

Siddhars must have been the originators of the sixty-four arts popularly referred

to in our ancient literary works as ‘aayakalaigalarupaathi-naanginaiyum and that

‘silambam’ literature and folklore are believed to have come down from the time

of Agathiyar or his pupils known as Siddhars.

Those who have undertaken researches in palm-leaf inscriptions and

palm-leaf manuscripts have collected these information’s and they have also

collected the various ‘manuscript verces silambam’ that were in vogue then.

Some of them are; ‘AgathiyarKambuChoodram’ (describes about stick), Veeman

VazhiKarunthaadiSilambam (describes about 3 feet stick), Kalari (describes

about development of weapons), VarmaChoodram (Diagnosis of the vital parts),

Varma Beeranki (Varman hit methods), OdivuMurivu Sari (Concerning the

breaking and wounding of the vital parts), VarmaVaidhyam (Remedial Method

by Siddha Medicine).

Highlighting those constructive aspects of this material art such as self-

defense, warding off danger and attack with their help of just a long stick which

is not costly, team-spirit, physical fitness, mental altertness, maintenance of

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sound health and sports on and so forth, the interest to learn ‘Silambam’ should

be inculcated in the youngs minds.

‘Silambammudhalmalyudhdham:

yaanaiaetram, kudhiraiaetram:

dhesi, nadaikollin:

vaadham poem, vaayu poem, kabam poem:

thulangupasiundaagum says a renowned tamil classic

PadhaarthaGunasindhaamani, Roughtly translated these lines tell that if

‘Silambam’ and other material arts are learnt on will be relieved of gas trouble,

cold and cough and also various other health problems and become sound in

body and mind. Another songs says,

Paarappasilambadikkaukkithendam:

padhivaanaaadhiandhamaarthaankaanbaar:

Naerappaadhinanthoerumpazhakkamaanaal:

unpuyamumkaalpilamumnilaikkumappa.

These songs stress the various benefits of learning ‘Silambam’ such as getting

cured of various health problems and also turning stronger in body and mind.

1.11 SILAMBAM DISPLAY AT FESTIVALS

Silambam is a stick fighting, part of southern style. This style supposedly

originates from the Kurinji hills, present day Tamilnadu, 5000 years ago, where

natives was used bamboo staves to defend themselves against wild animals. The

natives called kuravar was used a staff called Chilambamboo as a weapon to

defend themselves against wild animals, and also to display their skill during

their religious festivals. In that festival they demonstrate variety of silambam.

The Hindu scholars and yogies who went to the Kurinji mountains to meditate

got attracted by the display of this highly skilled spinning Chilambamboo. It is

also known as Silambam.

The pride and glory of silambam repeated is not to be regarded as just a

weapon used in self-defense. It had played an integral and very important role in

the festivals and cultural events of Tamilnadu. During temple-festivals men used

to display their skill in ‘silambam’ in front of the chapparam (temple-car) in

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which the idol of god would be placed and taken around in a procession. During

the festivals and marriage processions and in short, on any festive occasions the

display of silambam takes places, especially in villages. Usually it will be

accompanied by music. The silambam display ceremony will always commence

with the contestants praying to their guardian angles.

1.12 SILAMBAM IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

There are a large number of distinct styles and schools of martial arts.

Sometimes, schools or styles are introduced by individual teachers or masters, or

as a brand name by a specific gym. Martial arts can be grouped by type or focus,

or alternatively by regional origin. This article focuses on the latter grouping.

A sport and ritual the Suri take extremely seriously is stick fighting. In

most cases, stick fighting is done so young men can find wives. It is a way for

young men to prove themselves to the young women. To the Suri, the ideal time

to stick fight is just after it rains. The fights are held between Suri villages, and

the fights begin with 20 to 30 people on each side. Of these 20 to 30 people, all

get a chance to fight one on one against someone from the other side. During

these fights there are referees present to make sure all rules are 2being followed.

Many stick fights end within the first couple of hits. Stick fighting has proven to

be dangerous because people have died from being hit in the stomach. Since

stick fighting draws a large audience, it becomes a threat of danger. Shooting can

easily break out and this seems to be the new trend for young Suri men; using

guns instead of sticks. Surma stick fighting (Ethiopia)

1.12.1 Nguni Stick Fighting (South Africa)

Nguni stick fighting (also known as donga, or dlala 'nduku, which literally

translates as playing sticks) is a martial art traditionally practiced by

teenage Nguni herdboys in South Africa. Each combatant is armed with two long

sticks, one of which is used for defense and the other for offense. Little armor is

used.

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Although Nguni/ Xhosa styles of fighting may use only two sticks,

variations of Bantu /Nguni stick fighting throughout Southern Africa incorporate

shields as part of the stick fighting weaponry. Zulu stick fighting uses an

"Isiquili" or attacking stick, an "Uboko" or defending stick and an "izoliHauw"

or defending shield.

The object is for two opposing warriors to fight each other to establish

which of them is the strongest or the "Bull" (Inkunzi). In modern times this

usually occurs as part of the wedding ceremony where warriors from the

bridegroom's household and area welcome warriors from the bride's household

and area to meet to "get to know each other", other groups of warriors may also

be welcome to join in. Warriors do this by engaging in combat with one another.

An "induna" or War Captain / Referee from each group of warriors keeps his

crew in check and keeps order between fighters.

This tradition is one which arguably developed in societies, cultures and

civilisations that used herding as part of their systems of survival, where there

are cows, there are stick fighters. The old regimental structures of the great

uShakaKaSenzangakhonaKaJama dominate current modern zulustickfighting.

1.12.2 Nuba Fighting Sudan.

Nuba fighting is done by the Nuba peoples in the Nuba Mountains of

South Kordofan state, in southern Sudan. It involves both stick fighting and

wrestling. The goal of Nuba wrestling is to slam the opponent to the ground.

Wrestling is relatively recreational, and serious injuries are rare.

Nuba wrestling has no pinning and no submissions. Although there are

strikes, these are essentially part of the grappling; in other words, this is not a

boxing system, as is, for example, Hausadambe. Therefore, Nuba wrestling is

best viewed as a system of standing grappling, historically practiced naked, but

in towns, today practiced in T-shirts and shorts.

Nuba stick fighting essentially mimics the movements of fighting with

spear and shield. Little armor is worn, so injuries can be severe.

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Training for both wrestling and stick fighting includes practicing under the

supervision of former champions, performing athletic dances, learning

traditional songs, and drinking lots of milk while avoiding promiscuity and beer.

Bajan Stick-Licking or Stick Science traditional form of stick fighting in

Barbados. Bajan Stick-Licking or Stick Science is an African system of weapons

fighting that features the use of fire hardened sticks of varying lengths. 'Lickin

Stick' as it is usually known was most likely transferred to Barbados from the

Kongo (Congo)/Angola region of Africa during the 15th century by soldiers who

had been captured as prisoners of war. These soldiers were then purchased by

various European enslavers and shipped as cargo to the Caribbean, where some

ended up in Barbados as slaves.

For much of Barbados' history, this African Fight has been an integral

part of the society. It has been a test of manhood, a fun but dangerous sport, a

means of self-defense and a method of settling disputes. Contrary to some

mythology, Stick Lickin' is not a hybrid of African Stickfighting and European

stick movements, but is a Kalenda system and exists in many other parts of the

African diaspora including Trinidad, Grenada, Puerto Rico and the United

States.

1.13 KARATE

Karate is a martial art developed in the Ryukyu Islands in what is now

Okinawa, Japan. It developed from the indigenous martial arts of Ryukyu

Islands, under the influence of Chinese martial arts, particularly to that of the

Fujian White Crane. Karate is a striking art using punching, kicking, knee

strikes, elbow strikes and open hand techniques such as knife-hands, spear-

hands, and palm-heel strikes. In some styles, grappling, throws, joint locks,

restraints, and vital point strikes are also taught. A karate practitioner is called a

karateka.

Karate developed in the Ryukyu Kingdom. It was brought to the Japanese

mainland in the early 20th century during a time of cultural exchanges between

the Japanese and the Ryukyuans. It was systematically taught in Japan after the

25

Taisho era. In 1922 the Japanese Ministry of Education invited Gichin

Funakoshi to Tokyo to give a karate demonstration. In 1924 Keio University

established the first university karate club in Japan and by 1932, major Japanese

universities had karate clubs. In this era of escalating Japanese militarism, the

name was changed from Chinese hand or Tang hand to empty hand , both of

which are pronounced karate – to indicate that the Japanese wished to develop

the combat form in Japanese style. After World War II, Okinawa became an

important United States military site and karate became popular among

servicemen stationed there.

The martial arts movies of the 1960s and 1970s served to greatly increase

the popularity of martial arts around the world, and in English the word karate

began to be used in a generic way to refer to all striking-based Oriental martial

arts. Karate schools began appearing across the world, catering to those with

casual interest as well as those seeking a deeper study of the art.

Shigeru Egami, Chief Instructor of Shotokan Dojo, opined that the

majority of followers of karate in overseas countries pursue karate only for its

fighting techniques. Movies and television. depict karate as a mysterious way of

fighting capable of causing death or injury with a single blow. the mass media

present a pseudo art far from the real thing. Shoshin Nagamine said, Karate may

be considered as the conflict within oneself or as a life-long marathon which can

be won only through self-discipline, hard training and one's own creative efforts.

In 2009, in the 121st International Olympic Committee voting, karate did

not receive the necessary two-thirds majority vote to become an Olympic sport.

Karate was being considered for the 2020 Olympics, however at a meeting of the

IOC's executive board, held in Russia on May 29, 2013, it was decided that

karate (along with wushu and several other non-martial arts) would not be

considered for inclusion in 2020 at the IOC's 125th session in Buenos Aires,

Argentina, in September 2013.

26

Web Japan (sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) claims there

are 50 million karate practitioners worldwide, while the World Karate Federation

claims there are 100 million practitioners around the world.

Karate is a martial art developed from Chinese kung fu and indigenous

fighting methods from the Islands. It is primarily a striking art, featuring

punching, kicking, knee and elbow strikes, and open-handed techniques, but

grappling, joint manipulations, locks, restraints, throws, and vital point striking

are also taught, depending on the style. A karate practitioner is called a karateka.

In addition to the three early ti styles of karate, a fourth Okinawan

influence is that of Kanbun Uechi (1877–1948), who at the age of 20 went to

Fuzhou in Fujian Province, China, to escape Japanese military conscription.

While there, he studied under Shushiwa, the leading figure of Chinese Nanpa

Shorin-ken at that time. He later developed his own style of Uechi-ryu karate

based on the Sanchin, Seisan, and Sanseiryu kata that he had studied in China.

1.13.1 Basic Skills of Karate

Karate basics consists in 3 forms

1. Kihon.. - Training in fundamentals

2. Kata- Training in formal exercises

3. Kumite - Sparring

1.13.2 Dojo (Training Hall)

When entering the dojo, at the entrance, sensei's (instructor/teacher),

students and instructors should bow towards the hall (standing bow ritsu-rei) out

of respect for the training area. When leaving the dojo, at the entrance, sensei's,

students and instructors should bow towards the hall (standing bow ritsu-rei) out

of respect for the training area. Karate Gi's (training suit) must always be clean

and personal cleanliness/odour should be kept fresh.

At the Starting of a session students and instructor(s) make a standing

bow to each-other, then is some ryu's (styles), bow in the seiza position (kneeling

position - za-rei), followed by standing and bowing again (standing bow ritsu-

rei). During a karate training session students regularly bow respectfully to each-

27

other when practicing techniques on each-other. When students bow they always

keep at least peripheral eye contact. During mutual training, combat etc. eye

contact is constant.

The sensei (instructor/teacher) is, traditionally, the highest grade in the

class receives a bow (ni-rei) from the whole class at the beginning and end of a

lesson.

The sensei gives instruction it is usual for students to show respect and

acknowledge the sensei's instruction with the sound oose (which means I

understand). The constant bowing is a way to tell other students that you are not

their to be a personal threat with the idea of causing damage but are instead

respectful and eager to learn.

At the Starting of the class students line up by rank. Dan grades should

allow more experienced black belts that may hold a lower grade stand higher in

the belt/grade order out of respect (to not respect this rule should be seen as

ignorant, rude and arrogant, the sensei should intervene).

The sensei when counting usually counts in Japanese (1 to 10 below):

Ichi, Ni, San, Shi, Go, Roku, Shichi, Hachi, Ku, Ju

The sensei may say Chudan (aim for the abdomen), Jodan (aim to the face

area) or Gedan (lower abdomen and below-as in Gedan-bari), which indicates

the attack or defense should be directed to the face, abdominal or sub-abdominal

area.

When students spar (combat) or practice with each other strict safety rules

should be observed. To strike another student without respect for their individual

safety is extremely disrespectful because the person who has been neglectfully

struck has turned up for the class out of good faith to learn karate skills, not be

put into the local hospital. Students that show no respect for safety should be

reprimanded by the sensei and if their disrespect continues asked to permanently

leave the dojo.

The sensei will explain training moves and positions as students stand in a

preparation position, the sensei will next give the command Yoi (which means

be ready or prepare) to prepare the students, to apply the technique just

28

explained (students sometimes reply Yoi with oose). The next command the

sensei gives is Hajime which is the signal for students to execute the technique

previously shown by the sensei. The students may be asked to complete a

technique repetitively to develop muscle memory.

The sensei wants students to stop and relax the command Yame (stop) is

given and students can either stand into an informal ready stance (Heisoku-

dachi), or stay in the stance they are currently in (depending on the instruction

the sensei gives to the students).

1.13.3 Technical skills

The striking point of the fist (Ken) is usually the index and middle finger

knuckles, this area is known as Seiken. At the end of the class students line up

by rank. Dan grades should allow more experienced black belts that may hold a

lower grade stand higher in the belt/grade order out of respect (to not respect this

rule should be seen as ignorant, rude and arrogant, the sensei should intervene).

Students kneel into seiza and the command Mu-shin is given, students close or

half open their eyes and meditate until the sensei gives the command to open the

eyes Yame, students then bow to the sensei and the sensei replies, the class then

stands and bow again to the sensei and the sensei bows back, students then bow

to each other and the class ends.

Students practice techniques against each-other and some bad practice or

spiteful habits is as follow:

When attacking chudan during outside block practice, the attacker

(Semete) should avoid attacking to the outside of the body but attack in a straight

line to the abdomen with kime ( kime means applying internal energy) and an

understanding of distance. When attacking jodan during rising age-uke block

practice, the attacker (Semete) should avoid attacking to the chest but attack in a

straight line to the face with kime and an understanding of distance. According

to Gichin Funakoshi the mandatory karate strike technique moves to the target in

a straight line, attacks taking the shortest root from A. attacker to B. defender.

Defenders (Ukete) usually exert circular blocking using hip generated power to

deflect the attack.

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Karateka that intentionally stamp on peoples feet or any other poor

practice to try to put them off will mean the development of the "Oh no I am

with him (her) again" syndrome, and the practice partner will not

psychologically or physically give 100% whilst training, just contempt. The

karateka that has this response needs to change their ways otherwise their karate

will always be mediocre at best. See Gichin Funakoshi, karateka letting go of

ego.

Some karateka stop and Starting the attack whilst attacking in basic

kumite combinations, doing this will promote resentment, stop the development

of timing and negates any improvement in combat betterment.

One bad practice is when defenders (Ukete) are blocking jodan oi-zuki

(june-zuki), poorly trained attackers or an attacker with evil intentions will aim

for just above the block, and when the age-uke block energy is at its end the

attacker smashes their forearm onto the blocking arm to harm their training

partner. This particularly cowardly technique can be applied to any block and

suggests the attacker may be mentally disturbed.

Defending karateka that intentionally hit an attacker when the attacker

stands still to allow a counter-attack practice from the defender, or an attacker

that intentionally hits a defender without prior agreement (unless by genuine

accident) have no place in the dojo, and should be warned by the sensei. For the

sensei to do nothing and ignore the situation of a student consistently hitting

classmates is negligent at best.

Karateka that attack various parts of the body (such as kicking a loose

hand etc.) during one step, three step, five step kumite with a sneaky intent to

harm their partner should take up street fighting to get their disturbed jollies

instead of plaguing serious martial arts classes.

Karateka that pretend to be hurt to either get a classmate into trouble or to

get out of training should reflect on their actions, as the first instance is the mark

of a fool and the second, the mark of someone who is extremely lazy. Both will

stop any progress of skills or spiritual development, again the sensei should

intervene.

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Karateka that have knowledge in the skills of Atemi/Dim Mack or any

pressure/nerve striking techniques should not practice on unsuspecting martial

arts partners as striking pressure points without awareness of the long term

damage is ignorance personified. Modern day karate was devised by Gichin

Funakoshi with the Atemi (Dim Mack - death strike/artery striking) techniques

left out for good reason:

1. Applying pressure point striking just to see if it works, or otherwise, can cause

long term mind, body and spirit damage and is not within the true spirit of

karate-do.

2. Pressure point knowledge taught to adults or children via kata without

understanding the consequences i.e. meridian disruption concepts and chi energy

disruption theory could have seriously dangerous implications for fellow

students. To be taught pressure point techniques the sensei must fully understand

energy theories and concepts (and pass them on), trust the students that are being

taught, that those students will not use the Atemi/Dim Mack wasa unreasonably,

or as a very last resort to overcome a more powerful assailant at times of extreme

physical danger (not as a way to try and get the upper hand on fellow students in

the class). A sensei that teaches Atemi/Dim Mack without complete knowledge

would be like a driving instructor taking an untrained-driver to a car, showing

them the pedals, steering wheel and how to turning on the engine, then sitting the

student in the driving seat whilst the car is pointed at a group of unsuspecting

people, then allowing the student to switch the car's engine on and drive the car

at the people on their own, without any supervision or safeguards put in place.

A sensei that has no control of the class or turns a blind eye to negative

situations and comments made by karateka's in the class, just to try to fill his/her

classes has no place in teaching karate. Karateka who recognize these pointers

should seriously look for another sensei to teach them if they want to learn the

true skills and spirit of karate-do. Sensei's that grade their students (and pass

them) to make them attend classes and not because they are at the grade standard

should reflect on this staement as their students skills will be always be sub-

standard.

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Sensei's that enjoy seeing their students get beat up (or say that some

students are just "cannon fodder") have no place in the dojo no matter how big

their Dan is, as this is a waste of thousands of years of inspiration by truly great

men and women who have developed karate into what it is today.

Sensei's and karateka that apply the above shortcuts or evil intentioned

routines need to learn to focus and show respect for other people/karateka

students or be reprimanded and taught karate correctly by their sensei. All of this

is to help them holistically develop the healing spirit of karate-do; That is if they

have the desire, strength and will power to develop mentally and spiritually as a

true karateka? If not, as master Funakoshi says " They have no right to do karate.

As Gichin Funakoshi informs us in his karate rules it is important to show

respect to our fellow trainees and let go of unnecessary ego.

1.13.4 Karate training

Flexibility - Karate clubs generally spent at least 30 minutes warming up

the body and about 10 minutes at the end to cool the body down. Karateka that

are not naturally flexible should not worry or force themselves to become

unnaturally flexible as this can cause injury which will mean students cannot

train. Karate clubs will always have some naturally flexible students that make

the techniques look easy and beautiful but it does not mean they are good at

combat, that will always be an individual thing (could be genetic). Research into

suppleness suggested that the Mongolian race are genetically the most naturally

flexible race, followed closely by the Chinese. Personal flexibility has a lot to do

with genetic code passed down from generation to generation, as being supple

depends on how genetically elastic the tendons (connects muslce to bone),

ligaments (connects bone to bone) and any connective tissue are formed in each

individuals body.

Twisting energy - Make sure that when striking, punching or blocking, the arm,

hand or fist twists exactly at the point of contact as this will dramatically

increase the force of the strike, punch or block, with the attacker or defender

needing less effort to apply the skills they have been taught. Diligently applying

twisting energy to techniques will help increase timing and improve technique so

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that the power, strength and delivery of an effective blow or block can become

almost hidden.

Muscles - Always make sure the muscles are warmed up when practicing karate

to avoid injury. Do-not become over muscled as this may slow down the speed a

punch or kick can be delivered.

Eating before training - Do-not eat1-2 hours before training as the food that has

been eaten will have to be digested. When food is consumed blood is shunted to

the stomach to aid digestion which means the muscles will have less oxygen

because there is less blood (oxygen is carried in blood cells) available for muscle

use. High exercise without a good blood-oxygen supply for the muscles could

lead to severe muscle cramps and unnecessary muscle fatigue during a training

session.

Drink water - Exercise can cause de-hydration (loss of water) so do have

access to a water source during a training session. A daily consumption of 2

litres of fresh clean water is advisable for all people, and especially when

exercising regularly as blood needs water to be healthy, so do the joints to help

with lubrication and the brain cells for thinking. Do-not drink too much water

(known as over-hydration) as this could cause the brain to swell and flush the

body systems of vitamins and minerals which will lead to severe illness. Poor

water consumption during or before a training session could unnecessarily lead

to severe muscle cramps and muscle fatigue during a training session.

1.13.5 Karate Benefits for Children

While learning the martial arts can benefit those of all age groups, the

most dramatic results are almost always visible in children. I have personally

witnessed miraculous transformations of children’s lives. For example, very shy

and inhibited kids grow up to become very confident, disciplined, hard working

and goal oriented adults. I have taught children of all ages and have learned that

the younger one begins martial arts training, the more dramatic the results will

be. It is a misconception that one can be too young to learn the martial arts,

since basic principles can be learned at almost any age. More importantly,

however, the younger one begins to train, the better the development of the

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mental/internal martial arts component. Confidence development begins during

the early years, when a child begins to develop a sense of self. The more time

invested into cultivating a positive self image, the greater the chance of success.

A very shy child may learn to become confident in his ability to tackle

new situations both in the dojo and in everyday life. Building a child’s

confidence allows him to feel better about himself and he will be armed with the

tools to deal with teasing, name calling, bullies and basic challenges in everyday

life. You, as the parent, will provide your child with a way to protect himself

against a lot life’s obstacles, even when you can’t be with him.

Martial Arts builds confidence as no other sport can because it is not a team

sport. Every child progresses at his own pace, without a comparison to other

children. There is no pressure to perform for the “team” where anything less than

a perfect performance often can lead to loss of confidence and diminished self-

esteem.

The Martial Arts can help with listening skills and following directions as

well. A good karate program will have many drills with many variations. Since

high praise and positive reinforcement always follows a correct response to

specific instructions, listening skills are developed. In addition, each series of

karate moves and responses requires the ability to follow detailed instructions.

As a child develops in the dojo, he becomes more adept at following instructions

and simultaneously he is able to master more complex material.

The Martial Arts can help to develop focus and a means to channel extra

energy in positive instead of disruptive or destructive ways. Boundless energy

can be wonderful if it is utilized constructively. However, when a child does not

appropriately channel his energy, he is usually labeled as a disruptive child.

Energy that has simply not been channeled properly becomes unruly behavior. A

child with this type of energy can really flourish in a Martial Arts environment

and a “negative” behavior pattern will become something that you and your

child can take great pride.

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A parent first expresses interest in our school program, one of the most

common reasons is that the child doesn’t want to do anything but play video

games. Parents claim that they have tried all types of sports and activities, but

the child does not want do anything. A good karate program will be fun,

exciting and provide a lot of encouragement. It should make children feel

special and provide an environment they want to be part of. Therefore, a karate

program is a great way to get children involved and interested, especially those

who can’t seem to find the “right” extracurricular activity.

1.13.6 Karate Benefits For Adults

It is very common in today’s world to locate a series of extracurricular

activities for our children. However, Martial Arts training is great for adults as

well. As we get older, and spend more time in front of our computer terminals,

the physical activities that were once part of our daily lives become virtually

absent. We are left with excess weight, poor muscle tone and an overall sluggish

feeling. Often individuals, who once exercised regularly, now find it difficult to

climb a flight of stairs. Participation in Martial Arts activities can help to resolve

some of these issues. You will lose weight and increase strength and muscle

tone.

Many times, we reduce our physical activity as we get older since we

become more sensitive to our aches and pains. We may find that running or

basketball, for example, is too rigorous and applies too much strain to a

particular body part. However, through correct Martial Arts instruction, a

program can be designed to meet your specific needs. Training includes

stretching to reduce many of our aches and pains related to tightness and

stiffness. Martial arts training can be tailored to utilize your body strengths and

avoid your body weaknesses. Adults of all shapes and sizes can benefit from

these programs which can be individually tailored to those with weaker backs,

shoulders or knees.

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1.14 KARATE IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

1.14.1 Karate in Japan

Gichin Funakoshi, founder of Shotokan karate, is generally credited with

having introduced and popularized karate on the main islands of Japan, although

many other Okinawans were actively teaching, and thus equally responsible for

transmission. Funakoshi was a student of both Asato Anko and Itosu Anko (who

had worked to introduce karate to the Okinawa Prefectural School System in

1902). During this time period, prominent teachers who also influenced the

spread of karate in Japan included Kenwa Mabuni, Chojun Miyagi, Choki

Motobu, Kanken Toyama, and Kanbun Uechi. This was a turbulent period in

history in the region, including Japan's annexation of the Okinawan island group

in 1874, the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the Russo-Japanese War

(1904–1905), the annexation of Korea, and the rise of Japanese expansionism

(1905–1945).

1.14.2 Karate in Korea

Due to past conflict between Korea and Japan, most notably during the

Japanese occupation in the 20th century, the influence of karate on Korean

martial arts is a contentious issue. During the occupation, many Koreans went to

Japan and were exposed to Japanese martial arts. After regaining independence

from Japan, many Korean martial arts schools were founded by masters with

training in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean martial arts.

1.14.3 Karate in Soviet Union

Karate appeared in the Soviet Union in the mid-1960s, during

Khruschev's policy of improved international relations, and the first Shotokan

clubs were opened in Moscow's universities. In 1973, the USSR's Sport

Committee formed the Karate Federation of USSR in December 1978. This was

an exclusive, state-controlled organization with rules and methods intentionally

incompatible with all foreign karate federations. In 1988, karate practice became

legal under strict government regulations. Only after the dissolution of the Soviet

Union in 1992 did independent karate schools resume functioning, and so

federations were formed and national tournaments in authentic styles began.

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1.14.4 Karate in United States

Karate entered the United States through members of the US military who

had learned it in Okinawa or Japan and opened schools on their return. In 1961

Hidetaka Nishiyama, a co-founder of the JKA and student of Gichin Funakoshi

began teaching in the United States. As a trial case in spreading the art of karate,

Masatoshi Nakayama arrange to send Teruyuki Okazaki to the United States in

1961 where he Startinged a karate dojo in Philadelphia. Takayuki Mikami were

sent by the JKA in 1963.

1.14.5 Karate in United Kingdom

In the 1950s and 1960s, several Japanese karate masters began to teach

the art in the United Kingdom. In 1965, Tatsuo Suzuki began teaching Wado-ryū

in London. In 1966, members of the former British Karate Federation established

the Karate Union of Great Britain (KUGB) under Hirokazu Kanazawa as chief

instructor and affiliated to JKA.

1.14.6 Karate in Italy

Hiroshi Shirai, one of the original instructors sent by the JKA to Europe along

with Kase, Enoeda and Kanazawa, moved to Italy in 1965 and quickly

established a Shotokan enclave that spawned several instructors who in their turn

soon spread the style all over the country. By 1970 Shotokan karate was the most

spread martial art in Italy apart from Judo. Other styles such as Wado Ryu, Goju

Ryu and Shito Ryu, although present and well established in Italy, were never

able to break the monopoly of Shotokan.

1.14.7 Karate in France

France Shotokan Karate was created in 1964 by Tsutomu Ohshima. It is

affiliated with another of his organizations, Shotokan Karate of America (SKA).

However, in 1965 Taiji Kase came from Japan along with Enoeda and Shirai,

who went to England and Italy respectively, and karate came under the influence

of the JKA.

1.15 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF KARATE

Karate began as a common fighting system known as te (Okinawan: ti)

among the Pechin class of the Ryukyuans. After trade relationships were

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established with the Ming dynasty of China by King Satto of Chūzan in 1372,

some forms of Chinese martial arts were introduced to the Ryukyu Islands by the

visitors from China, particularly Fujian Province. A large group of Chinese

families moved to Okinawa around 1392 for the purpose of cultural exchange,

where they established the community of Kumemura and shared their knowledge

of a wide variety of Chinese arts and sciences, including the Chinese martial arts.

The political centralization of Okinawa by King Shō Hashi in 1429 and the

policy of banning weapons by King Shō Shin in 1477, later enforced in Okinawa

after the invasion by the Shimazu clan in 1609, are also factors that furthered the

development of unarmed combat techniques in Okinawa.

There were few formal styles of te, but rather many practitioners with

their own methods. One surviving example is the Motobu-ryū school passed

down from the Motobu family by Seikichi Uehara. Early styles of karate are

often generalized as Shuri-te, Naha-te, and Tomari-te, named after the three

cities from which they emerged. Each area and its teachers had particular kata,

techniques, and principles that distinguished their local version of te from the

others.

Members of the Okinawan upper classes were sent to China regularly to

study various political and practical disciplines. The incorporation of empty-

handed Chinese Kung Fu into Okinawan martial arts occurred partly because of

these exchanges and partly because of growing legal restrictions on the use of

weaponry. Traditional karate kata bear a strong resemblance to the forms found

in Fujian martial arts such as Fujian White Crane, Five Ancestors, and Gangrou-

quan (Hard Soft Fist; pronounced "Gōjūken in Japanese). Many Okinawan

weapons such as the sai, tonfa, and nunchaku may have originated in and around

Southeast Asia.

Sakukawa Kanga (1782–1838) had studied pugilism and staff (bo)

fighting in China (according to one legend, under the guidance of Kosokun,

originator of kusanku kata). In 1806 he started teaching a fighting art in the city

of Shuri that he called Tudi Sakukawa, which meant Sakukawa of China Hand.

This was the first known recorded reference to the art of Tudi,written as Around

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the 1820s Sakukawa's most significant student Matsumura Sōkon (1809–1899)

taught a synthesis of te (Shuri-te and Tomari-te) and Shaolin (Chinese) styles.

Matsumura's style would later become the Shōrin-ryū style.

1.16 YOGA

Yoga is a discipline to improve or develop one’s inherent power in a

balanced manner. It offers the means to attain complete self-realisation. The

literal meaning of the Sanskrit word Yoga is ’Yoke’. Yoga can therefore be

defined as a means of uniting the individual spirit with the universal spirit of

God. According to Maharishi Patanjali, Yoga is the suppression of modifications

of the mind.

Ancient Yogis had a belief that in order for man to be in harmony with

himself and his environment, he has to integrate the body, the mind, and the

spirit. For these three to be integrated, emotion, action, and intelligence must be

in balance. The Yogis formulated a way to achieve and maintain this balance and

it is done through exercise, breathing, and Meditation - the three main Yoga

structures. In Yoga, the body is treated with care and respect for it is the

primary instrument in man's work and growth. Yoga Exercises improve

circulation, stimulate the abdominal organs, and put pressure on the glandular

system of the body, which can generally result to better health. Breathing

techniques were developed based on the concept that breath is the source of life.

In Yoga, students gain breathing control as they slowly increase their breathing.

By focusing on their breathing, they prepare their minds for the next step -

Meditation. There is a general misconception that in Meditation, your mind has

to go blank. It doesn't have to be so. In Meditation, students bring the activities

of the mind into focus resulting in a 'quiet' mind. By designing physical poses

and Breathing Techniques that develop awareness of our body, Yoga helps us

focus and relieves us from our everyday stress.

Yoga is an ancient Indian philosophy based on diverse breathing,

stretching, and meditation exercises. The "physical" part of Yoga (Hatha)

consists of several stretching and strength-building exercises of varying degree

of difficulty called asanas. In complementary alternative medicine, Hatha Yoga

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(HY) has proved to reduce stress and pain (muscle and systemic) Netz and Lidor

(2003)

Yoga Sutra defines asana as that which is comfortable and easy, as well as

firm. It is a dynamic position, in which the practitioner is perfectly poised

between activity and non-activity, being doing and "being done by" the posture.

A corresponding mental balance exists between movement and stillness. Yoga

teaches that each posture reflects a mental attitude, whether that attitude be one

of surrender, as in a forward bending asana, or the strengthening of the will,

through backward bending postures, or the creation of a physical prayer or

meditation with the body, as in the practice of Padmasana (Lotus Posture). A

posture or asana can be used for rejuvenating specific organs and glands as well

as the spine.

Yoga is the Hindu practice of physical, mental, and spiritual discipline,

originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga,

is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility

while meditating on the Hindu concept of divinity or Brahman The word is

associated with meditative practices in Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Yoga

means 'Oneness' and constitutes the essence of every possible religion, the gist of

every creed and the core of every spiritual path. In ancient India, yoga was

practised by such sages as Shiva, Rama, Krishna and Vyasa. Krishna teaches

Arjuna is not Krishnaism, but just Yoga. The root of Jainism is Yoga, since

Mahavira practised Hatha Yoga. Jesus Christ even carried out a lengthy

pilgrimage with the purpose of studying yoga. Gautama Buddha studied Yoga

throughout his life. Bodhidharma brought Buddha's raja yoga from India to

China. In the Middle East countries this practice is known as SUFA or ZUF. As

the Bible teaches, such men as Samuel or David the prophets, were related to the

sufi school. In Tibet, people do not call themselves the Buddhists but the yoga

practitioners. Padmasambhava is a yogi as well.

All teachings guide an embodied spirit in a (non)-personal relationship to

God. The supreme godhead resides in every being in its heart. The native yoga-

paths are a part of the vedic-culture we refer to today as hinduism, but the real

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importance of vedic culture seems to be that it has enabled native yoga-paths to

stay in the Indian sub-continent unchanged longer than they have in other

locations. It seems as if these philosophies were once known all over the world.

1.16.1 BENEFITS OF ASANA

Raub JA (2002), The three main elements used in hatha yoga to attain its

purposes are the body, the physical part of man; the mind, the subtle part; and

the element that relates the body with the mind in a special way, the breath. Over

the last 10 years, a growing number of research studies have shown that the

practice of hatha yoga can improve strength and flexibility, and may help control

such physiological variables as blood pressure, respiration and heart rate, and

metabolic rate to improve overall exercise capacity. The physical benefits of

yoga are myriad. Yoga keeps our body strong, as it involves all the muscles of

our body to hold and balance yoga Asanas (poses). The various yoga postures

strengthen our feet, legs, hands, abdominals, lower back, legs, and shoulders.

Yoga’s stretching and breathing exercises improve our flexibility, helping joints,

tendons, and muscles stay limber. People suffering from osteoarthritis or

rheumatoid arthritis will see a noticeable improvement in their stiffness, pain,

and other arthritic symptoms by practicing yoga poses and postures. It can

relieve chronic back and neck pain, since the poses and postures gently stretch

and strengthen your back and neck muscles. Yoga is often prescribed to help

heal various injuries, including repetitive strain injuries, knee and back injuries

and pulled hamstrings.

1.16.2 BENEFITS OF ASANA FOR CARDIAC SYSTEM

The finding of Muralidhara and Ranganathan (1982), that yoga training

improves physical efficiency as indicated by significant increase in cardiac

recovery. The gentler forms of yoga lower our blood pressure because the asanas

(yoga poses, postures, and yoga positions keep blood flowing evenly throughout

body while focus on breathing. People suffering from hypertension can benefit

from yoga tremendously, as hatha yoga can lower the heart rate and blood

pressure. Many practitioners claim that yoga has also lowered their cholesterol.

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Power yoga is an excellent form of cardio conditioning, which strengthens core

muscles while it keeps blood and oxygen circulating throughout body.

1.16.3 BENEFITS OF ASANAS FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

Khanam AA et.al., (1996) Environmental conditions and variety of

behavioural factors such as stress, anxiety, affective and attitudinal dispositions

of the individual influence the cardiovascular responses. Yogic exercise involves

physical, mental and spiritual task in a comprehensive manner. It brings about

the behavioural changes. Yoga in long duration affects hypothalamus and brings

about decrease in the systolic and diastolic BP through its influence on

vasomotor centre, which leads to reduction in sympathetic tone and peripheral

resistance. Yoga can reduce tension, headaches and migraines because yoga

circulates blood and oxygen to head, which can often prevent headaches from

starting. A regular yoga practice helps boost antioxidants throughout our body,

resulting in a stronger immune system and improved ability to heal quickly from

disease or injury. It can help to lose weight and maintain a healthy weight

throughout our life. Power yoga is a vigorous form of yoga that burns calories,

resulting in weight loss.

1.16.4 Pranayama

The process of controlling the Prana is called Pranayama. So pranayama

is the science related to vital force supplying energy and controlling the body

mind complex. Breathing is the process of taking in this vital energy and

removing the waste products out of our body and mind. Generally breathing

includes inhalation and exhalation but pranayama includes retention of breath

(known as 'Kumbhaka' in Sanskrit) as well. This is a very important process. The

air can be retained in the lungs or out of the lungs. The ancient texts say that

retention of air, increases the level of prana (energy) in the body, also it regulates

the flow of pranic energy through out the body. So pranayama helps remove all

the ailments and also can stop the aging process of the body.

1.16.5 Mind and Breath

The mind, consisting of thoughts and emotions is closely related to the

breath. When the mind is calm and relaxed, the breathing is smooth and slow. If

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you are stressed breathing is fast & shallow but mostly through chest. When one

gets angry, the breathing becomes fast and forceful, in depressed states sighing,

when in pain gasping, in anxiety shallow and rapid. In this way, the mental and

emotional states affect breathing.

1.16.6 Rhythmic Breathing in Pranayama

All the processes and organs like heart, brain, digestive organs, endocrine

glands in the body have rhythms. Also the breathing has specific rhythms.

Pranayama is Rhythmic breathing, bringing the breath in natural rhythm by

controlling the process of inhalation, exhalation and retention.

1.16.7 Physiology of Yogic Breathing

In process of breathing, one uses diaphragm, intercostals muscles in the

chest. The diaphragmatic breathing is called vertical breathing and is considered

a more efficient way to inhale air than inhaling while expanding the chest which

is called horizontal breathing.

In pranayama, one should utilize the diaphragm efficiently to get more

oxygen without making more efforts. The diaphragm is attached to the organs

like heart and lings, also the liver, spleen, pancreas and stomach from the bottom

side. Efficient movement of the diaphragm makes the functioning of these

organs more efficient.

Patanjali in his text of Yoga Sutras mentioned pranayama as means of

attaining higher states of awareness, he mentions the holding of breath as

important practice of reaching Samadhi. Hatha Yoga also talks about 8 types of

pranayama which will make the body and mind healthy.

Five types of prana are responsible for various pranic activities in the

body, they are Prana, Apana, Vyan, Udana & Samana. Out of these Prana and

Apana are most important. Prana is upward flowing and Apana is downward

flowing. Practice of Pranayama achieves the balance in the activities of these

pranas, which results in healthy body and mind.

1.16.8 Types of Pranayama

Quiet Breathing , Deep Breathing , Fast Breathing, Tribandha and

Pranayama, Nadi Shuddhi Pranayama or Anuloma - Viloma (Alternate nostril

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breathing - I), Anuloma - Viloma (Alternate Nostril Breathing - II), Suryan

Bhedan Pranayama (Right Nostril Breathing), Ujjayi Pranayama, Bhramari

Pranayama, Pranayama from Hatha Yoga, Surya Bhedan, Bhasrika, Ujjayi,

Shitali, Sitkari, Bhramari, Murchha & Plavini Pranayama.

1.16.9 Meditation

Meditation is a practice in which an individual trains the mind or induces

a mode of consciousness, either to realize some benefit or as an end in itself. The

term meditation refers to a broad variety of practices (much like the term sports)

that includes techniques designed to promote relaxation, build internal energy or

life force (qi, ki, prana, etc.) and develop compassion, love, patience, generosity

and forgiveness. A particularly ambitious form of meditation aims at effortlessly

sustained single-pointed concentration single-pointed analysis, meant to enable

its practitioner to enjoy an indestructible sense of well-being while engaging in

any life activity.

The word meditation carries different meanings in different contexts.

Meditation has been practiced since antiquity as a component of numerous

religious traditions and beliefs. Meditation often involves an internal effort to

self-regulate the mind in some way. Meditation is often used to clear the mind

and ease many health issues, such as high blood pressure, depression, and

anxiety. It may be done sitting, or in an active way—for instance, Buddhist

monks involve awareness in their day-to-day activities as a form of mind-

training. Prayer beads or other ritual objects are commonly used during

meditation in order to keep track of or remind the practitioner about some aspect

of the training.

1.17. MARTIAL ARTS AND YOGA

Martial Arts-Yoga includes sitting postures, standing meditations and

more advanced hand positions or mudras to circulate energy through the whole

system and the energy bodies. Alchemised energy results from the mixture of

divine light with the inner fires or kundalini. The circulation of power and

energy – especially the alchemised circulation – flows more efficiently when

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practicing a standing posture because it involves the lower centres, including the

legs.

Martial Arts-Yoga dynamic are the systematic, sequenced designs of bio-

mechanical movements synchronised with breathing techniques that maximise

circulation and energise the whole body system. The result is tremendously

powerful than normal martial arts or yoga alone. It’s like combining the best

Japanese martial arts style with the best of Tibetan, Nepalese and Indian yoga

systems. Martial Arts-Yoga is divided into seven levels that integrate the

development of greater physical acumen along with the development of life

skills, higher virtues and values.

1.18 CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

Physical fitness is the ability to carry out daily task with vigor and

alertness without undue fatigue and with ample energy in leisure pursuits and

meet emergency situations.

Health is very important part in ones life. So every one should take care

of their health. Nowadays people are trying to be fit and active. For this they are

joining fitness clubs, doing exercises regularly, etc. If we are active then we can

be fit, strong and healthy. There is relation between physical fitness and health.

If we are physically fit then we was have healthier life. If we overweight then we

can reduce the weight or loose the extra pounds of fat by doing exercises and

controlling the food.

1.18.1 Agility

Sheppard and Young (2006) define agility as “a rapid whole body

movement with change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus.”

Evelyn.L, Shury, (1975)In order to develop agility it is unnecessary to

consistently introduce the sportsmen to new more complicated movements and

carry out already known movements under reveal conditions. Agility is

developed through practice and confidence in movements.

Agility is one of the main components of physical fitness which is

considered to be important agility is the ability of man to co-ordinate his

movement and to synchronise them according to the requirements of changing

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conditions. In sports are distinguish between general and specific agility, general

agility is expressed by the ability of a person to perform any movement from the

entire versatile range of spotting, activities in a functional and resourceful

manner.

Specific agility develops in accordance with the nature of the body

movement of particular competition event. Essentially specific agility is the

agility to vary the technique of the selected experience. But the greater the

agility or a sportsmen, the more precise quickly and more effective and his

movement to restore balance. Agility also gains importance during conscious

movements, correction by the sportsman during training.

Previously it was believed that agility is a single taster by itself. No, it is

believed that agility including strength power and co-operation. It is

demonstrated to such movement as dodging, zig-zag running, stopping and

starting and changing body position quickly.

Agility however must be in response to an opposing player, moving

target, as seen in field sports and racket sports. Aside from improving sports

performance, why would an individual need to maintain or improve agility

Dodging requires agility, such as jumping out of the way of an oncoming car or

avoiding an unexpected hole. If the ever need to run down a crowded street to

catch a bus or escape an assailant, agility will help the avoid knocking the self

out on a utility pole or tripping over a dog leash. Material to exercise the

balance agility for children Exercises. Many of exercises to improve agility

involve an agility ladder. It is a ladder drawn on the floor, with the individual

required to hop or high-step through the rungs with a variety of forward,

backward and lateral motions. A person could also practice the tests of agility.

1. 18.2 Flexibility

Flexibility is the ability to move joints and use muscles through their full

range of motion. There are various techniques of stretching grouped as static,

ballistic and assisted. In static and ballistic the athlete is in control of the

movements. In assisted movement he is controlled by an external force.

Flexibility plays an important role in the preparation of athletes by developing

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range movements to allow technical development an assisting in the prevention

of injury (Harre and Dietrich, 1982). Protagonist muscles are the cause for

movement of muscles and the antagonistic muscles are the ones that help

muscles in opposing 8 the movement. The training helps to improve the range of

stretch of the antagonistic muscles. In the game of hockey flexibility helps to

stretch the muscles and increase the bending, reaching, twisting and turning to

tackle and beat the opponent in efficient manner.

1.18.3 Muscular Strength

Muscular strength is the ability to generate force at a given velocity of

movement. One of the five primary components of physical fitness, it is

generally developed using resistance training. This type of training typically

aims to stimulate increased strength on a number of physiological levels.

Individual strength can be an indicator of overall health, or a measure of

progress during resistance or rehabilitation training programme. As such, there

are a number of available methods for testing physical strength.

Strength is the ability of the individual to exert force against an object. It

is the ability to overcome resistance or to act against resistance. Muscle strength

is what happens when the nervous system communicates a message to the

muscle fibers to contract so as to produce force. Often the force produced by a

muscle contraction is against resistance. Strength should not be considered as a

product of only muscular contractions. It is in fact a product of voluntary

muscular contractions caused by the neuromuscular system. The abdominal

strength is very much useful in the field of sports and games. When an

individual possess a high degree of abdominal strength, he will be able to

perform any type of activity such as running, jumping and throwing. The

abdominal strength helps to maintain the body postures, thereby involving in

many activities in the field of sports and games. Lifting a load or moving an

inanimate or animate object essentially depends on the abdominal muscular

strength.

Strength is the most important element in motor performance. Strength is

a consistent differentiator of ability to make and to achieve success in sports.

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Young athletes develop strength through natural, unbroken movements such as

jumps, throws and other body weight exercises. Proper strength training serves

not only to improve overall performance, but also to secure the body and help

the athlete avoid injury.

1. 18.4 Explosive Power

Explosive power is the ability to release maximum force as fast as

possible. It is a maximum muscular contraction against a resistance in a

minimum amount of time. Power = Force x Velocity. It is a compound element

of motor fitness. It needs specific muscular strength, speed of limb movement

and skill in integrating and co-ordinating the action. Increased velocity of parts

of the body is related to improved neuromuscular initiation, co-ordination and

precision of movement patterns. When a highly skilled level is attained, further

performance improvement is primarily attributable to the increase in strength.

Muscular power exists in its own right. Strength and power are separate entities.

Successful sporting performance at elite levels of competition often

depends heavily on the explosive leg power of the athletes involved. Many team

sports also require high levels of explosive power, such as Basketball,

Volleyball, Netball and the Rugby and Football codes for success at elite levels

of competition. Explosive power comes from the development of speed strength

and pure strength. Power represents the amount of work a muscle or muscle

group can produce per unit of time (Shorten, 1994). Until recent years powers as

it relates to sports performance has been the subject of limited research, but in

the last decade or so researchers have realized the importance of training for

power in a wide variety of sporting activities (Clutch et al, 1983).

Vertical and horizontal jumping, in its many different forms, requires

high levels of explosive muscular power. Brukner and Kahn (1997) note power

as the equivalent of explosive strength. According to Brukner and Kahn (2001),

Power is the equivalent of explosive strength. Young and Bilby (1993) used the

term "speed-strength" synonymous with power. Paavolaienen et al, (1999),

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suggested that muscle power is the ability of neuromuscular system to produce

power during maximal exercise when glycolytic and oxidative energy production

is high and muscle contractility may be limited.

1. 18.4.1 Arm Explosive Power

Arm Explosive power is the ability to release the maximum muscular force in on

explosive manner, in the shortest possible time. (Hardayal Singh, 1991).

1.19 PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES

Physiology meaning nature, origin, and meaning is the scientific study of

function in living systems. This includes how organisms, organ

systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical

functions that exist in a living system. Human physiology is the science of the

mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and

the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology

is at the level of organs and systems within systems. Much of the foundation of

knowledge in human physiology was provided by animal experimentation.

Physiology is closely related to anatomy; anatomy is the study of form, and

physiology is the study of function. Due to the frequent connection between

form and function, physiology and anatomy are intrinsically linked and are

studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.

1.19.1 Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood against the walls of

the arteries. This pressure is created by the contractions of the heart and it is that

propels the blood through the blood vessels. During each heartbeat, the heart

pumps a volume of blood. The ejection of this additional volume of blood into

the arterial system serves to raise the pressure of blood in the arteries during

systole is called systolic pressure. During diastole, the distended arteries recoil

due to their elasticity and press on the blood contained in them. This serves to

maintain the arterial blood pressure during diastole although no blood is being

pumped in the arteries by the heart in diastole is called diastolic pressure. The

maximum blood pressure during contraction of ventricles is called systolic blood

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pressure. The minimum blood pressure during relaxation of ventricles is called

diastolic blood pressure.

1.19.1.1 Systolic Blood Pressure

Systolic pressure is the highest blood pressure of the cardiac cycle

occurring immediately after systolic of the ventricles of the heart (Fox, 1993).

1.19.1.2 Diastolic Blood Pressure

Diastolic pressure is the lowest arterial blood pressure of the cardiac cycle

occurring during diastolic of the heart (Fox, 1993).

1.19.2 Maximum Oxygen Consumption (Vo2 max)

Maximum oxygen uptake (Vo2 max) refers to the highest rate at which

oxygen can be taken up and consumed by the body during intense exercises.

Traditionally, the magnitude of an individual’s Vo2 max has been viewed as one

of the most important predictors of endurance. The ability of the cardio

respiratory system to transport oxygen to the exercising muscles refers to the

central component of Vo2 max. The role of the central component is for oxygen

to be transported from the atmosphere and delivered to the muscles where it is

utilized during mitochondrial respiration to produce ATP. The major limitations

to oxygen delivery are pulmonary diffusion, cardiac output, blood volume and

flow. In aerobic work, oxygen is obtained from the air and is transferred from

the lungs to the blood and then to the muscles via the circulatory system.

Maximal oxygen uptake or maximal aerobic power (Vo2 max) is the indicator of

aerobic fitness. As VO2 max increases, the level of aerobic fitness also increases

which refers to individual aerobic capacity. An individual who is fit will have a

cardio-respiratory system that is capable of meeting the demands of the tissues

under conditions of intense exercise.

1.19.3 Resting Heart Rate

Resting heart rate (RHR) refers to the number of times your heart beats in

one minute while at rest. The average RHR is 70-80 beats per minute (BPM),

though athletes may have resting heart rates as low as 40-50 BPM. RHR is often

a measure of fitness as you become fit; RHR will decrease as your heart

becomes more efficient. It reflects the health of a person and hence is an

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important health factor that should be measured. RHR tells how efficiently our

heart and lungs work. Lower the resting heart rate, healthier is the person. There

are certain factors that govern one's resting heart rate, they are, sex, age, physical

fitness, anxiety, medication, etc. Heart rates vary from person to person and

according to some scientific studies, resting heart rate does not determine a

person's health. Read more on Healthy Pulse Rates - Normal Pulse Rate for

Humans. It should be measured early in the morning before you get out of your

bed. Once you get out of your bed the heart rate will increase due to the daily

activities. Even getting up and walking in your bedroom can increase your heart

beat, hence early morning is the best time to measure resting heart rate.

Measuring resting heart rate at regular interval of time can give you an idea of

your health improvement, if you are under any health training program.

1.20 PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES

According to M.L.Kamlesh sports psychology is the application or

psychological principles to sport and psychological activity at all levels of skill

development. Psychology is the study of human behaviour and human

relationship. Sports psychology means applying psychological theories and

concepts to aspects of sports such as coaching and teaching. Sports psychology

is concerned with analyzing human behaviour in various types of sport settings.

It is individual’s behaviour acting individually and acting in a group. This sport

psychologist uses psychological in assessment techniques and intervention

strategies are an effort to help individuals to achieve their optimal performance.

Sports psychology is an applied psychology with three major activities as

clinical, education and research.

Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves

the scientific study of mental functions and behaviors. Psychology has the

immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups by both establishing

general principles and researching specific cases, and by many accounts it

ultimately aims to benefit society. In this field, a professional practitioner or

researcher is called a psychologist, and can be classified as asocial, behavioral,

or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental

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functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the

physiological and neuro biological processes that underlie certain cognitive

functions and behaviors.

Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention,

emotion, phenomenology, motivation, behavior, brain functioning, personality

and interpersonal relationships. Psychologists of diverse stripes also consider

the unconscious mind. Psychologists employ empirical methods to

infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables.

In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive methods,

some—especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely

upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology has

been described as a "hub science", with psychological findings linking to

research and perspectives from the social sciences, natural sciences, medicine,

and the humanities, such as philosophy.

While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment

and treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards

understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of human activity.

The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role,

practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research

on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior, and typically

work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings

(e.g., medical schools, hospitals). Some are employed in industrial and

organizational settings, or in other areas such as human development and

aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic investigation and

other aspects of law.

1.20.1 Anxiety

Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by

cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components

combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with

uneasiness, apprehension, fear, or worry. Anxiety is a generalized mood

condition that can often occur without an identifiable triggering stimulus. As

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such, it is distinguished from fear, which occurs in the presence of an observed

threat. Additionally, fear is related to the specific behaviors of escape and

avoidance, whereas anxiety is the result of threats that are perceived to be

uncontrollable or unavoidable. Another view is that anxiety is “a future-oriented

mood state in which one is ready or prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming

negative events” suggesting that it is a distinction between future vs. present

dangers that divides anxiety and fear. Anxiety is considered to be a normal

reaction to stress. It may help a person to deal with a difficult situation, for

example at work or at school, by prompting one to cope with it. When anxiety

becomes excessive, it may fall under the classification of an anxiety disorder.

Anxiety is man tested in a varied of ways. Some times individual

experiences it, as merely in sense of harmless dread without being able to

identity or of what he is fearful. Psychiatrists call this three floating anxiety to

indicate that it is not attached to any specific object. When all individual main

symptoms are that of free floating anxiety psychiatrists diagnose the condition as

an anxiety state.

Anxiety is the sense of uneasiness that is experienced in the individual’s

relationships with other people (and in his / her relationship to their own

conscience). In any situation where the person’s vanity is undermined, fear

arises. The conjunction of this fear with the vanity creates anxiety. Anxiety =

fear + vanity. Anxiety is a generalized mood that can occur without an

identifiable triggering stimulus. As such, it is distinguished from fear, which is

an appropriate cognitive and emotional response to a perceived threat.

Additionally, fear is related to the specific behaviours of escape and avoidance,

whereas anxiety is related to situations perceived as uncontrollable or

unavoidable. Another view defines anxiety as "a future-oriented mood state in

which one is ready or prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming negative

events, suggesting that it is a distinction between future and present dangers

which divides anxiety and fear. In a 2011 review of the literature, fear and

anxiety were said to be differentiated in four domains: duration of emotional

experience, temporal focus, specificity of the threat, and motivated direction.

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Fear was defined as short lived, present focused, geared towards a specific

threat, and facilitating escape from threat; while anxiety was defined as long

acting, future focused, broadly focused towards a diffuse threat, and promoting

caution while approaching a potential threat.

1.20.2 Aggression

Karl (1991) points out that even something as clear-cut as killing another

man can have radically different interpretations. A man is accused of a

"cowardly attack" if he kills another during a robbery, but is praised for a

"courageous deed" if he kills a guard while escaping from a prisoner of war

camp. While it is fairly certain that most people would suggest that aggression

has occurred in both cases, the degree of justification and approval differs. It

might be suggested that when an act is justified, it is less aggressive than one

that is unjustified.

Groebel and Hinde (1989) define aggression as an interaction between

two individuals. "Attack on another individual usually involves risk of injury for

the attacker. It is therefore rarely single-minded, but is associated with self-

protective and withdrawal responses." (p.4) Other authors have suggested that

aggression may be directed toward inanimate objects as well. Aggression may be

of several types. Instrumental aggression is goal oriented and occurs during theft

or war. This may also be called felonious aggression. Hostile or teasing

aggression, or emotional aggression is directed toward another and harm is

intended. Defensive aggression occurs when one is attacked or provoked. Games

aggression occurs when one deliberately tries to injure someone during a

sporting venture. Dyssocial aggression is associated with gang behavior, and

bizarre aggression is due to psychopathic behavior. Violence is defined by these

authors as physical but not psychological damage to a person or object.

1.21 NEED OF THE STUDY

Many studies have examined the physical, physiological, psychological

and skill performance difference between players and difference martial art

players of various calibers. The better players have been older, stronger, larger

and able to jump higher. To the research knowledge, no research has examined

54

silambam, karate with yoga performance capabilities of different calibres of

martial art players. Hence A study has been under taken to find out the effects of

silambam and karate training with yogic practices on physical, physiological

and psychological variables among male students.

1.22 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The purpose of the study was to find out the effects of Silambam and

Karate training with yogic practices on physical, physiological and

psychological variables of collegiate male students.

1.23 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To find out whether silambam training would improve physical variables

of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive power,

physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood

pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables anxiety and

aggression of collegiate male students.

2. To find out whether Karate training would improve the be improve physical

variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive power,

physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood

pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables anxiety and

aggression of collegiate male students.

3. To find out whether silambam training with yogic practices would improve

physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive

power, physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure,

diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables

anxiety and aggression of collegiate male students.

4. To find out whether karate training with yogic practices would improve

physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive

power, physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure,

diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables

anxiety and aggression of collegiate male students.

5. To find out whether silambam training with yogic practices would improve

physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive

55

power, physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure,

diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables

anxiety and aggression better than the karate training with yogic practice

group, karate training group, silambam training group, and control group of

collegiate male students.

6. To find out whether karate training with yogic practices group would

significantly improve physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength,

agility, arm explosive power, physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic

blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and

psychological variables anxiety and aggression better than the karate

training group, silambam training group and control group of collegiate

male students.

7. To find out whether silambam training would significantly improve

physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive

power, physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure,

diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables

anxiety and aggression better than the karate training group and control

group of collegiate male students.

8. To find out whether karate training would significantly improve physical

variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive power,

physiological variables of Vo2 max, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood

pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables anxiety and

aggression better than the control group of collegiate male students.

1.24 HYPOTHESIS

1. It was hypothesized that the silambam training would not significantly

improve the physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm

explosive power, physiological variables of systolic blood pressure,

diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables

anxiety and aggression of collegiate male students.

2. It was hypothesized that the karate training would not significantly improve

physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm explosive

56

power, physiological variables of systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood

pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables anxiety and

aggression of collegiate male students.

3. It was hypothesized that the silambam training with yogic practice would

not significantly improve the physical variables of flexibility, muscular

strength, agility, arm explosive power, physiological variables of systolic

blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and

psychological variables anxiety and aggression of collegiate male students.

4. It was hypothesized that the karate training with yogic practices would not

significantly improve the physical variables of flexibility, muscular

strength, agility, arm explosive power, physiological variables of systolic

blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and

psychological variables anxiety and aggression of collegiate male students.

5. It was hypothesized that the silambam training with yogic practices group

would not significantly improve physical variables of flexibility, muscular

strength, agility, arm explosive power, physiological variables of systolic

blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and

psychological variables anxiety and aggression better than the karate

training with yogic practices group, karate training group, silambam

training group and control group of collegiate male students.

6. It was hypothesized that the karate training with yogic practices group

would not significantly improve physical variables of flexibility, muscular

strength, agility, arm explosive power, physiological variables of systolic

blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and

psychological variables anxiety and aggression better than the karate

training group, silambam training group and control group of collegiate

male students.

7. It was hypothesized that the silambam training group would not

significantly improve physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength,

agility, arm explosive power, physiological variables of systolic blood

pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological

57

variables anxiety and aggression better than the karate training group and

control group of collegiate male students.

8. It was hypothesized that the karate training group would not significantly

improve physical variables of flexibility, muscular strength, agility, arm

explosive power, physiological variables of systolic blood pressure,

diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate and psychological variables

anxiety and aggression better than the control group on of collegiate male

students.

1.25 DELIMITATION

1. The total numbers of subjects were delimited to one hundred with equal

number of twenty in each group.

2. Subjects of the present study were selected from Karpagam University

only. The subjects age; Body weight; Height;(19± 2.3 years; 65 ± 5.4 kg;

166 ± 4.5 cm) respectively.

3. The physical variables were delimited to flexibility, muscular strength,

agility, arm explosive power.

4. The physiological variables were delimited to Vo2 max, systolic blood

pressure, diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate.

5. The psychological variables were delimited to anxiety and aggression.

6. The duration and frequency was delimited to weekly five days for a period

of 12 weeks.

1.26 LIMITATION

The study was conducted with the following limitations

1. The influence of certain factors like life style, daily routine work, diet and

other factors on the results of the study were not taken in to consideration.

2. No attempt has been made to control the factors like air resistance, intensity

of light atmosphere and temperature during training and testing period.

3. The educational and socio-economic back grounds of the subjects were not

taken into consideration.

4. The knowledge of previous experience in training were not taken into

consideration

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5. The psychological stress and other factors, which affect the metabolic

function were not taken into consideration

1.27 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study would be significant in the following ways

1. The finding of the study may add to the existing fund of knowledge with

regard to the silambam, karate training and yogic practice to improve the

physical, physiological and psychological variables and helpful to the

student to learn the Indian traditional martial art of Silambam and karate.

2. The finding of this study would add to quantum of knowledge, the level of

improvement in silambam students and learners.

3. This study may help the silambam players to prepare for future

competitions.

4. This study can provide guidelines for the silambam coaches and physical

education teachers to understand the importance of silambam training in

order to improve the game techniques of the players.

5. The study can give information to silambam coaches to add silambam

training with yogic training in the regular training program in order to

improve physical fitness components of silambam players.

6. The contribution of this study would bring healthy fit society in India.

7. This study may help the future research scholars to select the problem

relating to the study.

8. This study can give special knowledge to the fitness experts, health

consultants, conditioning experts and athletes of different levels of

performance and achievement with reference to silambam training.

1.28 DEFINITION OF TECHNICAL TERMS

1. 28.1 Martial Arts

John Clements (2009) A martial art, in essence, can be said to be

something that originates in skills of war, hence its martial or warlike quality.

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1. 28.2 Silambam

Silambam is a traditional Dravidian martial art based on stick fighting. To

meditate got attracted by the display of this highly skilled spinning

Chilambamboo.

1.28.3 Karate

Karate is a martial art, primarily a striking art, featuring punching,

kicking, knee and elbow strikes, and open-handed techniques, but grappling,

joint manipulations, locks, restraints, throws, and vital point striking were also

taught, depending on the style.

1.28.4 Yoga

According to Maharishi Patanjali, Yoga is the suppression of

modifications of the mind and to attain complete self-realisation.

1.28.5 Agility

Barry, L. and Jack Nelson (1972) defined as the physical agility which

enables an individual to rapidly change body position and a direction in a precise

manner.

Sheppard and Young (2006) define agility as “a rapid whole body

movement with change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus.”

1.28.6 Flexibility

(Harre and Dietrich, 1982) define flexibility is the ability to move joints

and use muscles through their full range of motion.

1.28.7 Muscular Strength

The ability to generate force is necessary for all types of movement.

Muscle fibre cross-sectional area (CSA) is positively related to maximal force

production (Finer et al 1994).

The arrangement of fibres according to their angle of pennation, muscle

length, joint angle, and contraction velocity can alter the expression of muscular

strength (Gulch 1994, and Kibler 2006).

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1.28.8 Arm Explosive Power

Hardayal Singh, (1991) Arm Explosive power is the ability to release the

maximum muscular force in on explosive manner, in the shortest possible time.

1.28.8 Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood against the walls of

the arteries. This pressure is created by the contractions of the heart and it is that

propels the blood through the blood vessels.

1.28.8.1 Systolic Blood Pressure

Systolic pressure is the highest blood pressure of the cardiac cycle

occurring immediately after systolic of the ventricles of the heart (Fox, 1993).

1.28.8.2 Diastolic Blood Pressure

Diastolic pressure is the lowest arterial blood pressure of the cardiac cycle

occurring during diastolic of the heart (Fox, 1993).

1.28.9 Maximum Oxygen Consumption (Vo2 max)

Vo2 max is the maximum capacity of an individual’s body to transport

and utilize oxygen during incremental exercise, which reflects the physical

fitness of the Individual.

1.28.10 Resisting Pulse Rate

Miller (1976) Measurement of heart rate when an organism is under

physical and mental rest can be termed as resting pulse rate.

“The time from the end of one contraction to the end of the next

contraction is a complete heart beat or pulse or cardiac cycle. The complete

cardiac cycle takes less than one second (about 0.08 sec) in a normal adult at rest

and is shortened by exercise”. (Eva Lurie Weinerb, 1984).

1.28.11 Anxiety

Anxiety is the sense of uneasiness that is experienced in the individual’s

relationships with other people and in his / her relationship to their own

conscience.

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1.28.12 Aggression

Karl (1991) points out that even something as clear-cut as killing another

man can have radically different interpretations. A man is accused of a

"cowardly attack" if he kills another during a robbery, but is praised for a

"courageous deed" if he kills a guard while escaping from a prisoner of war

camp.