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Chapter I
Vedic Literature
The Vedas are the oldest scriptures of India. They are the
seeds, from which the huge tree of Indian thought has evolved.
The aspects such as philosophy, ritualism, society, culture, etc.
are developed from the great Vedas. The four-fold values of
life Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa constitute the essential
message of the Vedas.
Meaning of the word *Veda'
The word Veda is derived from the root ^Vid', which
means 'to know'. Thus the word Veda means wisdom. The
Vedas are the treasure of wisdom, which revealed by the
sages. According to Sanskrit grammar the word Veda derives
from four roots in four meanings. They are vid sattayam, vid
jnane, vid vicarane and vidlr labhe, and their meanings are
existence, knowledge, distinction and attainment respectively .
It is through the Vedas the existence of Purusarthas can be
Kapil Dev Dvivedi, Vaidik Sahitya Evam Samskriti, p.l.
established The Vedas provide the knowledge of the
Purusarthas, describe the ways to moksa and finally they help
to attain moksa, the ultimate goal of life .
Sayana defines the Veda as the text which provides the
non-worldly means to attain what is good for one and to avoid
what is bad to one . Sayana also establishes the validity of the
Vedas. The Vedas are the means to gain the knowledge which
is not available through perception and inference .
Thus the word Veda' indicates knowledge. The
knowledge includes both of worldly and non-worldly aspects.
The words such as Sruti, Agama, Trayi, Chandah, Amnaya,
Svadhyaya, etc. are synonyms of the word Veda.
%r^ w^ ^ n ^ ^ W * ^^^WiffrT % g I
Vishnumitra, Rkpratisakhya vyakhya.
Sayana, Taittiriyasamhitabhasyabhumika.
lT;f M ^ ^ CTHR: f ^ %rTT I
Sayana, Taittiriyasamhitabhasyabhumika.
Origin of the Vedas
The Vedas are regarded as the earliest written document
of humans. It is believed that humans did not compose the
revered compositions of the Vedas, which were transmitted
through generations by the word of mouth from time
immemorial. The general assumption is that the Vedic hymns
were either taught by God to the sages or that they were
revealed themselves to the sages who were the seers
(mantradrasta) of the hymns. Most of Indians like to consider
the Vedas as the gift of God and as eternal.
The traditional teachers of Indian thought had not made
any conflict on the matter of the origin of the Vedas because
they believed the Vedas as the creation of God and not of men.
So when the creation begun then God created the Vedas. The
western scholars and modem Indian thinkers made attempts to
find the date of the Vedas.
Views of the traditional teachers
The traditional teachers call the Vedas as ^Apauruseya\
which means that not a creation of man. They were not
engaged in the investigation of date of the Vedas and they
11
gave more relevance to understand the teachings of the Vedas.
According to the traditional teachers like Saunaka, Sayana,
Vyasa, Mahidhara, Yaska, etc. the Vedas are beginning less.
Views of the modern scholars
The western scholars like H. Jacobi, M. Wintemitz, Max
MuUer, etc. and the modem Indian scholars like
Balagangadhara Tilak, Avinashchandradas, etc. made attempts
to determine the origin of the Vedas.
The famous German scholar H. Jacobi made an attempt
to fix the date of the Vedas by the astronomical evidences. In
the description of the marriage ceremony in the Vedas, there is
a system of seeing the star dhniva is described. The star moves
backward from its place usually. Based on the calculation of
the movement of the star H. Jacobi fixed the date of the Vedas
as B.C. 4500 . M. Wintemitz fixed the age of the Vedas in
between B.C. 2500 - B.C. 500^
Max Muller made an attempt to find out the date of the
Vedas based on the history of Buddhism. The rituals in the
> Kapil Dev Dvivedi, Vaidik Sahitya Evam Samskriti, p.42.
History of Indian Literature, Vol.1, p.290-310.
12
Vedas which caused pain were defended by Buddha.
Max MuUer described four stages of development of the
Vedas Viz; 1) Chandahkala B.C. 1200-1000, 2) Mantrakala
B.C. 1000- 800, 3) Brahmanakala B.C. 800-600, and 4)
Sutrakala B.C.600-400. The first stage is the age of creation of
hymns in the Vedas. The second denotes the age of creation of
Samhitas. The third is the age of creation of Brahmanas and
r _ 7
the last one is the stage of Srautasutras and other sutras .
Avinashchandradas, a famous Indian thinker, based on
the geographical data fixed the date of the Vedas as before
B.C. 25000. He says, there is a hymn in the Rgveda which
mentions the river Sarasvati which begins from the mountain o
Himalaya and ends in the sea . Thousands of years ago the sea
was in Rajasthan. Now the river Sarasvathi and the sea are
disappeared from there. The date of this appearance of these
two is calculated as B.C. 25000. So Rgveda must be made
before B.C.25000.
Kapil Dev Dvivedi, Vaidik Sahitya Evam Samskriti, p.42.
^chl^drl <Wdl ^ ^ ^fMrT P#K[T 3TT '^^J^ I Rgveda,8.95.2.
13
Balagangadhara Tilak made an attempt based on the
astronomical evidences. According to him the Vedas were
composed between B.C. 6000- B.C. 4000. Based on the aspect
of vernal equinox in different stars he classified the stages of
development of the Vedas into four. They are; 1) Aditikala
B.C. 6000-4000, 2) Mrgasirakala B.C. 4000-2500, 3)
Krttikakala B.C. 2500-1400, and 4) Sutrakala B.C. 1400-500^
The modem scholars who attempted to find the date of
the Vedas provide different opinions and they reached in
different conclusions. Thus the assumption of the date of the
Vedas between B.C.6000- B.C. 1000 will be a general
conclusion on this matter.
Structure of the Vedas
The Vedas are four in number. They are Rgveda,
Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. Rgveda means the
Veda of adoration and mostly contains verse adoring deities.
Yajurveda is the Veda of Yajiia or sacrifice. It refers to acts of
worship such as oblations made into Agni. Samaveda consists
Kapil Dev Dvivedi, Vaidik Sahitya Evam Samskriti, p.40.
14
of a selection of poetry mainly from Rgveda, and some
original matter. Atharvaveda means the Veda of the wise and
the old. Considering the four Vedas there are four types of
Priests (^[fept) related to each Veda. They are the Hota, the
Advaryu, the Udgata and the Brahma respectively. The Hota
chants the verses from Rgveda, on the occasion of the
sacrifices. The Advaryu performs the sacrifice with the
instructions of Yajus. The Udgata sings the songs of Sama and
the Brahma is the instructor of the sacrifice.
Each Veda consists of four parts- Samhitas, Brahmanas,
Aranyakas and Upanisads. Samhitas are the collection of
mantras. Brahmanas are the ritualistic texts. Aranyakas and
Upanisads are the concluding portions and they mostly discuss
philosophical matters. Besides these four portions Vedangas
should be considered in order to get the whole picture of Vedic
literature. Vedangas are Siksa, Kalpa, Nirukta, Vyakarana,
Chandah and Jyotisa. Based on the subject matter the whole
content of the Veda is divided into two, Karmakanda and
Jhanakanda. The hymns and prayers of Samhitas and the
descriptions of rituals, sacrifices, etc. in Brahmanas are come
15
under the first division. The philosophical speculations in
Brahmanas and Aranyakas and especially Upanisads come
under the second division.
Samhitas
Samhitas constitute the first part of the Vedas. Each
Veda has Samhitas. Samhitas is generally called as the
collection of mantras, prayers and songs.
Meaning of the word Samhita
The word ^Samhita' means association or compilation.
Samhita is the portion of the Veda, where the prayers and
songs are associated and compiled . The mantras in Samhitas
are compiled under the title suktas. A sukta is a group of
mantras. Each sukta has particular Rsi, devata, artha and
chandah. Rsi is the seer of the mantra. Devata is the deity
devoted by the sukta. Artha is the aim of the mantra. Chandah
is the metre of the sukta .
0
Gajanan Sastri, Vaidik Sahitya ka Ithihas, p.49.
d^cjdmife^^ I t e r :f "^m^ I ^[^^cki g rraf ^ ^ T T T ^ ^ %^i
Gajanan Sastri, Vaidik Sahitya ka Ithihas, p.51.
16
Sakha
The term ^Sakha' MteraWy means ^branch' and it is used
to refer either to a school of the Vedas or to the traditional text
followed by a school. The Vedic mantras used to be handled
down by oral tradition. What the teacher would chant, the
student had to attentively listen and repeat. Because of this
oral transmission of the mantras some minor alterations and
re-adjustments were made. The alterations were also made in
order to suit local or ritualistic mode. Such modified form
came to be known as Sakha. An individual follower of a
particular school or recension is called as Sakhin , a
follower'.
Rgvedasamhita
Among the four Vedas Rgveda possesses the prominent
place. The knower of Rgveda is regarded more prominent than
the knower of other Vedas. The mantras in this Veda are used
to be chant in most of the sacrifices.
Rgvedasamhita is the oldest Samhita, which contains
1017 hymns. If the khilas included then the number of hymns
will be 1028. Rk is the medium through which the deities can
17
12
be devoted . The relevance of the Rk is mentioned in the
Taittiriya Samhita as, the sacrifice which is made without the
use of Rk, it becomes lost and which is made with use of Rk it
becomes great .
Structure of Rgvedasamhita
In Rgvedasamhita there are 1017 suktas, 2006 vargas,
sixty four adhyayas, ten mandalas, eight astakas and eighty
five anuvakas. Eight adhyayas constitute one astaka. A group
of mantras called as varga, and the group of varga is called as
an adhyaya .
There are two kinds of arrangement of Rgvedasamhita;
Astaka arrangement and Mandala arrangement.
Astaka means the collection of eight adhyayas. There are
sixty four adhyayas in Rgvedasamhita and therefore eight W^ "^^ ^o m^\ ^ ^^ I Jaiminiya Nyaya Bhasyam,2.1.12.
c! % q5R?T TTHT ^ 7 ^ f l ^ ^ f^lf^ ?K ^ [ ^ ^ ^ I
Taittiriya Samhita, 6.5.10.3.
Gajanan Sastri, Vaidik Sahitya ka Ithihas, p.53.
5
astakas. A subdivision of one adhyaya is called as varga.
There are 2006 vargas in Rgvedasammhita. Thus there are
eight astakas, sixty four adhyayas, 2006 vargas and 10,552
mantras in Rgvedasamhita.
In mandala type of arrangement the mantras are arranged
in ten mandalas. The sage Sakala said to be made this kind of
arrangement. Each mandala contains various anuvakas. Each
anuvaka contains various hymns. Similarly each hymn
contains various mantras. There are totally eighty five
anuvakas, subdivision in ten mandalas. The total number of
mantras is 10,552. Thus there are ten mandalas, eighty five
anuvakas, 1028 hymns and 10,552 mantras in Rgveda
Samhita.
Sakhas of Rgveda
According to Patanjali there are twenty one sakhas of
Rgveda . But the titles of all sakhas are not available now.
According to Saunaka there are five important sakhas of the
Mahabhasyam, Ahnikam 1.
19
Rgveda. They are Sakala, Baskala, Asvalayana, Sahkhayana
and MandQkayana .
Yajurveda Samhita
Yajurveda Samhita is the collection of Yajus, which is
used by the adhvaryu at the time of sacrifices. It contains
descriptions of ritualistic performances of sacrifices.
Meaning of tlie word Yajus
The word *Yajus' is interpreted in various ways.
According to Yaska, Yajus is the mantras related to sacrifice .
According to Sayana, Yajus are the mantras by which the
sacrifice is performed. The priest adhvaryu represents the
Yajurveda and leads the sacrifice . Jaimini the founder of
TRsJTT ^MFTfr t ^ w^^°o ciibch^iw8iT I ^^^ 'm^°o ^ qolf^ frchciiRng i i
Caranavyuha, p.24.
^ q^4^g I
Nirukta, 7.12.
^ ai ^HHch ^ ^fen: m^ ^^r^ f ^ ^ q ^ ^ 1 3 i ^ ^^rf^ 3I^ZR^ ^ I
Sayana,Rgvedabhasyabhumika.
20
purvamimamsa mentions Yajus as the mantra which is
different from padya (poetic) and giti (song) .
Thus the word Yajus means the mantras which are used
by advaryu in sacrifices and which are in prose order different
from poetic Rgvedic mantras and from Samas. The relevance
of the Yajurveda is mentioned by Sayana by saying
^Yajurveda is the wall, where a beautiful picture of Rgveda
and Samaveda is made'^^.
Structure of Yajurveda
Yajurveda is divided into two; Krsnayajurveda and
Suklayajurveda. There are also two systems, Brahma system
and Aditya system related to these two respectively . Both
samhitas contain the verses necessary for rituals, but the
former has additional commentary and detailed instructions
within the work itself.
^ ^5T^g I Purvamimamsasutram,2.9.37.
Sayana,Taittiriyabhasyabhumika.
^ 3 lR^Ml )HlPl ^j^T#T :r3jp[ CJM^^^H ^ i 5 i c i ^ 3 lteMN'Tl
Satapathabrahmana, 14.9.4.33.
21
There is a traditional story related to these two divisions
of Yajurveda. Vaisampayana was a teacher of the Veda and he
had a pupil named Yajnavalkya. The pupil was very
intelligent and he learnt any thing with just single teaching.
The teacher and pupil came to have serious differences in
interpretations. On one occasion Vaisampayana became very
angry and demanded the return of all the knowledge he has
imparted to Yajnavalkya. Yajnavalkya vomited all the
knowledge he had learnt. The other pupils of Vaisampayana,
eager to receive the knowledge, assumed the form of tittiri
birds and ate that. Thus, the knowledge came to be called as
the Taittiriyasamhita. Later Yajnavalkya worshipped Surya
and acquired new knowledge directly from Narayana, who
preached Suklayajurveda by taking the shape of a stallion
{Vajirupa).
Sakhas of Yajurveda
Pataiijali mentions one hundred sakhas of Yajurveda .
According to Saunaka there are eighty six sakhas. Among
them twelve are called as Carakasakha, seven are called as
iT SM^ ^ TRITg I Mahabhasya, Ahnika, 1.
22
Maitrayaniyasakha, seventeen are called as Vajasaneyasakha,
six are called as Taittitiriyasakha and forty four are called as
Kathasakha . Now there only six sakhas of Yajurveda are
available. They are, Madhyantina and Kanva of
Suklayajurveda, and Taittiriya, Maitrayaniya, Kathaka and
Kapisthalakatha of Krsnayajurveda.
Vaj asaneyisamhita
Vajasaneyisamhita is the most popular samhita of
Yajurveda. Yajnavalkya learned it from Vaji so it is called so
and he learned it at noon and so it is called as
Madhyantinasakha. There are forty adhyayas, three hundred
and three anuvakas, 1675 kandikas and 1975 mantras in it. It
consists of both poetry and prose.
Kanvasamhita
Kanvasamhita is the second samhita of Sukjayajurveda,
preached or propagated by Kanva. It consists of forty
adhyayas, three hundred and twenty eight anuvakas and 2086
3
Caranavyuha.2.
23
mantras. The last chapter of this samhita constitutes the
famous Isavasyopanisad.
Taittiriyasamhita
This is the most popular samhita among the samhitas of
Krsnayajurveda. There are seven khandas, forty four
prapathakas, six hundred and thirty one anuvakas and 2168
kandikas in it.
Maitrayan iyasamhita
Maitrayaniyasamhita is a mixture of prose and poetry.
Sage Maitreya is said to be the propagator of this samhita.
There are four kandas, fifty four prapathakas and 2144
mantras in it. It is also called as Kalapa or Kalapakasamhita.
Kathasamhita
Kathasamhita consist of five khandas, forty sthanakas,
eight hundred and forty three anuvakas and 3091 mantras.
Kapisthalakathasamhita
A sage named Kapisthala is said to be the propagator of
this samhita. This samhita is not fiilly available now and it is
arranged in the form of astakas.
24
Samavedasamhita
Samavedasamhita is the collection of hymns to be
chanted by the udgata priests at the performance of sacrifice.
The collection is made up of hymns and portions of hymns,
taken mainly from the Rgveda. The verses are not intended to
be chanted, but to be sung in specifically indicated melodies.
Such songs are called Samagana and in this sense the
Samaveda is really a book of hymns.
Meaning of the word 'Saman'
The word *saman' denotes hymns to be chanted in
specific manner. According to Jaimini song is saman . The
Rgveda hymns when chanted with specific svara then it
become saman. BrUp. and Ch.Up. mention this meaning of
the word saman .
Purvamimamsasutra,II.I.36.
Br.Up.,I.III.22.
Ch.Up., I.III.4.
25
Sructure of Samaveda
Samavedasamhita is classified into two; Purvarcika and
Uttararcika. The word 'arcika', means the collection of
Rgvedic verses. Purvarcika consists of six prapathakas or
adhyayas and six hundred and fifty mantras. Uttararcika
consists of nine prapathakas, four hundred hymns and 1225
mantras. The total number of the mantras in Samaveda is 1875,
650 of Purvarcika and 1225 of Uttararcika. The number of
mantras which are associated with Rgveda is 1771. Thus there
are only 104 new or original mantras in Samaveda.
Sakhas of Samaveda
Patanjali in his Mahabhasya mentions 1000 sakhas of
Samaveda . According to Saunaka there were 1000 sakhas,
but they were destroyed by Indra when they studied by the
27
pupils on the day of Anadhyaya , Now there only three
Mahabhasya, Ahnika,l.
Caranavyuha,3.1.
26
sakhas of this Veda are popular. They are, Kauthumiya,
Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya.
Samhitas of Samaveda
The existing samhitas of Samaveda are,
Kauthumiyasamhita, Ranayaniyasamhita and
Jaimin i yasamhita.
Kauthumiyasamhita
Kauthumiyasamhita is the most popular among the
samhitas of Samaveda. It consists of two parts; Purvarcika
and Uttararcika. In Purvarcika there are four parvas; Agneya,
Aindra, Pavamana and Aranyaka, and six prapathakas.
Uttararcika contains nine prapathakas.
Ranayaniyasamhita
There is no real distinction between Kauthumiyasamhita
and Ranayaniyasamhita. The mantras in both the samhitas
are same but only in the classification of the mantras they
differ. The mantras in this samhita are classified into
prapathakas, ardhaprapathakas, dasati and mantra.
27
Jaiminiyasamhita
Jaiminiyasamhita is the third existing samhita of
Samaveda and it contains 1687 mantras. This samhita is very
different from above mentioned two.
Atharvaveda
Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda, which is known by the
name of Atharvan, the seer of the mantras. It is also known by
the names such as Brahmaveda, Angiroveda,
Atharvangirasveda, Bhaisajyaveda, etc.
Meaning of the word 'Atharva'
The word 'Atharva' is mentioned in the Nirukta of
Yaska and in Gopathabrahmama. According to Yaska the
term Atharva is derived from the root 'tharva' (ST ) which
means absence of movement . Thus the term Atharva means
movementless or stable, and it indicates the yoga described in
the Veda, which stables the human mind.
Gopathabrahmana describes the term 'Atharva' as the
summarized form of the term 'Atharvak', which means the
3T2I f452 c[(J(c< g (ST#r&rK[ ch | d frlMS g I Nirukta, 11.18.
28
— 29
realization of Atman which is near . Atharvaveda advocates
the theory, through which one can realize Atman.
Sakhas of Atharvaveda
Pataiijali mentions nine sakhas of Atharvaveda .
Saunaka also mentions nine. They are, Paippala, Saunaka,
Danta, Pradanta, Auta, Jabala, Brahmapalasa,
Kunakhivedadarsi and Caranavidya . Sayana in his
Atharvavedabhasyabhumika also mentions nine sakhas of the
Atharvaveda, but the names are different from the
Caranavyuha. They are, Paippalada, Tauda, Manda,
Saunakiya, Jajala, Jalada, Brahmavmda, Devadarsa and • 1 32 ' ~
Caranavaidya . Now there only exist; Saunakiya and
Paippalada. ^ 3m 3 1 ^ q^ ^[^ti^Iri ?T ^ ^m^
OT?Traf 4H^dl 31^ 3 # T ^ ^ I Gopathabrahmana,1.14.
^ ^TcraT55?jW ^ § I Mahabhasya, Ahnika,!
^ ^3MTg #I j RTTg I Caranavyuha,4.2.
Sayana, Atharvavedabhasyabhumika, 10.7.20
29
Samhitas of Atharvaveda
Saunakiya and Paippalada are the available two
samhitas of the Atharvaveda.
Saunakiyasamhita
It is the most popular samhita of Atharvaveda and it
consists of twenty kandas, thirty six prapathakas, seven
hundred and thirty suktas and 5987 mantras. The famous
Gopathabrahmana is associated with this samhita.
Paippaladasamhita
Paippaladasamhita, which is also known as Pippalada
contains twenty kandas. Pavamanasukta is one of the popular
suktas of this samhita.
Brahmanas
Brahmanas constitute the second portion of the Vedas.
They are the continuation of samhitas and mostly composed in
prose order. Samhitas and Brahmanas are not distinct part of
the Veda and they are related each other.
Meaning of the term 'Brahmana'
The term 'Brahmana' denotes different meanings in
different contexts. When it used in association with the Veda
30
then it is neutral gender . There are several meanings of the
word 'Brahmanas'. One of its meanings is mantra .
Satapathabrahmana also mentions another meaning of the
word that is 'Yajna', the sacrifice . Thus it means that
Brahmana is the explanation of mantras and sacrifices. The
word also indicates the sacred knowledge.
Contents of Brahmanas
The description of the sacrifice is the central aspect of
Brahmanas. Starting with the description of Agnihotra, they
describe various sacrifices like Darsapurnamasa, Caturmasya,
Somayaga, etc. They also define the auspicious time for
sacrifices, instruments for the sacrifices and directions for the
sacrifices. Sabaraswami defines ten essential characteristics of
Brahmanas. They are, Hetu, Nirvacana, Ninda, Prasamsa,
Samsaya, Vidhi, Parakriya, Purakalpa, Vyavadharanakalpana
mm ^m^\^ ^ W t n^^cbn. I Medinikosa.
WT ^ 'T^ I Satapathabrahmana,?. 1.1.5.
^ ^ q^g I Satapathabrahmana,3.1.4.15.
31
and Upamana . Hetu is the description of the cause for the
sacrifice. Nirvacana is the derivation of the words. Ninda is
the discouragement of the forbidden acts. Prasamsa is the
encouragement of the good acts. Samsaya is the clarification
of doubts. Vidhi is the direction and order of rites in sacrifices.
Paraknya is the description of goodness of the sub-ordinate
rites in main sacrifice. Purakalpa is the description of
historical incidents and stories. Vyavadharanakalpana is the
arrangement of the instruments and objects in the sacrifice
according to the circumstances. Upamana is the example. The
Brahmanas not only contain description and directions of the
sacrifices but also contain philosophical matters.
Number of Brahmanas
Brahmana literature is very vast. Due to various sakhas
there are various Brahmanas. Most of the Brahmanas are lost,
but we can infer the vastness of Brahmana literature even by
the available Brahmanas. Names of Brahmanas are available
6 I g f ^ ^ f^ g^M ^$T^ f^§ I M<i i|l 5 ^ ^ ^ ^q^Kuicb^Hi I
MHH tf 5 fWIFT % I Mimamsmsutra, Sabarabhasya, 2.18.
32
from the srauta texts. Now totally fourteen Brahmanas are
available. Two Brahmanas belong to Rgveda, two Brahmanas
belong to Yajurveda, nine Brahmanas belong to Samaveda
and one Brahmana belongs to Atharvaveda.
Brahmanas of Rgveda r _
Aitareya and Sankhayana are the two Brahmanas of
Rgveda. Former is known by the name of the sage Mahidasa r _
Aitareya and latter by the name of the sage Sankhayana.
Aitareyabrahmana consists of forty adhyayas, eight pancikas
and two hundred and sixty eight kandikas. r _ _
Sankhayanabrahmana consists of thirty adhyayas and two
hundred and twenty six khandas.
Brahmanas of Yajurveda
Taittiya and Satapatha are the two Brahmanas of
Yajurveda. Taittiriya belongs to Krsnayajurveda and it
contains three kandas and twenty adhyayas. r r
Satapathabrahmana belongs to Sukjayajurveda and its both
Madhyantina and Kanva recentions are available.
Madhyantina Satapathabrahmana consists of fourteen kandas,
one thousand adhyayas, sixty eight prapathakas and four
33
hundred and thirty eight Brahmanas. Kanva
Satapathabrahmana consists of seventeen kandas, one
hundred and four adhyayas, four hundred and thirty five
brahmanas and 6806 kandikas. The famous Br. Up.
constitutes the concluding part of Satapathabrahmana.
Brahmanas of Samaveda
Brahmanas of Samaveda are, Tandya- mahabrahmana,
Sadvimsabrahmana, Samavidhanabrahmana, Arseya
brahmana, Devatadhyayabrahmana, Upanisad- brahmana,
Samhitopamsadbrahmana, Vamsabrahmana and Jaiminiya or
Talavakarabrahmana.
The first eight brahmanas belong to Kauthumasakha
and Talavakara belongs to Ranayaniyasakha.
Brahmana of Atharvaveda
Gopathabrahmana is the only one Brahmana of
Atharvaveda and it belongs to Paippaladasakha. It has two
parts; Purvagopatha and Uttaragopatha and former consists of
five prapathakas and one hundred and thirty five kandikas and
the latter consists of six prapathakas and one hundred and
twenty three kandikas.
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Aranyakas
In the Vedic literature Aranyakas are placed between
Brahmanas and Upanisads. They generally regarded as the
%rest texts', which meant for the people who retired from the
worldly life. They contain description of mystic and
symbolical interpretations of the rituals. Aranyakas form the
appendixes of Brahmanas, and some of Upanisads are
included in Aranyakas.
Number of Aranyakas
Now there six Aranyakas are familiar to us. Once
number of Aranyakas was large, as years passed most of them
lost to us. Among the six Aranyakas two belong to Rgveda,
they are Aitareyaranyaka (AA) and Sahkhayanaranyaka (SA),
three belong to Yajurveda, they are, Brhadaranyaka of
Suklayajurveda, Taittiriyaranyaka and Maitrayaniyaranyaka
of Krsnayajurveda and one belongs to Samaveda, it is
Talavakararanyaka. There is no Aranyaka belonged to
Atharvaveda.
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Upanisads
Upanisads are the concluding portions of the Vedas.
They are known as the essence of the Vedas, which reveal the
ultimate aim of human life. Most of the Upanisads are in the
form of conversation between teacher and pupil, which
destructs ignorance of the pupil by providing right knowledge
and empower him to realize the ultimate reality.
Meaning of the term 'Upanisad'
The word *Upanisad' derives from the root *sad' ( ^
when associated with upasarga 'upa ^ ( OT ) and ^z ( f )
and the pratyaya 'kvip' ( f^^. It means sitting of a pupil
near a teacher in order to attain the sacred knowledge. r — r
Sri Sankara describes the term Upanisad as the
brahmavidya, the knowledge of Brahman. He defined the
meaning of the term in three ways, which conclude at one and
same end . The root ^sad^ has three different meanings. They are Wisarana\ 'gati' and *avasadana\ ^Visarana^ means
Sankara s commentary on Kathopanisad, Introduction.
8
36
destruction, 'gati' means attainment and 'avasadana^ means
removal. Upanisads destruct avidya, the nescience, which is
the cause of the universe of mystery. It is through Upanisads
one can realize Brahman, and attain the ultimate goal of life.
Upanisads remove the sorrows of man. Thus Upanisads are the
sacred texts which produce right knowledge, which empower
one to realize the reality and to overcome the miseries of life.
Number of Upanisads
The scholars have different opinions about the number of
Upanisads. According to Muktikopanisad the number of
38
Upanisads is one hundred and eight . Among them ten are
regarded as the most authoritative Upanisads and famous
philosophers made commentaries on them. They are,
Tsavasyopanisad, Kenopanisad, Kathopanisad, Prasnopanisad,
Mundakopanisad, Mandukyopanisad, Taittiriyopanisad,
Aitareyopanisad, Chandogyopanisad (Ch.Up.) and
Brhadaranyakopanisad (Br.Up.). Following are Upanisads
which belong to the four Vedas.
Muktikopanisad, 1.30.
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Upanisads of Rgveda
There are ten Upanisads related to the Rgveda. They are,
Aksamahka, Atmabodha, Aitareya, Kausitaki, Tripura,
Nadabindu, Nirvana, Mugdala, Bahrca and Saubhagya.
Upanisads of Suklayajurveda r
There are nineteen Upanisads related to Suklayajurveda.
Atitadhyatma, Tsavasya, Yavalam, Tarasara, Turiyam,
Trisikhi, Niralambam, Paramahamsa, Paingalam, Bhiksu,
Mantrika, Brahmanamandalam, Brahmanadvayatarakam,
Muktika, Yajiiavalkya, Brhadaranyaka, Sayyayani, Subala
and Hamsa.
Upanisads of Krsnayajurveda
There are thirty two Upanisads related to
Krsnayajurveda. Aksi, Amrtanada, Amrtabindu, Avadhuta,
Ekaksara, Katharudra, Kathavalli, Kalisantaranam,
Kalagnirudra, Kaivalya, Ksurika, Garbha, Tejobindu,
Taittiriya, Daksinamurti, Dhyanabindu, Narayana,
Paficabrahmana, Pranagnihotra, Brahma, Brahmavidya,
Yogakundalini, Yogatatvam, Yogasikha, Varaha, Sarirakam,
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Sukarahasyam, Sarvasara, Svetasvatara, Skanda,
Sarasvatirahasya and Hrdaya.
Upanisads of Samaveda
There are sixteen Upanisads related to Samaveda, They
are, Avyakta, Aruni, Kundika, Kena, Chandogya,
Jabaladarsana, Javali, Mahat, Maitrayani, Rudraksa,
Vajrasucika, Vasudeva, Sanyasa and Savitri,
Upanisads of Atharvaveda
There are thirty one Upanisads related to Atharvaveda,
They are, Atharvasikha, Atharvasira, Krsna, Ganapati,
Garuda, Gopalatapana, Javala, Tripuratapana, Dattatreya,
Devi, Naradaparivracaka, Paramahamsa, Pasupatam, Bhasma,
Bhavana, Mahanarayana, Mahavakya, Mandukya, Mundaka,
Ramatapani, Ramarahasyam, Brhajjabalam, Sarabha,
Sandilya, Sita, Suryatma, Hayagriva and Parabrahma.
Vedangas
The Vedic literature which begins from Samhitas and
ends with Upanisads is called as Sruti , which is transmitted
to generation by oral tradition. But the limit of the Vedic
literature should not be considered as Upanisads, and it should
39
be extended to Vedangas and allied works because it is
impossible to understand the meaning of the Vedas without
them. So Vedangas are auxiliaries to the Vedas through which
the essence of the Vedas to be realized. So they posses a
significant place in Vedic literature.The significance of
Vedangas is mentioned by Panini that a brahmin must be
studied and understood the Vedas along with the six
— 39
Vedangas .
Number of Vedangas
Vedangas are six in number. They are Siksa, Kalpa,
Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandah and Jyotisa. It is poetically
mentioned by Panini in his Siksa . Chandah are the legs of
the Vedas, by which the mantras are chanted and transmitted
to generations. Kalpa are the hands of the Vedas, by which the
definite meanings and directions in the Vedas can be
understood. Jyotisa is the eye of the Vedas, by which the ^ n ^ T ^ ^[#Tr'^5#qt %^k^^ l Mahabhasya, Ahnika,l
_ — / _
Paniniya Siksa.
40
specific time for the sacrifices to be determined. Nirukta is the
ear of the Vedas, by which the essential meaning of the Vedic
terms can be understood. Vyakarana is the mouth of the Veda,
by which one can determine which is right word and which is
wrong word. Thus each Vedanga has its own peculiarity and
they serve as a unit to illuminate the nature of the Vedas.
Siksa
Siksa is regarded as the first among the Vedangas
because it describes how to pronounce hymns and mantras.
Sayana defines Siksa as, where the pronunciation of accents
and syllables are taught it is Siksa'^^ Siksa deals with the
traditional science of phonetics and phonology in Sanskrit.
The oldest phonetic books are called as ^Pratisakhyas'. They
describe pronunciation, intonation of Sanskrit as well as the
rules of sandhi. There are five Pratisakhyas preserved. They
are; Rgvedapratisakhya, Sukjayajurvedapratisakhya,
Taittiriyapratisakhya, Atharvaveda- pratisakhya and
Sayana, Rgvedabhasyabhumika,p.49.
41
Saunakiyapratisakhya. The Paniniyasiksa, Bharadvajasiksa,
etc. are the popular siksa texts.
Kalpa
Kalpa is one of the Vedangas and it defines the rules of
the performance of sacrifices . It is composed in sutra style.
There are four types of Kalpasutras: Srautasutras,
Grhyasutras, Dharmasutras and Sulbasutras. Srautasutras are
based on the Sruti and teach the performance of the great
sacrifices like Darsapurnamasa, Somayaga, Rajasuya etc.
Grhyasutras are the domestic rules which treat ordinary family
rites, such as marriage, birth, name giving etc. Dharmasutras
deal with the customs and temporal duties. Sulbasutras deal
with the measurement by means of cords, and the construction
of different kinds of altars required for sacrifices.
Vyakarana
Vyakarana is the Vedanga, by which the sounds and
words are determined and clarified. It deals with the origin of
2
Sayana, Rgvedabhasyabhumika,p.49.
42
word and determination of root and suffix. Vyakarana of
Panini is the only one authoritative Vedangavyakarana. It is
called as Astadhyayi. It is the comprehensive work on
vyakarana, in which the rules and explanation of grammar
described in 3997 sutras. Katyayana, another great
grammarian wrote Varttikas on Astadhyayi and Patafijali
wrote Bhasya on both the sutras and the Varttikas.
Nirukta
Nirukta is one of the Vedangas, treating etymology,
particularly of obscure words occurring in the Vedas. This
discipline is traditionally attributed to Yaska. Nirukta consists
of brief rules for deriving word meanings, supplemented with
glossaries of difficult or rare Vedic words. Nirukta text of
Yaska consists of twelve main chapters and at the end there
are two chapters, which are called Parisista.
Chandah
Chandah, the Vedanga deals with Vedic meter.
Katyayana defines chandah as Vhere the number of the
43
syllables defined it is chandah . The Rgpratisakhya, the
Sahkhayanasrautasutra and the Nidanasutra in the Samaveda
contain the theoretical descriptions of chandah. The
Chandahsutra of Pingala is the most popular text on the
science of meter, which includes both the Vedic meters and
non-vedic meters, Gayatri, Usnik, Anustup, Brhati, Trstup,
Jagati, etc. are the popular meters in the Vedas.
Jyotisa
Jyotisa is the Vedanga, which determines the auspicious
time for the performance of sacrifices. It is also deals with the
calculations of days, months, years and seasons. It is a tool to
calculate the movement and position of moon, planets and
stars. The oldest and authoritative text on jyotisa is the
Vedangajyotisa of Lagada.
These are the six Vedangas. Beside these six there is also
a collection of literary works which is called as
Sarvanukramani. It is a list which describes the first syllable
of particular mantra, its seer rsi, its meter, its deity, etc. There
are separate anukramanis related to different Vedas.
3 Katyayana, Sarvanukramani, 12.6.
44
Anukramani of Saunaka and Sarvanukramni of Katyayana
are the most popular anukramanis.
Resume
The Vedas, the oldest treatises in the world are treasures
of various kinds of knowledge. Any enquiry of any subject
relating to ancient India must be started from study of the
Vedas. They also show implications of modem subjects such
as physical science, health science, social science,
mathematics, astronomy, etc. The four portions of the Vedas
are Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanisads, in
which the knowledge is installed. According to the tradition of
India the study of the whole Vedas is necessary for a bright
life of a man. But it is not an easy task for an ordinary person.
So it is necessary to make an attempt to study at least one
aspect from the great Vedas.
