h a P t e r t h r e

CHAPTER I11

,R ON THE EVOLUTION OF CASTE I N I N D I A

S t r a t i f i c a t i o n

IS a n a l y s i s shows t h a t s o c i e t y around u s is no t

~eous . W i t h i n a s o c i e t y people c l a s s i f y themselves

i t egor ies , and rank them from the higher t o t h e

itraturn. T h i s process of def in ing and ranking

i t egor ies i s c a l l e d s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . "Social

' i c a t i on , " Gisber t wr i tes , *is the d iv i s ion of

r i n permanent groups o r ca t ego r i e s l inked w i t h

;her by the r e l a t i o n s h i p s of s u p e r i o r i t y and

Lnation, "I In o the r words, ' social s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , a

; 8. flayar p u t s i t , i n h i s Class and Society, " i s

i m o f d i f f a r e n t i a t i o n which inc ludes a h i e r a r c h y

.a1 positions whose occupants a r e t r ea t ed a s

rr, e q u a l o r i n f e r i o r r e l a t i v e t o one another i n

.y important r e spec t s . I1 2 "If and when, ' writes

, "h ie ra rch ica l pos i t i ons become assigned t o

/sly permanent segments of a soc i e ty , the s o c i a l

ma so produced a r e known e i t h e r a s a class o r

CHAPTER I11

ON THE EVOLUTION OF CASTE I N I N D I A

t r a t i f i c a t i o n

a n a l y s i s shows t h a t s o c i e t y around us i s n o t

ous. W i t h i n a s o c i e t y people c l a s s i f y themse lves

e g o r i e s , and rank them from the h i g h e r t o the

ra tum. This p r o c e s s o f d e f i n i n g and ranking

e g o r i s s i s c a l l e d s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . "Social

c a t i o n , * C i s b e r t w r i t e s , *is t h e d i v i s i o n of'

i n permanent groups o r c a t e g o r i e s l i n k e d w i t h

icr by t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s of s u p e r i o r i t y and

la t i o n , I " In o t h e r words , " soc ia l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , II

80 Nayer p u t s i t , i n h i s C l a s s and Soc ie ty , 'is

I o f d i w d r e n t i a t i o n which i n c l u d e s a h i e r a r c h y

11 p o s i t i o n s whose occupants a r e t r e a t e d a s

I, equal or i n r s r i o r r e l a t i v e t o one ano the r i n

i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s . "' "If and when, * w r i t e s

"h ierarchica l p o s i t i o n s become ass igned t o

t l y permanent segments of a s o c i e t y , t h e s o c i a l

IS so produced a r e known e i t h e r as a c l a s s o r

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n $bus expres ses i t s e l P i n t o

'orms, v c l a s s and c a s t e , Class and caste

~nomena of social s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , which d e c i d e

p o s i t i o n o f an i n d i v i d u a l i n s o c i e t y .

~ c i e t y i s always composed o f c l a s s e s . I t 3 an e x a g g e r a t i o n t o a s s e r t t h e theory o f - c o n f l i c t , but t h e e x i s t e n c e of d e f i n i t e 3s i n a s o c i e t y i s a f a c t . T h e i r b a s i s may r. They may be economic o r i n t e l l e c t u a l o r 1, but an i n d i v i d u a l i n a s o c i e t y i s always ber o f a c l a s s , This i s a un ive r sa l f a c t and

Hindu s o c i e t y c u l d not have been an excep- t o t h i s r u l e . , , , 1

sses e x i s t i n almost a l l s o c i e t i e s . The n a t u r e

i s t i n c t i o n s vary from s o c i e t y t o s o c i e t y , As

e a r l i e r , dur ing the Vedic p e r i o d s o c i e t y was

rto f o u r d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s on the b a s i s o f t h e

;yre o r x n a .- o f an i n d i v i d u a l . Fur ther , an

L o f t h e e a r l y Vedic s o c i e t y can e a s i l y move from

t o ano the r c l a s a . I t i s an 'open c l a s s a . The

>n ' open c l a s s ' system d i d n o t l a s t long. D u r i n g

Jed ic p e r i o d , w i t h the h e l p o f rituals and

t h e open class system o f t h e anc ien t H i n d u s

a i d end l a t e r became a ' c lo s sd system'. From

p o i n t o f the r i g i d i t y o f rules, s o c i a l c l a s s e s

- . A ; + *nnanv and a c l o s e d system'. I n an

i t u d y o f t h e o r i g i n , mechanism and deve lopmen t of'

I c e s s i t a t e s a d i f f e r e n c e between v a r n a and ja t i , 5 -*-

men t o t r a c e t h e development o f c a s t e ( j z t i ) and

3ed door c h a r a c t e r s . ~ a t i i s o f t e n confuaed wi th - 3 s i c a l t e r m -.-* v a r n a wh ich is f ound i n t h e a n c i e n t

z r i p t u r e s . The t e rm ' v a r v a ' i s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e . I

@ wh i ch means ' t o s e l e c t ' o r ' choose* . Much r

~n has o c c u r r e d because o f m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f thc

t h e e a r l y t r a n s l a t o r s o f t h e o r i g i n a l S a n s k r i t

f o r example, t h e y had t r a n s l a t e d 'dharma' as ' l a w '

r n a * as ' c a s t e ' , 6

r t h e r , modern t h i n k e r s a l s o sometimes use t h e t e r m

synonymous ly w i t h ' c a s t e ' , T h i s usage has sp rung

e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t some o f tha c a s t e names co r respo l

i d e a l sys tem o f . - varna. For example, t h e t e r m

.n' c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e t e rm 'Brahmans' .- o f t h e i d e a l

o f - - varga. Though 'Brahmin' may co r respond t o t h e

jrahmana' , i t d i f f e r s f rom Brahrnana i n many r e s p e c t - 0 -

0-

.gnat% 'B rahmin ' as a s i n g l e c l a s s would o b v i o u s l y

~g s i n c e t h e Brahmin c a s t e i s a c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f

rb -cas tes w h i c h a r e i ndependen t endogamoue un i ta - r t h j

larna s y s tern t h e r e a r e no sub-d iv i s ions aoong -0 -

as w e l l a s t h e r e i s no h i e r a r c h y . Dandekar

sometimes sugges ted t h a t t h e varnaa of anc ien t i s i t s e l f e q u i v a l e n t t o c a s t e 7 b S ; - a c l o s e r

, n a t i o n , however, i t w i l l be found t h a t t h e n a t u r e irna - O w was e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f I a s unders tood today. S t r i c t l y speaking, c a s t e it - - - t v a r n a - i t i s ~ i t i . 8

;erm ' t i o r ' i s evolved f rom the s a n s k r i t

means ' t o be born ' . ~ a t i "hardly occurs i n the - :as te i n t h e Vedic l i t e r a t u r e . "' H i s t o r i c a l l y,

~ G t i i n t h e sense of c a s t e can be t r a c e d back

t h e time oP Nirukta. &ti r e f e r s t o - t c l o s e d s t a t u s groups, each being a commensal

~ o s s e s s i n g a distinct name. ~ a t i i s endogamous - ;ure and sometimes has t r a d i t i o n a l occupat ion

wi th i t . Each >:ti h a s a p a r t i c u l a r s t y l e of

in joys s p e c i f i c r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s and i s

c e r t a i n d u t i e s and d i s a b i l i t i e s . Therefore ,

'mi' - d e n o t e s t h e ' h e r e d i t y connota t ion ' . B u t

a s s e n t i a l l y a c l a s s o r ca tegory which i s open i n

jcauae in t h e -.- varna system, a person can move

ass freely prom one c l a s s t o another. Radhakrishna

~ O D V I I O E h t thnllnh *the funcf i o n @ War@ ~ @ g @ r d m d

Prom l o w l y persona, A l l p e o p l e p o s s e s s a l l

though i n d i f ' f e r e n t degrees. The Brahmin has i n

s s i b i l i t i e a of' a w a r r i e r . The !is o f o l d were Sc i a t s a n d s o m e t i m e s w a r r i o r s t o o . BI " T h e r e f o r e ,

ore open than c a s t e a n d , a s such, m o b i l i t y f r o m

t o a n o t h e r becomes e a s i e r i n i t .

v a r n a i s n a t u r a l a n d d i v i n e , b u t j a t i o r c a s t e ' 9 * ,

lade social i n s t i t u t i o n , W h i l e v a r n a i s d e t e r m i n e d -0 -

o r ~ n a , .- c a s t e i s d e t e r m i n e d by b i r t h . V a r n a - 0 -

icredness w h i c h was c o n s t i t u e d by t h e b e l i e f ,

1s e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h d i v i n e s a n c t i o n and purpose.

i s e v e r y b o d y ' s c o n c e r n t o f u l f i l h i s . - v a r n a ' s

accordance w i t h h i s dharma.

3 v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o d e f i n e c a s t e . flany a t t e m p t s

mhda t o d i f i n e t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n a s i t a p p e a r s

but o u e t o i t s m a n i f o l d v a r i e t y o f forms a n d

i t becomes w e l l - n i g h i m p o 3 s i b l e t o d e r i v e a

r and c o n o e t s d e f i n i t i o n o f caste. The

d e f i n i t i o n s are m o s t l y i n the line o f descriptions

s te avstem, "The word ' C a s t e ' C Q ~ ~ S Pram t h e

term was used by t h e P o r t u g u e s e t o d e n o t e t h e

icular I n d i a n i n s t i t u t i o n j a t i o r it known by the

o f caste . Though t h e r e is no e x a c t term i n E n g l i . - a t i t h e F r e n c h o r E n g l i s h e q u i v a l e n t s o f $ti (ca -' a d j u s t m e n t s o f t h e o r i g i n a l te rm. 1 4 The t e r m is c

I number o f l a n g u a g e s o f N o r t h e r n I n d i a being d e r i v

I t h e S a n s k r i t r o o t meaning ' t o be born ' . T h i s t

i t s e q u i v a l e n t s i n o t h e r I n d i a n l a n g u a g e s c a r r y t h

l o t a t i o n o f o n e ' s b i r t h r i g h t a s w e l l a s o n e ' s i n h e

B e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e g e n e s i s and mechanism o f c

tern, Ambedkar f o c u s s e s h i s a t t e n t i o n on a few well

~ l a r s o f t h e c a s t e sys tem. First , he q u o t e s S e n a r t

r a n c h a u t h o r , who d e f i n e s c a s t e a s :

... a c l o s e d c o r p o r a t i o n , i n t h e o r y a t a n y r a t e r i g o r o u s l y h e r e d i t a r y : e q u i p p e d w i t h a c e r t a i n t r a d i t i o n a l a n d i n d e p e n d e n t o r g a n i s a t i o n , i n c l u d i a c h i e f ano a c o u n c i l , m e e t i n g o n o c c a s i o n i n d s s c r . ; b l i e s o f more o r l e s s p l e n a r y a u t h o r i t y and j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r a t c e r t a i n f e s t i v a l s : bound t o g € by common o c c u p a t i o n s , which r e l a t e more p a r t i c u j t o m a r r i a g e a n d t o f o o d and t o q u e s t i o n s o f c e r e n p o l l u t i o n , a n d r u l i n g i t s members by t h e e x e r c i s c j u r i s d i c t i o n , t h e e x t e n t o f w h i c h v a r i e s , b u t whi succeeds i n making t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e cornmunit) more f e l t by t h e s a n c t i o n cf' c e r t a i n p e n a l t i e s ar a b o v e a l l , by f i n a l i r r e v o c a b l e exclusion from +hn nrnuo,

.ntermarry nor e a t nor drink with any but persons I C their own communi ty .

l ing t o H. R i a l e y :

... caste may be d e f i n e d a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f f a m i l i e Ir g r o u p s o f f a m i l i e s bea r ing a common name which ~ a u a l l y .denote8 or i s a s s o c i a t e d with s p e c i f i c ~ c c u p a t i o n , c la iming common descent from a m y t h i c a l ince s tor , human or d i v i n e , profe s s ing t o f o l l o w the &me pro fess iona l c a l l i n g s and are regarded by thosi ho are competent t o g i v e an op in ion as forming a :ng le homogeneous communi t y .

j e f inss c a s t e a s a s o c i a l g r o u p having two

i r i s t i c s :

membership i s c o n f i n e d t o t h o s e who a r e b o r n

o f members a n d i n c l u d e s a l l p e r s o n s s o b o r n .

t h e members a r e f o r b i d d e n by an exorable s o c i a l

law t o marry o u t s i d e t h e g r o u p . 17

ddkbr T C V ~ O W S a l l these d e f i n i t i o n s and a r g u e s

above d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h r e e o f t h e t h i n k e r s

t o o much o r t o o l i t t l e an3 n o n e i s c o m p l e t e or

b y i t s ~ l f a n d a l l have m i s s e d t h e c e n t r a l p o i n t

x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e mechanism o f c a s t e s y s t e m .

he says t h e i r m i s t a k e l i e s i n t r y i n g t o d e f i n e

an " i s o l a t e d u n i t by i t s e l f , and n o t a s a g r o u p

and with d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n s t o , t h e s y s t e m of'

a whnl n, II l8 Hence , according t o Ambodkar all o f

g what h a s b e e n obscured i n the o t h e r . By

t icism, t h e r e f o r e , Ambedkar h a s t a k e n t h e s e

ch a re common t o a l l the above d e f i n i t i o n s

r e g a r d e d as p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f c a s t e and e v a l u a t e s

ch.

Ambedkar r e f e r s t o S e n a r t , who d e f i n e 8 cas te

' idea o f p o l l ~ t i o n " a s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e

I t u s u a l l y o r i g i n a t e s i n p r i e s t l y c e r e m o n i a l i s m

) a r t i c u l a r case o f t h e g e n e r a l b e l i e f i n p u r i t y .

lmbedkar a c c e p t s this i d e a o f p o l l u t i o n o n l y f rom

.OUS p o i n t o f v i e w . T h e r e f o r e , he c o n c l u d e s t h a t

I P p o l l u t i o n is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c a s t e o n l y

~s C ~ L ~ E has a r e l i g i o u s f l a v o u r . 19

: r i n g t o N e s f i e l d , Ambedkar a r g u e s t h a t , t h e

!' m e s s i n g w i t h t h o s e o u t s i d e t h e c a s t e /--- a s one o f

cteristics. In s p i t e o f t h e newness o f t h e

says t h a t N e s f i e l d has m i s t a k e n t h e e f f e c t f o r

'Caste, b e i n g a s e l f - e n c l o s e d u n i t , n a t u r a l l y . c i a 1 i n t e r c o u r s e , i n c l u d i n g messing etc. , t o t h e

i t h i n i t . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h i s a b s e n c e o f messing

idore is not duo t o p o s i t i v e p r o h i b i t i o n , but i s - : . . - n m a c Y "20

I p r o h i b i t o r y character o f a religious

u t i t may be r e g a r d e d a s a l a t e r g r o w t h .

e d e f i n i t i o n of' H. Risley, Ambedkar t h i n k s

.a no new p o i n t d e s e r v i n g s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n .

Ir r e f e r s t o Ketkar a c c o r d i n g t o whom "the

o f i n t e r - m a r r i a g e a n d membership by Autogeny '

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c a s t e . But Ambedkar s a y s

are b u t t u o aspscta o f one and t h e same thing,

d i f ' f e r e n t t h i n g s a s K e t k a r s u p p o s e s them

[ P a s o c i e t y p r o h i b i t s i n t e r - m a r r i a g e , the

7at i t limits m e m b e r s h i p t o t h o s e b o r n w i t h i n

Thus, the two a r e t h e o b v e r s e and t h e r e v e r s e

3 same medal.

a c r i t i c a l e v a l u t i o n of' the v a r i o u s v iews on

e r i s t i c s o f c a s t e , Ambedkar g i v e s h i s d e f i n i t i o n

He d e f i n e s c a s t e i n I n d i a a s "an a r t i f i c a l

f" t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n t o f i x e d a n d d e f i n i t e u n i t s ,

evanted f r o m f u s i n g i n t o a n o t h e r th rough the

ndogamy . )I 2 2 Ambedkar c o n c l u d e s t h a t 'endogamy

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t is p e c u l i a r t o c a s t e , n 23

h i n g s being s e c o n d a r y c h a r a c t e r s o f c a s t e

a l l y , t h e o r i g i n o f c a s t e system wqs o f t e n

I t h e h e l p o f the i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e s from t h e

I t h e r o o t s o f varna-vyavasth; were imp lan ted -0

. i t e r a t u r e . In t h e s u b s e q u e n t p e r i o d s , t h e

:ial d i v i s i o n was a c c e p t e d by t h e ~ G r a n a s , -*-

rrrna-45s t r a s . Hence s c h o l a r s both from

West e x p l a i n e d their v i e w s o f t h e o r i g i n /

t h e i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e s o f S r u t i s and S m r t i s .

i n e s o f o t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l s c h o l a r s , Ambedkar

t h e o r i g i n o f t h e cas te system Prom varna- . - s w e v e r , h e i n t e r p r e t s t h e g r o w t h and

m t r a d i t i o n a l a s w e l l a s s o c i o l o g i c a l

w . Hmbsdkar t h i n k s t h a t t h e theory o f

ho - was formed f i r s t , and then the numerous

a d t h r o u g h " i m i t a t i o n and ex-communication. U

g t h e o r i g i n of' c a s t e , Ambedkar m a i n t a i n s

i s a l w a y s composed o f classes. The early

~ l s o has i t s own t y p e o f s o c i a l c l e a s

ith:). The e x i s t e n c e o f a c l a s s i s a - 1 L - L - , ; ~ m m u r j i ~ f e r . but t h e

is, what i s t h e c l a s s t h a t raisod this

a r o u n d i t s e l f ? T h i s q u e s t i o n may seem t o o

i a l , but i t i s p e r t i n e n t , and a n a n s w e r t o

s e r v e t o e l u c i d a t e t h e mystery o f the o r i g i n

o f c a s t e i n I n d i a .

iuer t h i s q u e s t i o n , Ambedkar m a i n t a i n ~ s , . t h a t

i t o r o f t h e u n n a t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n o f c a s t e i s

a c l a u s , w i t h t h e h e l p o f c e r t a i n customs. - t h i s a r g u m e n t he w r i t e s :

r i c t o b s e r v a n c e s o f . . . c u s t o m s and the s o c i a l o r i t y a r r o g a t e d by the p r i e s t l y c l a s s i n a l l t c i v i l i z a t i o n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o p r o v e t h a t 2 r ~ t h e o r i g i n a t o r s o f t h i s ' u n n a t u r a l ti on" Pounded and m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h these r d l means. 25

: h o l a r s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e c a s t e system h a s been

I t h e p e o p l e o f I n d i a by t h e l a w - g i v e r s . But

13 n o t ag ree w i t h them. He proposes t o a n a l y s a

and the l a w - g i v e r s o f I n d i a . E v e r y c o u n t r y

l a w-g ive r , who a r i s e s as a n i n c a r n a t i o n i n

rgency t o se$right a s i n n i n g humanity and t o I i

3 o f j u s t i c e and m o r a l i t y . Hence, Ambedkar

analyse Hanu, t h e l a w - g i v e r o f Hindu I n d i a .

jws upon the C o d i f i c a t i o n o f caturvarna

) to Ambedkar, t h e Rq-Veda was a c o n t r i v a n c e

ter who s a i d t h a t the c a t u r v a r n a o f the 0-

x o v i d e d t h e basis ?or the l a t e r development

i y s t e m . A c c o r d i n g l y , many l a w - g i v e r s repeated

;he ~ u r u s a - s c k t a . Manu p r o v i d e d a d i v i n e - 0

:he c a t u r v a r n a through the ~ u r u s a - s c k t a a s e m - 0

i a i d , 'For t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e w o r l d s ,

1 ) f r o m his mouth, arms, t h i g h s and f e e t - .ahmin, Ksat r iya , u a i k - a and gidra. " 26 - *

:ording t o Manu's classificatioos "the

y and Vaisya ( c o n s t i t u t e ) the three twice-

f o u r t h , t h e s/;dras, h a s o n l y one b i r t h . ;t 27

u u n t a s t e p f u r t h e r and h a s a f f i r m e d t h a t

h e o n l y u l t i m a t e s a n c t i o n f o r dharma. 11 28

o r d i n g t o Ambedkar, t h a t , . i t was Manu who

o c i . 4 i d e a l o f c a t u r v a r p ~ c o n t a i n e d i n t h e

w i t h a degree of' d i v i n i t y and i n f a l l i b i l i t y

o t have before. *' T h e r e f o r e , i t was Manu

d i v i n e sanc t ion for the inequtous system.

- s ; k t a e Ambedkar a f f i r m s t h a t flanu d i d ~ U O

urusa-sckta as a part o f d i v i n e i n j u n c t i o n . n - 0

ond place, "he e n u n c i a t e d the p r o p o s i t i o n

d r e t h e o n l y u l t i m a t e s a n c t i o n for dharma, rJU

a , t h a t Ranu d i d n o t g i v e the law o f c a s t e

u l d n o t do so. Caste e x i s t e d l ong before

an upholder o f i t and therefore phi1osophist .d

n l y he d i d n o t and c o u l d not orda in the

o f Hindu s o c i e t y . There fore , according t o

's work ended w i t h the c o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e

r u l e s and preaching o f cas te dharrna. 3 1

s v i e w i s more a p p r o p r i a t e , because, Nanu

n to g i v e t h e division o f s o c i e t y . But i t

I prov ided the d i v i s i o n o f s o c i e t y i n o l d e n

.a e s t r o n g b e l i e f i n the mind o f orthodox

le Hindu society was somehow moulded i n t o

of' t h e caste system and t h a t it is an /

:oneciously created by S r u t i . Not o n l y dous -. tist, b u t i t i s being j u s t i f i s d on the

; cannot but be good, because i t i s o r d o i f i d

&ti cannot be wrong. 7

lopment and Rechaniam of Caste According - t o dkar

To e x p l a i n t h e development, and mechanism oP c b s t

dkar examines t h e t h e o r y o f 'exogamy and endogamy'

r d i n g t o Arnbedkar t h e I n d i a n r e l i g i o n is esserlt ial .

i t i v e and i t s t r i b a l codes , i i - , s p i t e of ' t h e s d ~ ~ n c ~

o f time and c i v i l i z a t i o n , o p e r a t e w i t h f u l l vi3ou;

to -day . One o f t hese systems t o wh ich H~llbadk~; . ui

a t t e n t i o n is t h e custom of' 'exogamy'.

The c u s t o m o f exogamy is a s o l d a s the H indu s a c i t

e d r e c e r t a i n ru163 o f marr iage l a i d d ~ u n i n t h e

e n t Hindu s c r i p t u r e s f o r ragulating t h o Hindu msrrl

a v i e w t o c o n t r o l t h e c h a i c e o f mates. Tne cxr:gan t h e

r r e l a t i n g t o l H i n d u marr iage a r e v e r y c o n ; @ l i c X e d .

exoganlic fo rm of' marr iage is a s s o c i a t e d with t s ras

tjotra, p r a v a r a and s a p i n d a . .- The t h r ee tern)$, ravara , and s3P?JfiLld a,# U S L ~

in c o n n a c t i o n uit CXOQ.;~II I ) / , hr'tue I J C : L J ) :

so many changeu, a d d i t i o n s and m o d i P i c a t i n n n i;: L medniny and implications t h r o u g h t h e apes s i n c c t h e i r o r i g i n , t h a t it becomes w e l l - h i g h i m p o s s i b l ~ t o f i nd out t h e i r o r i g i n d l i r n p l i c d t i o n s .

3 1

e f o r e tha o r i g i n o f exogamic marriage is shroudad

ys tery .

7 it is h a r d t o t r a c e t h e o r i g i n o f exogamy,

a n c i e n t H i n d u m a r r i a g e c e n t r e s r o u n d t h e

o f axogamy. I t i s e v i d e n t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t

33 s q o t r a s o f I n d i a a r e and have been exogamous;

o the r g r o u p s wi th t o t e m i c o r g a n i s a t i o n . I n

o p i n i o n , i t i s no e x a g g e r a t i o n t o say t h a t wi th

o f I n d i a exogamy is a creed and none d a r e t o

t . However, i n cou rse o f t i m e exogamy has l o s t

l a1 e f f i c a c y and s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d f rom its o l d

Ambedkar w r i t e s :

t h e g r o w t h o f h i s t o r y , however, exogamy has its e f f i c a c y , and e x c e p t i n g t h e n e a r e s t b l ood - , t h e r e is u s u a l l y no s o c i a l b a r r e s t r i c t i n g P i e l d o f m a r r i a g e . But r e g a r d i n g t h e p e o p l e o f 3 t h e l a w of' exogamy is a p o s i t i v e i n j u n c t i o n

today. I n d i a n s o c i e t y s t i l l savours o f the system, even though t h e r e are no c l a n s ; and c a n be e a s i l y seen Prom t h e l a w o f mat r imony

h c e n t r e s r o u n d t h e r i n c i p l e o f exogamy, f o r s n o t t h a t Sap indas 38 ( b l o o d - k i n s ) canno t y, b u t a m a r r i a 6 6 even between Sa o t r ( o f u same class) i s r e g a r d e d as sacrilege.

th ink ; t h a t i n an exogamous p o p u l a t i o n o f India,

sys tem was n o t f i r m l y e s t a b l i e h e d . Then how

e come i n t o e x i s t e n c e ? Arnbedkar writes t h a t

~ r p o s i t i o n o f endogamy on exogamy means c r e a t i o n

I) 36 I n t h i s r ega rd , Ambedkar draws o u r a t t e n t i o n

l c i e n t H i n d u s o c i a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . He argues

i d u a l s , when q u a l i f i e d , c o u l d change t h e i r

t h e r e f o r e classes d i d change t h e i r p e r s o n a l .

i n the h i s t o r y o f the Hindus , t h e p r i e s t l y

l l y d e t a c h e d i t s e l f f rom t h e r e s t o f t h e body

nd t h r o u g h a c l o s e d - d o o r p o l i c y became a

self'. The o t h e r c l a s s e s b e i n g s u b j e c t e d to

social d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r , unde rwen t d i f f e r e n t i a -

i n t o l a r g e , o t h e r s i n t o v e r y m i n u t e g r o u p s .

and ~ u d r a c l a s s e s were t h e o r i g i n a l i n c h o a t e

fo rmed t h e s o u r c e s o f t h e numerous cas t e s o f

t h e m i l i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n d o e s n o t e a s i l y l s n d

ery m i n u t e s u b - d i v i s i o n , t h e K g a t r i y a class I

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d into s o l d i e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . 37

the d i v i s i o n o f s o c i e t y i s q u i t e n a t u r a l .

a t u r a l t h i n g a b o u t t he se s u b - d i v i s i o n s i s

a v e lost t h e i r open-coor c h a r a c t e r o f t h e

m and have become s e l f - e n c l o s e d u n i t s c a l l e d

e q u e s t i o n b e f o r e u s is: How d i d the o p e n

8 endogamous o r were t h e y c o m p e l l e d t o c l o s e

and became endogamous, o r d i d they close

o f t h e i r own accord? 'A c l a s s system, I 8

~ h y become closed aga ins t v e r t i c a l mobi l i ty ,

:o be a c l a s s system and becomes a c a s t e system. "38

. g h t l y s a y s , "Some closed the door: Others

.osed a g a i n s t them. "39

q u i e t obvious i n a s o c i e t y t h a t the s o c i a l

~ a t t e r n given by the higher c l a s s people may

j by t h e o t h e r middle c l a s s o r lower c l a s s

I f e r v e n t enthusiasm b y a l l means. When the

is B r a h m i n s r e s t r i c t e d t h e i r mobili ty w i t h t h e

i or c losed t h e i r doors t o the other c l a s s e s ,

tcorne se l f -enclosed or endogamous. As i t had

Prom t h e Brahmin c l a s s , i t was whole hear ted ly

t h e o t h e r lower classes.

t a r Y t r e s s e d t h i s aspect a s follows:

Jr t h e closed-door system, was a fashion i n

soc i e ty , and a s i t had or ig ina ted from Eraha n

3 8 whole-heartedly imi ta ted by a l l the non-

9-divis ions or c l a s se s , who, i n t h e i r t u r n ,

agarnous c a s t e s . N 40 There fore , i t i s 'the

,r i m i t a t i o n t h a t caught a l l the o ther

3~ the Hindu soc i e ty on t h e i r onward march of'

t i o n and ha3 t u r n e d i n t o number o f c a s t e s .

s h i g h l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

po r t o f t h i s v i e w , Ambedker q u o t e s a passage

Bageho t :

e m u s t n o t t h i n k . . . o f i m i t a t i o n a s v o l u n t a r y , n c o n s c i o u s . On t h e c o n t r a r y i t has i t s s e a t

i n v e r y o b s c u r e p a r t s o f t h e mind, whose s , s o f a r Prom b e i n g c o n s c i o u s l y p r o d u c e d , r d l y P e l t t o e x i s t , s o f a r f r om b e i n g ved, b e f o r e h a n d , a r e n o t e v e n f e l t a t t h e Th. m a i n s e a t of' t h e i m i t a t i v e p a r t o f o u r i s o u r b e l i e f , and t h e causes p r e d i s p o s i n g

b e l i e v e this o r d i s i n c l i n i n g us t o b e l i e v e r e among t h e o b s c u r e s t p a r t s o f o u r n a t u r e .

t o t h e i m i t a t i v e n a t u r e o f c r e d u l i t y t h e r e no d o u b t . 1 1

a r sijo q u o t e s t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y o f G a b r i e l t ht3

l a y s d o w n j l a w s o f i m i t a t i o n which o p e r a t e f r o m

t o t h e l o w e r . A c c o r d i n g t o Gabrie l T r a d e ,

o p p o r t u n i t y , a nobility will always and

i m i t a t e its l e a d e r s , i t s k i n g s o r s o v e r e i g n s ,

p l e l i kewise , g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , i t s

r , Ambedkar g i v e s a n o t h e r SeaSon t o a2count ,,,em

,p c a s t e f o r m a t i o n , i t i s a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y t o

9 -ircurn r i b e a l i n e o u t s i d e which people should not b F

m a r r i a g e s . F u r t h e r , accord ing t o Ambedkar,

i n a normal g r o u p , t h e two s e x e s a r e more or l e a s e v e n l y

and g e n e r a l l y speaking t h e r e is an e q u a l i t y

b e t w e e n those of' t h e adma age. The e q u a l i t y is , however,

never q u i t e r e a l i z e d i n a c t u a l s o c i e t i e s . At t h e same

time, t o t h e g r o u p which i s d e s i r o u s o f making i t s e l f

endogamous t h e maintenance of e q u a l i t y between the sexes

ubccnies the u l t i n ~ a t e g o a l ; w i thou t i t endogamy can no

l o n g e r subsist. In o t h e r uoros , i f endogamy i s t o be

przservea c o n j u g a l r i g h t s from w i t h i n have t o be provided

for, o t h e r w i s e members of t h e group w i l l be d r i v e n o u t of

the c i r c l e t o t a k e c a r e o f themselves i n any way they can ,

U u t i n o r d e r t h a t t h e c o n j u g a l r i g h t s be provided

f u r f r o m w i t h i n , i t i s a b s o l u t e l y necessa ry t o ma in ta in

numer ica l e q u a l i t y between the mar r i ageab le units of

the two sexes u i t h i n the group d e s i r o u s o f making i t s e l f

a c a s t e . I t i s o n l y through t h e maintenance o f

Such an e q u a l i t y the endogamy of the group can be k e p t

The problem o f c a s t e , t h e n , u l t i m a t e l y r e r o l v e s

u n i t s o f t h e two 38x0s w i t h i n i t . However,

t h e much n e e d e d p a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e u n i t s c a n be r ea l i z ed

only when a c o u p l e d i e 8 s i m u l t a n e o u r l y . In f a c t , t h i a i.

a very ra re c o n t i n g e n c y . 8 s c a u s e s o m e t i m e s t he h u s b a n d

may d i a p r i o r t o t h e w i f e and c r e a t e a ' s u r p l u s o f woman

m u s t be d i s p o s e d o f , l e s t she s h o u . b v i o l a t e the

r u l e s o f endogamy O P he g r o u p . Much t h e same may be

a p p l i e d t o men a l s o . The ' s u r p l u s woman' or ' s u r p l u s ma1

w i l l be a m e n a c e t o t he cas te , i f they a re n o t t a k e n car[

o f ; u n a b l e t o f i n d s u i t a b l e par tners inside t h e i r g r o u p ,

they a r e v e r y l i k e l y t o t r a n s g r e s s t h e b o u n d a r y a n d mars)

o u t s i d e a n d i m p o r t o f f s p r i n g t h a t i s f o r e i g n t o t h e i r

c a s t e . T h e r ~ f o r e Ambedkar in t roduces two key c o n c e p t s

n ~ n l c 3 l y , ' s u r p l u s man' ( w i d o w e r ) and ' s u r p l u s woman'

(w idow) which a r e v i t a l t o h i s theory f o r t h e mechanism

o f c d s t e *

T ~ L P r u b l b m o f S u r p l u s Woman (widow) and S u r p l u s Man ~ w l c j o w c r )

I

TO s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m o f s u r p l u s woman (widow) , ther

a l e two d i f f e r e n t ways by which i t can be d i s p o s e d o f t o

Preserve t h e endogamy o f t h e c a s t e .

ducbdsed husband and g e t rid of' he r . However, i t i s a

V ~ X Y h a r d o f s o l v i n g the problem o f s e x d i s p a r i t y *

In some c a s e s i t may work; i n o t h e r s i t may not . There-

f o r ~ , i t is dn e a s y s o l u t i o n of hard r e a l i ~ a t i o n . ~ ' If

the surplu8 woman is n o t d i sposed o f and i f she remains

in t h e group, h e r e x i s t e n c e i t s e l f would c r e a t e a double

danger t o t h e c a s t e . That is, she may marry o u t s i d e t h e

c a s t s and v i o l a t e endogamy, o r she may marry wi th in t h e

c & t e and through c o m p e t i t i o n s h e may marry wi th in t h e

c r s t a and through c o m p e t i t i o n s h e may encroach upon the

chances o f merridge t h a t must be reverved f o r t h e p o t e n t i

br i t i6 w i t h i n ti-he c a s t e . 46 Thsrefors, something must be

done t o t h e s u r p l u s woman; o the rwise she w i l l be a menace

t o t he endogan~ous n a t u r e of the c a s t s .

The second remedy i s ' en fo rced widowhood' f o r t h e

r e a t o f h e r l i f e . However, t h i s w i l l not s o l v e t h e probl l

rrf s u r p l u s woman. ~ u t i t u i l l g i v e i n c e n t i v e t o immoral

Ambedkar w r i t e s t h a t i n t h e c a s e of' ' s u ~ p l u s man',

3 a t i i s i m p r a c t i c a b l e because, from t ime immemorial man at

with uopan h a s had t h e u p p e r hand i n s o c i e t y .

He i n 3 dnm;rrorr+ P J ~ , , , . ~ i n a\,arv orout). Wi th this

t r d d i t i o n a l s u p e r i o r i t y of man over woman, h i s wishes

hdvu a lways been consu l ted . Woman, on t he o the r hand,

hds oean an ~ j ~ y p rey t o a l l k i n d s o f i nequ i t ous i n j u n c -

t i o n - r e l i y i u u r , s o c i a l o r economic. But man as a make:

o f i n j u n c t i o n s 13 most o f t e n above them a l l . Such be ing

the casa, Ambedkar sa id , 'you cannot accord the same kin1

o f t r ea tmen t t o a 'surplus man' as you can t o a ' s u r p l u s

woman' i n cds t e . u 48

Accord ing t o Ambedkar, the p r o j e c t o f burn ing man

u i t h h i s decedsed w i f e i s hazardous i n two ways. First

o f d L , i t cdnnot be done s imp ly because he is a man,

Secondly, i f done, a s t u r d y soul is l o s t t o the caste.

Therefore, - s a t i o r b u r n i n g ' su rp lus man' with h i s deceasi

w i f e is h i g h l y i m p o s s i b l e i n the Hindu soc ie ty . 49

To m a i n t a i n t h e endogamous na tu re o f caste and t o

8 0 1 ~ 0 t h e problem o f s u r p l u s man and the surp lus woman,

four means were employed by which numer ica l d i s p a r i t y

between the t t ~ o sexes were conven ien t l y maintained.

They arer

(1) b u r n i n g the widow with her deceased husband ( 8 .I

(2) compulrory uidou-hood - a m i l d e r form than tha

~ h e r e f ' o r 8 , a c c o r d i n g t o Ambedkar , s a t i , enforced - w i d o v - ~ ~ ~ d and c h i l d m a r r i a g e a r e t h e customs t h a t were

p r i m d r i l y i n t s n d e d t o s o l v e t h e problem of t h e s u r p l u s

mdn and surplus woman i n a c a s t e dnd main ta in i t s endogal

s t r i c t l y , endogamy c o u l d n o t be prese rved wi thou t t h e s e

customs, w h i l e c a s t e w i t h o u t sndogamy i s a f ake , 5 1

The above o b s e r v a t i o n s p o i n t o u t t h a t endogamy i s

the c l u e for s o l v i n g t h e problem o f t h e o r i g i n of c a s t e .

Ambedkar r e g a r d s endogamy t o be a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e

which is p e c u l i a r t o c a s t e and a l s o a key t o t h e under-

s t b n d i n g o f i t s g e n e s i s . F u r t h e r he s a y s t h a t d e s p i t e

the compos i t e make up o f the Hindu popu la t ion t h e r e i s a

deep c u l t u r a l u n i t y . And cas te i s a c l u s t a r i n g i n t o

smaller o f l a r g e r c u l t u r a l u n i t s . The law g i v e r played

d o m i n a n t r c l e t o g i v e d i v i n e s a n c t i o n f o r t h e c a s t e s y s t

B u t t h e y a r e n o t t h e o r i g i n a t o r s o f t h e c a s t e system*

Thu c l a s s e s have become c a s t e s through ' i m i t a t i o n and

c x ~ ~ t i i , n u n i c a t i o n ~ . Above a l l , he e x p l a i n s tha process of'

machanisrn of' c a s t e with t h e h e l p of 'surplus man' and

8 aur p l u s woman' .

may t h e n be d i s c a r d e d t o f o r g e nev values.

I n o the$Aords , a s o c i e t y depend3 On naw i d e a l s and v a l u e s

for i t s g row th ; b u t t h i s g row th and development i s n o t

a r b i t r a r y , b u t c o h e r e n t and S y s t e n a t i c , However s o c i a l

values r e i n f o r c e t h e c o r e c h a r a c t e r o f s o c i e t y and u s u a l l y

have the past f l a v o u r i n them,

Eve ry s o c i e t y , however v i b r a n t w i t h energy and charge

w i t h l i f e , has some weakness which remains enbedded *--

baneath i t s h e a l t h y c u r r e n t s ; b u t when t h e d i f f e r e n t

l i m b s o f t h e s o c i e t y b e g i n t o f a l l a p a r t and l o s e t h e i r

l i n k i n g f e r v o u r , t h e s e weaknesses g a i n enough s t r e n g t h

t o c o m p l e t e t h e decay o f the s o c i e t y . I t i s e v i d e n t l y

p ~ r c e i v d d i n t h e H indu s o c i e t y . P robab l y t he most

v i o l e n t dnd l e a s t v i s i b l e pas t f l a v o u r o f the Hindu

' s u ~ i d y i s found i n the s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f 80ciety

~ ~ r n ~ Y ' r d r n ~ - v ~ a ~ ~ t h ~ ) , and i n the t h e o r y o f o t h e r - -*

r ~ r l d l i n e u s . Indeud, t r a d i t i o n a l customs and va lues a r e i E I marks o f a g r o w i n g s o c i e t y and t h e symbol o f i t s B

Q i d t u r i t y. Together , t h e y govern t h e i m a g i n a t i v e and t h e

a c t u a l l i f e o f t h e s o c i e t y and e p i t o m i z e i t s i n t e n s i v e

growth and t r a n s f o r m i n g va lues. I n the Hindu s o c i e t y

I 1 the t r d d i t i o n a l customs and va lues produced 80 many

,p the tiindu s o c i e t y produced r i g i d demarcat ion o f the

dirrcrent s o c i a l g roup3 and d s v i a ted i n t o i n f l e x i b l e

groups and f ragments . The d i s t a n c e be tween t h e i n d i v i d u a

and s o c i a l g roups f u r t h e r widened w i t h t h e passage of

time. T h i s d i v i s i o n and d i s t a n c e were cons idered as

i r r e v o c a b l e and inviolable. Again, t h e a n c i e n t Hindus

west so engaged i n b u i l d i n g f o r t h e d i s t a n t f u t u r e t h a t

they l o s t s i g h t o f t h e succeeding g e n e r a t i o n ; they were

not a p p r e h e n s i v e o f t h e immediate needs of day-to-day

l i f e , bu t t h e y c o n c e n t r a t e d on l i f e a f t e r death or

l i b s r d i o n (moksa). Hence, they s a c r i f i c e d t h e i r ma te r i a - 0 -

e l e v a t i o n a t t h e a l t a r o f s p i r i t u a l endeavour which

i n s u l a t e d them a g a i n s t a l l temporal advancement. T h i s

weakened t h e s o c i a l bounds and p e t r i f i c a t i o n of s o c i a l

d i v i s i o n l u l l e d the people i n t o the slumbar of i n a c t i o n

and r e s i g n a t i o n .

Feu Hindus r e a l i s e t h e s t a t i c n a t u r e of t h e Hindu

s o c i e t y , and a meagre number s t i l l admit t h a t t h e s e wilt

art3 a g r e a t s t u m b l i n g block t o t h e a l l - round growth and

development o f the I n d i a n s i n g e n e r a l , and the Hindus i n

P a r t i c u l a r . At t h i s j u n c t u r e Ambedkar a r o s e a s t h e

Phoenix from i t s smouldering a s h e s *

5 e q m a n t a l D i v i s i o n and H i e r a r c h y of' The Hindu S o c i e t y

As a s t u d e n t o f 3 0 ~ i 0 1 0 g y a n d a n t h r o p o l o g y ,

Aabedkar a n a l y ~ e s a n d e x p l a i n s t h e n a t u r e , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

ev i l s a n d a l l - r o u n d i m p a c t o f c a s t e on t h e Hindu s o c i e t y ,

The Hindu s o c i e t y w h i c h was g o v e r n e d by t h e c a t u r v a r n a e-

s y s t e m l a t e r d e g e n e r a t e d i n t o t h e c a s t e system,'~mbedkar

b a s e r t s t h a t t h e c a t u r v a r n a *I. p a t t e r n o f s o c i e t y was b a s e d

upon c e r t a i n b i n d i n g s a n d u n q u e s t i o n a b l e l a w s .

Ambsdkdr p o i n t s o u t t h a t i t was Manu who i n v e s t e d

t he s o c i a l i d e a l o f c a t u r v a r n a c o n t a i n e d i n t h e p u r u s a - e- *-

s i k t a w i t h d i v i n i t y a n d i n f a l l i b i l i t y which i t d i d n o t - have b e f o r e . Thme f o u r c l a s s e s a r e , h i e r a r c h i c a l l y 52

g r a d e d . B e i n g b a a e d o n b i r t h , t h e r e i s no s p o n t a n e i t y

on the p a r t o f the i n d i v i d u a l s i n h i e r a r c h i c a l g r a d d t i o n ,

F u r t h e r , t h e l a w - g i v e r s o f t he Hindu s o c i e t y d i v i d e d

man's l i f e i n t o fou r s t a g e s (;&amas). The f o u r s t a g e s

were c a l l e d B r e h m a c a r y a , C r a h a s t h e , VGngpras tha a n d

Sann i s a 4,. The o b j e c t o f t h e f i r s t s t a g 8 was t o s t u d y t h e

a n d m a i n t a i n c e l i b a c y . The s e c o n d s t a g e was t o l i ~ - a m a r r i e d l i f e . The t h i r d s t a g e was t h e l i f e o f a h e r m i t

"a t h e last s t a g e was t o e n a b l e a man t o go i n s e a r c h

O f Cod and seek u n i o n w i t h H i m . Ambedkar d o e s n o t

,,iticise t h e o b j e c t i v e s of the is'iramas, but ha c r i t i c i s

the di rcr i rn ina tory n a t u r e of the a l lotment o f t he four

among t h e four d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s . 53 He says t h a t

t h e four s tage3 uele open o n l y t o the male members o f t h

t h ree s u p e r i o r c l a s s e s . The f irs t s t a g e and the f o u r t h

s t a g e ware not Open t o the ~ c d r a s and women, - 5 4 Therefor

the ca turvarna s o c i e t y a s envisaged by flanu was not f r e e *-

from pre jud ice and i n d e f i n i t e l y open t o c r i t i c i s m a s

a l ready ques t ioned by Ambedksr.

Regarding the r i g h t t o education, the caturvarna .I p a t t e r n of s o c i e t y gave right t o education o n l y ' t o the

f i r s t t h r e e u p p s r c lasses (twice-born). Thus the - SGdras

ucre denied t l l u r i g h t t o educat ion; dnd a l s o a l l women,

inc luding t h u s 0 i n t h e t h r e e upper c l a s s e s were denied

thcl r i g h t t o ~ u d c ~ t i o n . Hancu the denia l of' the r i g h t t~ I I

aducdtion is ignorancs i n order t o keep the s;d1

women i n human bondage. Therefore, there cannot be

S o c i a l e q u a l i t y 5mong the four c l a s s e s . They must be

bound toge the r by t he r u l e o f graded inequa l i ty and theri

no equal oppor tun i ty and equal s t a t u s were mad8

a v a i l a b l e among the H i n d u s . Ambedkar argues:

i n e q u a l i t y the b a a i s for de te rmin ing t h e t e rms o f a s s o c i a t e d l i f e a s between t h e f o u r va rnas .

* - Again, t h e s y s t e m o f graded i n e q u a l i t y AS not merely n o t i o n a l , I t i s l e g a l and penal . Undsr t h e system o f c a t u r v a r n a, the Shudra i s n o t + - o n l y p l a c e d a t t h e o t om o f t h e g r a d a t i o n bu t hk i s s u b j e c t e d t o innumerable d i s a b i l i t i e s and ignomin ies 90 a s t o p reven t him from rising above the c o n d i t i o n f i x e d for h im by l a u . 5 5

isifiy J f o l l o w e r o f Buddha a n d a s t u d e n t o f s o c i o l o g y ,

n13~kdKc i r uoes n o t o e l i e v e in any form of f i x e d norms and

c l o s s d system o f though t . He w r i t e s t h a t t h e i d e a l s a s

norms a r e good dnd a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r a s o c i e t y , Ne i the r

a s o c i a t y nor an i n d i v i d u a l can do without a norm. But

a norm must change a c c o r d i n g t o t h e needs o f t h e t ime anc

c i r c u m s t a n c e s , But no norm can be permanently f i x e d .

There must a lways be room f o r r e v a l u a t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n

of' t h e v d u e s o f o u r norm. F u r t h e r , he says t h a t t h e

P o s s ~ t i l i t y o r r r i v j l u i n g t h e v d l u e s of a s o c i e t y remains

open s n l y when the i n s t i t u t i o n i s not i n v e s t e d w i t h

s a c r e a n e s s . "Sac redness p r e v e n t s r e v a l u a t i o n o f i t s

v a l u e s . Once sacred, always sac red . The purusha-s ik ta

make3 c h a t u r v a r n ~ . a s a c r e d i n s t i t u t i o n , a d i v i n e o rd ina -

t i o n . US 6 T h e r e f o r e , he criticises purusa-s;kta and

The scheme o f ths ,ourusa?s ik ta i s t h e o n l y

( 2 ) The p u r u s . a - s ~ k t a i s the only i n s t a n c e i n

which an a t t empt was made t o g i v e r e a l i t y t o

tho i d e a l by invoking the sanc t ion o f l aw .

( 3 ) No s o c i e t y has accepted t h e c l a s s compos i t io~

a s an i d e a l . Bu t t he purusa-szkta accepted *-

c l d i s composit ion a s n a t u r a l and i d e a l , and

a l s o regdrded i t a s sacred and divine.

( 4 ) The p u r u ~ d - 3 6 k t a made the d i v i s i o n of s o c i e t :

i n t o fou r c lasses a s a mat ter o f dogma.

(5) The purusa-s6kta made an o f f i c i a l g rada t ion

o f s o c i e t y , f i x e d and permanent, w i t h an

ascending s c a l e of reverance a n d a descendin1

scale of contempt. 57

fin t h e h s i s of t h e above, Ambedkar cones t o the follow.

( 1 ) The p u r u s a - s i k t a preached a class-composed-

oociety a s i t s ideal.

(2) I t conver ted tho - de f a c t o s t a t e of a f f a i r s

i n t o a de jure connotat ion o f an i d e a l socie

( 3 ) I t gave the - ds Pacto s t a t e of c l a s s cornposit

a legal e r f e c t by accept ing i t as a d e b r e

-----+,+inn nQ an i d e a l $oci@t)/, 58

Thus the r ~ r u W - s u ' k t a acdepted the class composi t ion

,, an i d e a l and a l s o s a c r e d and d i v i n e . So t h e r e was no

o f s t a t u s among the people and a l s o t h e r e was no

, , + d l r y o r o p p o r t u n i t y among them. The purusa-sckta *-

r3110wad t h e n ~ t l ~ n of d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r and conver ted

uld acheme o f d i v i s i o n of work i n t o f i x e d and permanent

c a t e g o r i e s . I t perpetuated a r i g i d i n e q u a l i t

on the ground tha t whatever is once s e t t l e d i s s e t t l e d

f o r e v e r . Such a view i s no t o n l y opposed t o a l l known

norms o f m o r a l i t y , b u t a l s o designed t o s a n c t i f y t h e

s t r d t i f i e d s t r u c t u r e o f a s o c i e t y . 59

F u r t h e r , Ambedkar writes, t h a t t h e a n c i e n t Hindu

s n r t i k b r a s , by p reach ing t h a t the Vedas a r e e t e r n a l , - 0 2 3 1 1 1

without beg inn ing , wi thou t end, and i n f a l l i b l e , p u t

h w d r d t h e v i e w t h a t t h e s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s r e q u i r e d

no change, f o r t h s y baing based on t h e Vedas, a r e a l s o

in f a l l a l e and e t e r n a l . 6u A, humanist and freedom

l o v i n g i n d i v i d u a l , Ambedkar insists upon the r e v i s i o n

O f ' smrtis and the i r s o c i a l norms on the b a s i s of f r e s h -*-

" " i t i i o t o o u r k k n o h d g e o f man and t h e changing s o c i e t y .

jut t h e d n c i ~ n t Hindu t r a d i t i o n does n o t allow t o q u e s t i o n t h e

L t . ' ~ a ul hori ty UeddY, Thus, a n c i e n t Smrtia were - -0-

i n them were beyond t h e scope of c r i t i c i s m . There fo re ,

~mrtis c r e a t e d a s t a t i c Hindu s o c i e t y which was -.- mddg d i v i n e by t h e purusa-s;kta. *-

~ ~ ~ r i a q e and Excommunication

In the mechanism o f c a s t e , t h e laws o f marriage

~ c c u p y an i m p o r t a n t p lace . The c a t u r v a r n a theory r e s t r i c t *-

t r ig r n ~ t r i m o n i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p by provid ing c e r t a i n laws.

ko 1 r 1 ~ n cdn mhrry o u t s i d e his varna. I f a man does s o , -*-

ilt: i s excommunicdted from t ha t varna. Even the two -*-

i c t r d s o f tho s d m a c a s t e cannot marry because of the

h c a s t e l ius d n unques t ioned r i g h t t o excommunicate

t i i ' Y p u r b o l l wl~u v i o l , l ~ u u its r u l u b . Hl~~badkirr u t . r L u ~ Llral;

' . lu L U I no t , y r'jr ~ I ~ ~ . : , L J I I uhu il;lu Lhu c u u r q u LII

v l o l d l u t t lu ~ . l a t r , cod", rusull u r ullich t l ~ u d u r ~ ~ u l t u r

w e r e forced t o undergo a form of servers punishments l i k e ,

(11 o u t - c a s t i n g , e i t h e r t empora r i ly o r p ~ r m a " ~ " t l y ,

( ) Pines , (3) f e a s t s t o be given t o the c a s t e men;

( 4 ) C Q r p ~ r a l punishment, and (5) sometimes r e l i g i o u s

c x p i z t i o n ,

.hexera$8, c a s t e i s e v e r ready t o t a k e advantage o f the

:h t i lp le s snas8 o f a man and i n s i s t upon complete conformi ty

A c a s t e c a n e a s i l y o r g a n i a e i t s e l f i n t o a consp i racy t o make t h e l i f e o f a reformer a h e l l . Such a

n e f a r i o u s a c t c o n t r a r y t o t h e r u l e s and c a s t e should be made an of f e n c e , punishable i n law. But a s i t i s , even law g i v e s each c a s t e an autonomy t o r e g u l a t e i t s membership and punish d i s s e n t e r s with excommunication, c a s t e i n t h e hands of the or thodox ha8 been powerfu l weapon f o r p e r s e c u t i r~formera and f o r k i l l i n g a l l reforms, g9 the

A S a r e s u l t , endogamy o r r e s t r i c t i o n o f in ter -marr iage

has con t inued au an e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e of

cds te , which e n a b l e d i t t o mainta in i t s i d e n t i t y even

t o d a y ,

F u r t h e r a c c o r d i n g t o Ambedkar, c a s t e s a r e autonomous

and t h e r e i s no a u t h o r i t y anyuhere t o compel a c a s t e t o

d d m i t a new comer t o i t s s o c i a l l i f e . The Hindu s o c i e t y

being a c o l l e c t i o n o f numerous c a s t e s and each c a s t e being

.rn enc losed c o r p o r a t i o n t h e c a s t e has no place f o r a new

comer o r c o n v e r t * 5, u, Ketkar exphas isea the importance

t h e problem:

As l o n g c a s t e i n Ind ia does e x i s t Hindus w i l l ' h a r d l y i n t e r - m a r r y o r have any s o c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e . - : & L r . .+ . idCIPB: and if Hindus migra te t o o t h e r reg i l

. - . . i d hh~~13mg 8 world

5 o c i a l - T a b ~ ~ and h e r e d i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n s

The e f f i c i e n c y o f a n i n d i v i d u a l i n I n d i a n s o c i e t y

is n o t d e t e r m i n e d an the basis o f t r a i n i n g o r o r i g i n a l

c a p a c i t y , but o n the b a s i s o f b i r t h a n d s o c i a l s t a t u s

o f h i 3 c a s t e . There a r e c e r t a i n r u l e s as t o what k i n d

of f o o d o r d r i n k c a n be a c c e p t e d by a p e r s o n f rom what

c a s t e . T h e r e b y c a s t e s c r e a t e a n a r t i f i c i a l s o c i a l t a b o o

u i t h t h e h e l p o f r e l i g i o u s dogmas.

As s t a t e d e a r l i e r , the f o u r - f o l d d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u

predched i n ca t u r v a r n a i s n o t s p o n t a n e o u s . A c c o r d i n g t o *-

hmbedkhr i t i s n o t based o n n a t u r a l a p t i t u d e . S o c i a l

and i n d i v i d u a l e f f i c i e n c y r e q u i r e s u s t o d e v e l o p the

c d p a c i t y o f an i n d i v i d u a l t o t h e p o i n t o f competencey t o

c h o o s e dnd make h i s own c a r e e r , T h i s p r i n c i p l e i s v i o l a '

i n t h e c a s t e s y s t e m i n s o f a r a s i t i n v o l v e s a n a t t e m p t '

the a s s i g n tasks t o l i n d i v i d u a l s i n a d v a n c e , s e l e c t e d n o t on

the b a s i s o f t r a i n e d o r i g i n a l c a p a c i t i e s , but on t h a t o f

the s o c i a l s t a t u v t h e i r p a r e n t s . Hence, Ambedkar arg l

* . . t h i s s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f o c c u p a t i o n s which i s t h e r e s u l t o f c ~ s t e system is p o s i t i v e l y p e r n i c i o u s . I n d u s t r y i s n e v e r s t a t i c . I t u n d e r g o e s r a p i d and a b r u p t c h a n g e s . Wi th s u c h c h a n g e s an i n d i v i d u a l must be f r ee t o c h a n g e h i s . . o c c u p a t i o n . Without

.n ..- -L . - - -J= . . '.,t*,,.',,,,-

~ h ~ ~ e f 0 ~ 8 , a c c o r d i n g t o Ambedkar , " t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u ;

b r o u g h t a b o u t by t h e c a s t 8 8 y s t e m i s n o t t h e d i v i s i o n bar

on ~ h o i c e . I n d i v i d u a l s e n t i m e n t a n d i n d i v i d u a l p r e f e r e n 1

have no place i n i t . I t 13 baaed o n the dogma o f predes'

n a t i o n . The i n d i v i d u a l , t h e r e f o r e , w i l l n o t have a n y

o p t i o n o r c h o i c e o f h i s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a d e o r p r o f e s ,

s u c h a n a r r a n g e m e n t was u p h e l d by Mahatma Gandhi a s "an

ides1 s y s t e m c o n c e i v e d f o r t h e h i g h e s t good o f s o c i e t y . I[

Gandhi, i n a c c e p t i n g t h e f o u r - f o l d d i v i s i o n , was s i m p l y

d c c e p t i n g t h e l a w o f n a t u r e , t a k i n g f o r g r a n t e d what i s

i n h e r e n t i n human n a t u r e and the l a w o f h e r e d i t y . 67

eased un t h i s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , some I n d i d n s d e f e n d e l

Lhe c a s t e syst im o n the g r o u n d t h a t i t i s b u t a n o t h e r

n ~ r s t : tJor t j i v i v i u n of' l a b o u r ; and i f d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r

i s 0 n e c e s s a r y f e a t u r e o f e v e r y c i v i l i z e d s o c i e t y , t h e n

i s a r g u e d t h a t there i s n o t h i n g wrong i n t h e c a s t e

~YsLkrn,

n Ambedkbr c r i t i c i s e s t h i s v iew and s t a t e s , .. . thal

c a s t e system n o t m e r a l y d i v i s i o n o f i a b o u r . I t i s a l :

a d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r e r s , I@ 68 F u r t h e r , h e a r g u e s , "Civili;

S o c i e t y u n d o u b t e d l y n e ~ d s d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r . But i n no

this urmatura l d i v i s i o n of l aboure r s i n t o water t i g h t

It cornpar tmenta . 69 Therefore , "Caste system i s not mere11

, d i v i s i o n of l a b o u r e r which i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from

d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r - i t 1s an he i ra rchy i n which t h e

d i v i s i o n of l a b o u r e r 3 a r e graded one above the o the r .

In no o t h e r count ry is the div iv ion of labour accompanie,

by t h i s g radd t ion of labourers . 13 0

Class C o n f l i c t and Lack of Soc ia l Endosmosis

The c l a s s c o n f l i c t i s an i n e v i t a b l e s o c i a l phenome~

which e x i s t s i n every s o c i e t y . Bu t i n Indian s o c i e t y t h t

p r o b l e m of c l a s s e s i s seen pr imari ly i n the form of cas t t

John Gunther sdys:

C a s t e i s ,AS o l a a s India. I t i s the c i t a d e l of Hinduism. I t i s the i n s t i t u t i o n which makes India unique, the device broaking u p Indians i n t o f ixed c d t e g o r i s s t h a t has no approximation elsewhere i n t he world. Every Hindu..., i s born i n t o a c a s t e and h i s c a s t e determines h i s r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l , economic, d o ~ e s t i c l i f e from the c rad le t o the g rdve . No man may leave h i s c a s t e , except t o be a ~ p e l l e d . ~ ~ I t i s impossible t o progress from c a s t e t o C d ~ t t f .

Thus , c a s t e i n Ind ia c r e a t s d an a r t i f i c i a l chopping o f f c

the popula t ion i n t o f ixed and d e f i n i t e u n i t s which preuer

tho s o c i a l endosmosis.

Ambedkar s t a t e s t h a t each c a s t e i s consc ious c

own ex i s t ence . Caste system was p rese rved with the

and endogamy. With t h e h e l p o f sacredner

c a s t e sys tem i n f l u e n c e d t h e dogmat ic minds o f t h e or

H indus who l i v e d i n the p a s t and con t i nues t o i n f l u s

even to-day. S.C. metha and A.P. Barnabaa observe:

appears t h a t r e g a r d l e s s o f the many f a c t o r s , which a

auppovod t o be d i s r u p t i n g t h e c a s t e system, i t has u

a l l t h e o n s l a u g h t s and i s s t i l l a s t r o n g and t e n a c i

f o r c e , 11 7 2 The c a s t e consc iousness o f t he Hindus p r e

f e l l o w - f e e l i n g and h e a l t h y b ro the rhood among i t s mem

The r e a s o n why t h e average Hindu behaves with h e s i t a

and f e a r t o exp ress h i s v iews is found i n t h e f a c t t

does n o t f e e l t h a t ano the r Hindu w i l l come t o his r e ,

i f he is i n danger.

Arnbedkar s t a t e s t h a t , u n l i k e t h e S ikhs and flus.

t h e r e is no s o c i a l cement amongst the Hindus t o make

f e e l l i k e b r o t h e r s (bha is ) . - This is h i s lament . Th.

u n d o u b t l y due t o cas te . Accord ing t o Ambedkar, "Ind.

is the w o r s t k i n d o f d isease t h a t can i n f e c t a peoplc

and t h i s has r e s u l t ~ d from c a s t s and has made o r g a ~ i :

and even co -ope ra t i on for a good cause i m p o s s i b l e *

FurCher Ambedkar says, the "caste system p reve

common a c t i v i t y and by p r e v e n t i n g common a c t i v i t y , i

t h e H indus Prom becoming a society with a

~ n i f i e d l i f e and a consc iousness o f its own being.. 7

T h e r e f o r e w h i l e criticising the o r t hodoxy o f the H i n

Ambedkar w r i t e s :

... tne i d e a l Hindu must be l i k e a r a t l i v i n g h i s own h o l e r e f u s i n g t o have any c o n t a c t with The re is an u t t e r l a c k among the Hindus o f wha

11 s o c i o l o g i s t s c a l l consc ious o f k ind . ' There H indu consc iousness o f k ind . I n every Hindu t consciousness tha t e x i s t s is t h e consciousness h i s ~ d s t e . T h a t is t h e r e X s o n why the Hindus be s d i d t o fo rm a s o c i e t y . 95

The re fo re , u c c o r d i n g t o Arnbedkar t he ex i s t ence o f ca

and c a s t e consc iousness has served t o keep the memor

p a s t f ends between castes ,green and has prevented so.

omong t h e Hindus. "Caste dec ides t o a c e r t a i n g r e a t

t h e soc ia l s t a t u s and v o c a t i o n o f a member o f t he H i 1

community wh ich is h i e r a r c h i c a l l y graded i n t o numeroc

castes.. , u 76

A c l o s e s t u d y of' t h e Hindu s o c i e t y would revea;

form3 tha i n n e r c i t a d e l o f Hinduism. Caste wa!

I) the s t e e l frame o f Hinduism. " The ou t s t and ing feat1

ii) Hierarchy;

iii) Restrictions o f feeding and social i n t e r c o u r s e

iv) C i v i l and r e l i g i o u s d i s a b i l i t i e s f o r a p a r t i c r

s e c t i o n o f peop le

v ) P r i v i l e g e s o f h i g h e r c a s t e s ;

~ i ) Lack o f u n r e s t r i c t e d c h o i c e o f o c c u p a t i o n ; and

vii) P q e v t r i c t i o n s i n marr iage . 77

Though ttre v a r n a sys tem, c o n s i d e r e d as t h e o r e t i c a l . I . or i u e d l , s t i l l h a s i t s i n f l u e n c e on t h e Hindu s o c i e t y t

a i r e c t ~ n d i n d i r e c t . In o t h e r words "I t i s a s o c i o l o g i c

f i c t i u n . Though t h e f o u r - f o l d d i v i s i o n i s pure ly n o t i o r

t he t h d o r y o f a o c i e t y baved on i t s t i l l governs Hindu l i

liznca, the u n c h s n g e a b l e i n e q u a l i t y based on b i r t h , restr

t i o n on m a r r i a g e o u t s i d e o n e ' s own group, pure and impur

I 4 and touch-me not - ism"aar i n f o r c e even to-day.

As a s t u d a n t of' s o c i o l o g y , Ambedkar f u l l y r e a l i z e d

Lhe ~ t a i i c and s t a g n a n t n a t u r e o f the Hindu s o c i e t y .

i ; a n e r o l l y , alnlast a l l s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h e r s a s well a s

s o c i a l o g i s t s a c c e p t t he dynamic n a t u r e of s o c i e t y .

nac Ivor r i g h t l y s a y s t h a t " s o c i e t y e x i s t s on ly as a

t ime-suquencee ~t is a bscoming-not a be ing; d process

,,t a " AmbQdkar w ro te tha t the Hindu s o d i a l

, , gdn i sa t i ~n Was a I''10me o f i n e q u a l i t y and oppress ion .

II 1tt.iindu s o c i e t y , " he observes , was j u s t l i k e a tower

which had s e v e r a l s t o r e y s i n which one was born. So,

,,, f e l t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f s o c i a l endosmosis. The Hindu

S D L i ~ t ~ DBCaff l8 b t d i c i n it3 n a t u r e because o f ics a n c i e n t

- u i i n l a UU" the onr: hend dnd the e n f o r c e d C U Y ~ O ~ S on the

~jier . h p ~ r t f ro i l l t h i s , the pseudo -o the rwo r l d l i ness

p i c - ~ ~ c ~ p i ~ d the H i n d u minds, wh ich l e d t he Hinau s o c i e t y

L L tcc.on~u s tc t t ic d-id s t a g n a n t i n i t 9 na tu re . When a

- L ~ ~ ~ . L J u c c o m o ~ d i d t i c and s tagnan t , aecay and des t ruc t ion

..: c ~ n e v i t d b l e .

however, dmbedkar was not d g a i n s t tho Hindus, but

L~ was d g i i i n s t tno t r b o i t i o n a l v a l u e s and en fo rced customs,

because t h e y were the s t u m b l i n g b l o c k s t o h i s c o n c e p t i o n

" ' f r e e - m d n l and o f ' f r e e s o c i e t y ' . I n order t o e s t a b l i s h

L n e s o c i a l i d e a l s o f e q u d l i t y , l i b e r t y and f r a t e r n i t y ,

" l l j l ieakar inquipas i n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l 3OUrCQs on which

t"' H i n o u - r o c i a l o r g a n i s d t i o n and i n s t i t ~ t i o n s were founded

I n the l i g h t o f what has been s t a t e d above, we may

e n u m ~ r a t 8 A8bedkar fi c o n c l u s i o n about t h e n a t u r e of' t h e

H i s p r o f a s r i o n had l o s t a l l i t 3 n o b i l i t y . He hdd become a pest . The Brahmin ~ y s t e m a t i c a l l y p rayed on 3 0 c i e t y and p r o f i t e e r e d i n r e l i g i o n . The pu ranaa and ahas t raa which he manufactured - i n t o n s a r e t r e a s u r e t r o v e o f sharp p r a c t i c e s w h i c h the brahmins employed t o be foo l , b e g u i l e and swindle t h e comman ma o f poor, i l l i t e r a t e and s u p e r s t i t i o u s Hindus, 19

fur ther , when an i n d i v i d u a l f a i l s t o obey the s o c i a l code

~p n i n d u s o c i e t y , p e n a l t i e s and punishment, b o t h

L a n ~ + r ~ l hna s p i r i t u a l , we re imposed on him. S o c i a l

o o y c ~ t t U ~ S one U P t h e p e n d l t i e s a person had t o s u f f e r

dnd t h e r e f o r e he was doomed t o e t e r n a l damnation, he

c o u l d n o t c l a i m any c i v i l r i g h t , because t h e r e was a

convpicuous 6bsence o f remedy, Even the c o u r t o f l a w

t ~ a s n o t i n t e r f e r e d i n t h e d i s p u t e which i n v o l v e s a person

who v i o l a t e s tht: H indu code, 6 2 Any person who wants t o

c r e a t e h i s oun p e r s o n a l law, will be t r e a t e d as i n f e r i o r

among t h e Hindus, The B r i t i s h Government a l s o d i d n o t

i n t e r f e r u i t h t h e customs o f Hindu soc ie ty , thereby the

m a i n t a i n i n g t h e n e u t r a l i t y and a l l o w i n g the s o c i a l l a w 8

and customs o f t h e Hindus. 8 3

Thus Ambedkar e x p l a i n s how the Hindu s o c i a l organigaa

t i o n C r e a t e d such h o r r i b l e customs, and how the law-g lver8

e ~ l o n i ..A th. m..mm+; mn ,r .Ilrh p l t~~ torns . Therefore, t he

hind" ~ o c i a l o r g d n i s a t i o n and its customs restricted the

,,,ion o f the Hindus. Thereby, the Hindu soc ie ty lost it*

,,,uility and became static and stagnant. To revi ta l i s t 5:-

Inkj H ~ n d u society h b e d k a r sugge3 ts the e g a l i t a r i a n

plnciplss o f e q u a l i t y , l i b e r t y and f r a t e r n i t y .

Hindu ~ o c l a l o r g a n i s a t i o n and i t 3 customs restricted the

,,,ion o f the Hindus. Thereby, the Hindu society lost its

and became s t a t i c and stagnant, To rev i ta l i s t 2

Lnh Hlnou socie ty hmbedkar suggests the e g a l i t a r i a n

i~ r i n c i p l e ~ o f equality, l i b e r t y and f r a t e r n i t y .

~ ~ n d " social orgdnisation and its customs restricted the

, , ,ion o f the Hindus. Thereby, t h e Hindu society lost i t s

, i , , ~ i l i t y and became s tat ic and stagnant. To revitalist' e t n b Hindu society hmbedkar suggests the egal i tar ian

p r i n c i p l e s o f e q u a l i t y , l i b e r t y and fraterni ty .