CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAME WORK

A. Speaking

According to the 2006 English Curriculum and its supplement, the

emphasis of the curriculum is that the students are able to communicate in English

by mastering the whole skills. However, it is not easy to master all the skills; there

must be one important skill that covers the whole skills. Based on the statement

above speaking is the most important skill that should be mastered by students in

order to communicate in English fluently.

Speaking skill ensures the language learners to be able to communicate

actively in a target language. Thus, one’s eloquence in using a target language

orally is greatly determined by how well he or she learns speaking skills.

However, learning speaking is no easy task, let alone teaching it. Students often

encounter many problems. Confidence and being afraid of making mistakes are

two of the greatest psychological barriers that hold the learners back from

advancing in their study. Students tend to have fears before larger groups. This

happens especially in a culture that people tend to use other people’s weaknesses

as laughing matter.

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Although students are able to overcome this problem, adjusting their speech

to different situations, seem to be the problem of the more advanced learners.

Therefore, the language teachers should call for cultural learning to engage in the

learning of speaking. Many language learners I interview claim that the lack of

vocabularies obstructs them from producing a good speaking skill.

Building up confidence should be the first step a good language teacher

does to the learners. The teacher should be able to identify each learner’s

problems. This is a matter of constructing a mindset and a friendly atmosphere in

the classroom that speaking is a fun activity and that it is easy. Teachers should be

able to convince the students that speaking fears are common and that it happens

to everyone. This especially is effective to those who are new to language

learning. When they are advanced enough, the focus of the teaching should be

about how to develop what they have acquired

1. Definition of Speaking

When you know a language, you can speak and be understood by

others who know that language. This mean we have capacity to produce sound

that signify certain meaning and to understand or interpret the sound produced

by others.1

1 Hyams,Rodman,Fromkin, An Introduction to Language (USA, Wadsworth, Thomson, 2003), p. 4

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Speaking consists of producing systematic verbal utterances to convey

meaning. (utterance are simply thing people say). Flores said, “speaking is an

interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and

receiving and processing information”2

According to Nunan, interactional speech is more fluid and

unpredictable than transactional speech. Speaking activities inside the

classroom need to embody both interactional and transactional purposes, since

language learners will have to speak the target language in both transactional

and interactional settings.3

Speaking is encoding, and listening is subsequent decoding. Bakhtin’s

view, is that nothing in this description would change if the listener were

asleep, absent, or entirely different. But in real exchanges, the listener does

not passively decode. Understanding is an active process in which the listener

not only decodes, but also imagines how the utterance is meant to affect him

or her, how it responds to past and potential utterances, and how third parties

might respond. With all these factors in mind, the listener prepares a response

that is revised as the utterance is being heard. Understanding is personal,

processual, and active. Because every speaker counts on understanding of an

active sort, the listener shapes the utterance from the outset. Speakers

2 Kathlen M. Bailey. Nunan, PracticalEnglish Language Teaching : Speaking, (New York, The Mc Graw Hill Companies, 2005), p. 23 Nunan David, Practical English Language Teaching, (New York, The Mc Graw Hill Companies, 2003), p. 56

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formulate their utterances with a specific listener or kind of listener in mind.

This anticipation of a listener, which in ordinary speech is often guided by

responses we sense as we are speaking, alters the tone, choice of words, and

style of each utterance as a work in process.4

In their book, George an Yule said, in interactional situation, where

information transfered is the primary reason for the speaker choosing to

speak, the language tends to be clearer, more specific, than primarily

intractional situations. 5 The speakers say words to the listener not only to

express what in her mind but also to express what he needs whether

information service. Most people might spend of their everyday life in

communicating with other.

Speaking in language is especially difficult for foreign language learners,

because effective oral communication requires the ability to use language

appropriately in social interactions. Diversity in interaction involved not only

verbal communication, but also paralinguistic elements of speech such as

pitch, stress, and intonation.6

Based on that statements we conclude that one of important aspects in

speaking is there is a communication or interacting between the speaker and

4 Mey. Jacob l, Concise Encyclopedia Pragmatic,(United Kingdom, Elsevier Ltd 2009), p. 14 5 Gillian Brown and George Yule, Teaching the Spoken Language : Approach Based on the Analysis

of Conversational English (Australia : Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 146 Richard and Renandya, Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Curret Practice,

( New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002) p. 204

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listener. So it will make the good attraction / understanding about the object of

topic.

2. Process of Speaking

Speaking is an activity used by someone to communicate with other. It

takes place very where and has become part of our daily activities. When

someone speaks, he or she interacts and uses the language to express his or

her ideas, feeling and thought. He or she also shares information to other

trough communication. Communication involves at least two people where

both sender and receiver need to communicate to exchange information, ideas,

opinions, views, or feelings.

Communication has been defined in various ways but to understand it in

simple words, it is the process of exchanging between individuals.

The exchange could happen through spoken words, written words, signs,

action (including body language) or behavior.

There are three factors when we make communication :

a.Clarity

It means that the words that the speakers use, must be clear, so that

listeners can understand what the speaker says. Here, the speaker must

consider speed and volume. The speed at which you speak is relevant

her. If you speak quickly, listeners may have difficulty. The volume with

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which you speak can also have a bearing. Speak out and do not mumble.

Your words have to be loud enough to reach all your listeners.

b.Variety

Here the speakers must try to vary way of speaking such as pitch (rise

and fall of voice), emphasis, speed, variation, volume and pause. The

speaker is expected to fine variation in saying words do not speak

monotonously.

c. Audience and Tone

The way you speak and the tone you use will be affected by audience

to whom you are speaking. If you are discussing something with your

friends. You are likely to use informal conversational tone. If you are

giving a talk to a group of thirty people. It likely that you would speak

more formally and would raise the pitch and the volume of your voice in

order to make sure that what you say reaches all of your listeners. If you

were telling a comic story, you would speak differently from way you

would if you were putting a point of view about which you felt strongly.

In a process of speaking, a speaker has a concept of thinking to express

what he wants to say. It means that he would have sufficient vocabulary in his

mind and have good understanding of the structure of the language. To

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convey his ideas and meanings in a certain situation he has to use appropriate

pattern and choose the correct words that fit into it.

B. Audio Lingual Method

The audio lingual method was developed in the United States during the

World War II as the combination of structural linguist theory, contrastive anylisis,

aural-oral procedures and behaviorist psychologhy.

1. Definition of Audio Lingual Method

Audio Lingual Methodology owed its existence to the Behaviorist

models of learning that were using the stimulus-response-reinforment model,

it attempted, throught a continuous process of such positive reinforcement, to

engender good habit in language learner.7

Audio Lingualism relied heavily on drill to form these habits; substitution was

built into these drills so that, in small steps, the students was constantly

learning and moreover, was shileded from possibility of making mistakes by

design of the drill.

Audiolingual repetition drills were designed to familiarize students

with sounds and structural paterns of the target language (the language which

learners are aiming to learn). Learners supposedly learned to speak by

7 Harmer Jeremy, The Practice of English Language Teaching, (Longman 2006)p, 79

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practicing grammatical structures and then later using them in conversation.

So, an audilingual speaking lesson might involve an interaction.

The concept of habit formation, of behaviorsm, is the theoretical basis

of the audiolingual method. Since learners needed to form good habits,

lessons involved a great deal off repetition. Students were not supposed to

form bad habits, so teacher treated spoken error quickly.

The writer may infer that the audio lingual method spends a great deal

of time of teaching-learning activities on the oral skills and habit-formation.

Stimulus, correct response and reward that are occured again and again in the

teaching-learning activities form the students’ habit, the more frequently these

happen, the stronger the habit become.

The language teaching theoreticians and methodologists who

developed Audiolingualism not only had a convincing and powerful theory of

language to draw upon but they were also working in a period when a

prominent school of American psychology - known as behavioral psychology

- claimed to have tapped the secrets of all human learning, including language

learning. Behaviorism, like structural linguistics, is another ant mentalist,

empirically based approach to the study of human behavior. To the

behaviorist, the human being is an organism capable of a wide repertoire of

behaviors. The occurrence of these behaviors is dependent upon three crucial

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elements in learning: a stimulus, which serves to elicit behavior; a response

triggered by a stimulus; and reinforcement which serves to mark the response

as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or

suppression) of the response in the future.8

The quotations above mean that Audio-Lingual Method is a method in

teaching language to improve student language competent as the language

behavior, in mastering spoken language student must do more practice by

doin oral drill and pattern practice, because that the structure of behavior in

stimulation own of student. And the most important the method carried with

structural lingustic and behaviour psychology.

Language is primarily speech in audio lingual theory, but speaking

skills are themselves dependent upon the ability to accurately perceive and

produce the major phonological features of the target language, fluency in the

use of the key grammatical patterns in the language and knowledge of

sufficient vocabulary to use with these patterns.

Basically that all be based on learning process as it is by change

people emotional and behavioral responses. Where the teacher as the

stimulation which to prove behavior of the learner, and the students as the

responses of the stimulation, that is the way how to create a feedback on

student and teacher.

8 Richard. J and Rodgers, Approaches and Method in Language Teaching, (UK, Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 50

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Audiolingual repetition drills were design to familiarizes students with

the sound and structural paterns of the target language. The concept of habit

formation of behaviourism is the basis of Audio Lingual Method. Since

learners needed to form good habits, lesson involved a great deal of repetition.

Students were not supposed to form bad habit, so teacher treated spoken error

quickly.

2. Principle of Audio Lingual Method

According to William, proclaimed the linguistic principle on which

language teaching methodology should be base: “Language is speech, not

writing... A language is a set of habits... Teach the language, not about the

language... A language is what is native speakers say, no what someone thinks

they ought to say....languages are different.”9

The principle of audiolingual in learning are follow:

a. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical

habit formation. The more often something is repeated, the stonger habit

and the greater learning. For example : The students repeat each line of

dialog several times.

b. Spoken form before they are seen in written form. The teachers

should provide students with native speaker like model. By listening to

9 Ibid., p. 53

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how it is supposed to sound, the students should be able to mimic the

model.

c. Analogy provide better than analysis. Students should learn to

respond to both verbal and nomverbal stimuli.

d. A linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation. Language

cannot separated from culture. Culture is not only literature and the arts,

but also the everyday behavior of the people who use the target language.

One of the teacher’s responsibilities is to present information about that

culture.10

3. The Technique of Teaching through Audiolingual Method

Teaching of English for learner using many ways, for example though

reading a source of book, listening by media or narative speaker, picture,

plays or games etc.

Speaking by using Audio Lingual Method English learning for learner

is fun and enjoyable. Speaking pleasure by using repetiting combining word

and conversation, students are ready and interested in seeing the written forms

of the language.

M. S said, “Speaking berkaitan dengan listening. Artinya apa yang kita

bicarakan adalah pengulangan dari apa yang pernah kita dengar

10 Ibid, h. 51

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sebelumnya.”11 From the theories above, it is clear enough that audiolingual

are liked. Learning by repetiting is suitable for learner, games are easily

adaptable to English language classrooms, give the student opportunity to

expand their language experience through fun and play.

This probably the most challenging time in teaching preparation that

the teacher experienced. It is completely different kind of technique, which

requires a new approach to teaching. The teacher has to make more conducive

in the classroom. Eventually that the changes on the technique of English

teaching will be usefull for the students and for the teacher.

There are the suitable plans of English teaching:

1. Begin with a positive message

If you put a new message in the same place every time-on an overhead

or on the board-students will learn to look for it when they come into

the room. Music serves the same purpose it set a positive mood for the

session.

2. Write three important goals for the class so that students can see them.

Three goals are manageable for one class session. When they are

visible, they keep us all on track. At the end of the class, referring to the

goals gives everyone a sense of progress and closure for the day.

11 M. Solahudin, Kiat-kiat Praktis Belajar Speaking. Diva Press. PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2008, p. 18

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3. Arrange for model test to be taken in a lab or at home on the honor

system.

Your time with the students is too valuable for you to spend four hours

proctoring each model test. That would add up to twelve hour of class

time for all the model tests.

4. Ask students to write their question a note card and bring them to class.

5. Use class time to teach and practice academic skill

6. Focus on speaking and writing in class

7. Provide counseling and encouragement as part of the class routine

A habit is pattern of behavior that is acquired through repetition.

Researches indicate that following study habits are characteristic of successful

students. The teacher must make motivation to the students not only by

technique of the teaching but we can improvement by positive habits from

students.

4. Types of Learning Activities through Audiolingual Method

The use of drills and pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the

Audiolingual Method. Various kinds of drills are used as follow:

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1. Tranformation Drill. Language learner are required to change sentence

from negative to positive, from positive to interrogative or from simple

present tense to simple past tense, depending on instruction from the

teacher.

Example : The book is new. Is the book new?

2. Replacement Drill. Language learners replace a noun with pronoun.

Example : I like the book. I like it.

3. Response Drill. This drill mal involve “wh” question or “yes or no”

question.

Example : Hans is at school

Where is Hans?

At school

4. Cued response Drill. In this drill, language learners are provide with a

cue before or after the question.

Example : What did the man buy? (a book)

The man bought a book.

5. Rejoinder Drill. In this drill language learners are given instruction of

how to respond.

Example : Come to my house. (be polite)

Would you like to come to my house.

6. Restatment. Rephrase an utterance and addres it to somebody else,

according to the content of the utterance.

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Example : Tell him where you live.

I live at Cijantung Street no. 6.

7. Completion Drill. Language learners are told to supply a missing word in

a sentence or statement.

Example : I have to solve............own problems

I have to solve my own problems

8. Expansion Drill. Language learners build up a statement by adding a

word or phrase.

Example : Mathematics

We study mathematics

9. Constraction Drill. Language learners replace a phrase or clause with a

single word or shoter expressions.

Example : Don’t go to that place.

Don’t go there.

10. Integration Drill. Language learners combine two separate statements.

Example : I know that lady. She wearing a blue shirt,

I know the lady wearing a blue shirt.

11. Translation Drill. Language learners translate a sentence from their

mother tounge to the target language.

Example :

Ada beberapa murid di kelas itu = There are some students in the class.

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C. Classroom Action Research

Action research can be described as: any research into practice undertaken

by those involved in that practice, with an aim to change and improve it. It is

therefore, a process of enquiry by you as a practitioner into the effectiveness of

your own teaching and your students’learning.

Action research is about both ‘action’ and ‘research’ and the links between

the two. It is quite possible to take action without research or to do research

without taking action, but the unique combination of the two is what distinguishes

action research from other forms of enquiry. It is, of course, not restricted to an

educational context.

1. Definition of Classroom Action Research

The most important component of action research is that it does include

both action and reflection that lead to enhance practice.

Kemmis and Mc Taggart distinguish it from the normal practice of teaching in

the following way:

1. It is not the usual thinking teachers do when they think about their

teaching. Action research is more systematic and collaborative in

collecting evidence on which to base their group reflection.

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2. It is not simply problem solving. Action research involves problem-

posing, not just problem-solving. It does not start from a view of

‘problems’ as pathologies. It is motivated by a quest to improve and

understand the world by changing it and learning how to improve it

from the effects of the changes made.

3. It is not research done on other people. Action research is research by

particular people on their own work, to help them improve what they

do, including how they work with and for others.

4. Action research is not “the scientific method” applied to teaching. There

is not just one view of “the scientific method”; there are many.12

However, if action research is different to the normal practice of teaching, to

what extent is it ‘research’?

Notwithstanding Kemmis and McTaggart’s differentiation between action

research and teaching, there is obviously a close connection between the two

and it is this close connection that makes the approach a particularly attractive

one for practitioners. The self-initiated approach to research and to an

improvement in practice is another strong attraction of the action research

approach. Indeed, some have argued that it is a legitimate part of good

teaching. Zeni said :

12 The Open University, Action Research A Guide for Associate Lectures (COBE, Walton Hall Milton Keynes MK7 6AA), p. 8

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“Action research involves practitioners in studying their own professional practice and framing their own questions. Their research has the immediate goal to assess, develop or improve their practice. Such research activities belong in the daily process of good teaching, to what has been called the 'zone of accepted practice”.13

2. Steps in Classroom Action Research

Within all the definitions of action research, there are four basic

themes: empowerment of participants, collaboration through participation,

acquisition of knowledge, and social change. In conducting action research,

we structure routines for continuous confrontation with data on the health of a

school community. These routines are loosely guided by movement through

five phases of inquiry:

Classroom Action Research Cycle:

1. Planning, data collection based on the problem and tested the hypothesis

by empirical measures based on initial observations in general and can be

as a reference to reveal the factors supporting and inhibiting the

implementation of the action

2. Action, is a variation of a careful and prudent practices which are

recognized as the idea into action and used as guidelines for the

development of the next actions with a view to improving the situation.

13 Ibid, p. 8

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3. Observation serves to document the effect of actions oriented to the future,

as well as providing a basis for reflection now.

4. Reflection is a reminder and a action ponder exactly as has been observed.

Reflection is an activity alnalisis, interpretation and explanation

(explanation) of all information obtained money from observations on the

implementation of the action.

3. Benefit of Classroom Action Research

Action research can be a worthwhile pursuit for educators for a

number of reasons. Foremost among these is simply the desire to know more.

Good teachers are, after all, themselves students, and often look for ways to

expand upon their existing knowledge.