CHAPTER - II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATUREshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/16165/10/10... · 2018-07-09 · 60 CHAPTER - II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction

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CHAPTER - II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

The Literature Review is a thorough summary of the recognized

facts and information in academic literature about a given subject. Most

cited sources in a dissertation or thesis are listed in the Literature Review.

The researcher must locate previous research studies (usually found in

professional journal articles) that have contributed to the field in a manner

similar to what his or her own thesis or dissertation proposes. If little

academic writing exists on a given subject, composing the Literature

Review will be a very difficult task. The standard Literature Review

should justify the reason for the scholar’s research. The researcher must

convince the reader that his or her research is important and beneficial.

The literature review allows the researcher to establish his or her

theoretical framework and methodological focus. The Literature Review

often becomes the basis for the entire thesis or summarizes each piece of

literature in a few sentences and identifies the approach taken by each

author’s dissertation. It must evaluate the approach of each author and

must put it into a context.

The researcher must explain why each piece of literature was

chosen as reference material for the dissertation or thesis. It demonstrates

the researcher’s knowledge of the field. The researcher should not merely

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report what he or she has read. Instead, the researcher must show that he

or she has a thorough, deep connection to the area of study; knows what

the most important issues are and their relevance to his or her

investigation; understands the controversies; recognizes what has been

neglected; knows where previous studies have gone and anticipates where

the field will go as a result of his or her study.

2.2 Objectives of the Related Literature

The review of related literature is an essential and significant

aspect of a research process. A systematic review of the related literature

can help the researcher the following ways. It can:

show how another researcher handled a similar problem

suggest a method or technique of dealing with problem reveal new sources of data which the researcher may not have

known

introduce the researcher to the eminent personalities whose work may not have been known before

help the researcher to evaluate the research effort by

comparing it with the efforts made by others

2.3 Sources and Types of Research Literature

Books, journals, reports, popular media, memos, minutes, internal reports, published and unpublished papers, introductory and overview texts, methodological and confessional writing, edited collections and literature reviews, primary sources, secondary sources, are the types of research literature. The following figure (Figure. 2.1) shows some of the questions a literature review can answer.




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Figure. 2.1 Some of the Questions a Literature Review can answer

An analysis of the literature regarding “Information Technology

Fluency among the Teacher Educators in Relation to Certain Selected

Variables” results in the identification of three broad topics. The first

topic is easily identified as "IT Fluency”. A second but the sub category in




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which a significant amount of research exists is "Information Technology”

and its “integration into the field of education.” Finally, there is

considerable information regarding researches in "the higher education

scenario”.

The research studies reviewed here include closely related

investigations which have been carried out in India and abroad on various

dimensions of the research problem selected by the investigator. Many

similar results which are described in technical reports of various

journals, articles, surveys, projects and papers delivered at conferences

are also reviewed. However, it is to be noted that research studies on

information technology fluency are comparatively rare.

2.4 Review of Studies on Information Technology Fluency

Nancy Sardone (2011) conducted a study on “Developing Information Technology (IT) Fluency in College Students: An Investigation of Learning Environments and Learner Characteristics”. Using a causal-comparative research method, data from 120 undergraduate students studying computer concepts were analyzed to determine the relationship between learning environment, IT fluency, and course satisfaction.

The purpose of this research was to examine the relationship, if any, between traditional and constructivist learning environments to the development of IT fluency and course satisfaction in a course in which students were learning to become IT fluent under a revised definition. The study is among the few quantitative studies designed to analyze the factors influencing IT fluency in the general college undergraduate population.




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Results suggested that in learning environments based on active

learning strategies, IT fluency was achieved and course satisfaction was

significantly higher regardless of preferred learning style. This research

can be used as conceptual model of how current college students prefer to

learn IT to determine how undergraduate programs might change existing

curricula to better prepare their students for the rapidly changing 21st

century workplace. Overall, study findings added to an understanding of

higher education learning environments, student characteristics, and how

IT fluency is achieved. The results of the study has implications for

designing learning environments and usage associated instructional

methods that foster learning IT concepts in undergraduate programs.

These results provided additional support to the constructivist learning

theory and its execution in higher education classrooms where IT concepts

are taught to non-technology majors.

Jazlin Ebenezer and et al., (2011) conducted a study titled “One

Science Teacher’s Professional Development Experience: A Case Study

Exploring Changes in Students’ Perceptions of their Fluency with

Innovative Technologies”. The purpose of this case-study was to narrate a

secondary science teacher’s experience of his professional development

(PD) education and training in innovative technologies (IT) in the context

of engaging students in environmental research projects The sources from

which the narrative is derived include (1) the science teacher’s reflective

reports during three summer institute programs and (2) the science

teacher’s reflective reports while subsequently engaging students in IT-

embedded environmental research projects in his classroom. The science




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teacher’s explanations for changes in students’ perception of their IT

fluency illuminate his personal narrative. The science teacher attributed

his growth and significant changes in students’ perceptions of their IT

fluency to the following mechanisms (a) a personal commitment to

developing his own and his students’ IT abilities in the context of doing

environmental research projects, and (b) an increase in class time devoted

to science education due to school-time scheduling policy. The study

implied that immersive professional development opportunities have the

potential to produce significant increases in students’ perceptions of their

IT fluency.

Marcia Sharp (2010) conducted a study on the “Development of

an Instrument to Measure Students’ Perceptions of Information

Technology Fluency Skills: Establishing Content Validity”. The purpose

of this study was to establish the content validity of an instrument to

measure students’ perceptions of their IT fluency skills using a rigorous

judgment-quantification process. The IT fluency instrument developed

and validated herein will be used for future studies comparing allied

health students’ perceptions of their IT fluency skills with their actual IT

fluency skills.

This research required the drafting of a Perceptual IT Fluency Skills

Student Survey for use with allied health students. The draft survey

included measures of students’ perceptions of their IT fluency skills based

on their contemporary skills, foundational concepts, and intellectual

capabilities. The contemporary skills section was composed of eight




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multiple choice questions. The foundational concepts portion contained

six multiple-choice questions that focus on the student’s knowledge of

computer operations, networks, and e-mail. The intellectual capabilities

section included five multiple-choice questions to elicit the student’s

ability to manage computer problems, adapt to new technology, and

communicate concepts.

A panel of experts was used to validate the draft Perceptual IT

Fluency Skills Student Survey. Seven experts were asked to identify

omitted areas and to suggest areas for improvement, and these revisions

were made. The process used to determine content validity proved to offer

consistency, rigor, and structure to the instrument development. The

results support the content validity of this instrument as a tool for

measuring students’ perceived information technology (IT) fluency

skills.Results from the panel of experts yielded a 0.87 overall content

validity index.

Rafeedali (2009) studied “Computer Based Technology and its

Pedagogical Utility.” The objectives of the study were to identify the basic

computer knowledge among the higher secondary school teachers, to find

out the purposes of using computer resources among the higher secondary

school teachers, to find out the extend of use of computer resources in the

teaching-learning process among the higher secondary school teachers.

A self-developed tool (Computer Awareness Questionnaire) was

used for the study. The objective scoring procedure was adopted for

analyzing the questionnaire. The study found that most of the higher




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secondary school teachers have basic computer knowledge. Higher

secondary teachers were not using the IT resources in the class room

interactions. Only 13% of higher secondary school teachers were using

power point in the class room.

Vincent De Paul (2007) conducted a study on “Commitment

among Primary School Teachers with respect to their Job Satisfaction,

Self-Efficacy, and Educational Technology Efficacy.” The results showed

that the above mentioned skills of teachers were average among teachers

of Pudukkottai district.

Gary Schneider (2006) conducted a research study titled “Faculty

Survey: Knowledge and Use of Information Technology In Leadership

Education” that explored the knowledge and use of information

technology (IT) among faculty members in the Department of Leadership

at the University of Memphis in the spring of 2006. A project was

established to complement the study to consider patterns of use by faculty

groups within the department, and to supplement the information provided

by the EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Research (ECAR) in its recent

annual surveys concerning the knowledge and use of IT among

undergraduate populations.

Kvaviks and Caruso (2005) reported that over 70% of the

undergraduate students interviewed in the ECAR study indicated a

preference for at least a “moderate” use of IT as a means of instruction. In

the present survey, faculty in the Department of Leadership expressed an

even stronger preference, with over 80% preferring at least “moderate”




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use, and the majority of those indicating a preference for the “extensive”

use, of technology in the classroom. Although, the DL faculty did not

assess the level of impact on their students’ learning as highly as was

described in the previous paragraph, they did indicate a general liking for

IT as an instructional tool, felt it had a positive impact on their teaching,

and, for the most part, expressed confidence about their abilities to use IT

well. While the ECAR students rated “convenience” as the chief benefit

offered through IT, the DL faculty gave their strongest scores to the ways

in which IT has helped them communicate better with their students.

Ulla Bunz (2004) conducted a study titled “The Computer e-mail-

Web (CEW) Fluency Scale-Development and Validation.” The purpose of

this research was to develop an instrument to assess people’s fluency with

the computer, e-mail, and the Web (CEW fluency). Such an instrument,

tapping into digital divides, could fill the existing void that exists between

previously developed computer literacy or experience scales and the ever

faster development of Internet technology. The research was conducted in

two stages.

He took the cues for the study from the CITL monograph, and

attempted to assess more general “fluency” skills. In addition, though

computer fluency, email fluency and web fluency can be expected to be

related, this study presumed that email and web fluency were not

necessarily subsumed by "computer fluency." Specifically, the purpose of

this study was to develop what we hope is a more general and useful

measure, the Computer-Email-Web Fluency (CEW Fluency) scale.




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Overall, results indicated that the longer subjects had been using the

Internet, the greater their overall CEW Fluency. Results indicated that

subjects had to be classified at least at an "intermediate" level of web

expertise to have higher CEW Fluency. Results also indicated that there

was no statistical difference between "experience" and "expertise" with

regard to web editing fluency. Overall, the more comfortable subjects felt

with computers or the Internet, the higher their reported CEW Fluency.

One exception to this overall trend was that only subjects who felt very

comfortable with the computer reported high web editing fluency.

Sharon Fass McEuen (2002) conducted a study titled “How fluent

with IT are our students? It was a survey of students from South Western

University explored how FIT they see themselves. The survey focused on

the following questions.

How fluent with IT do students see themselves?

What are their technology strengths?

What are their technology weaknesses?

How do they use technology?

A current overview of the student population in reference to the components of FITness provided a starting point for developing new IT fluency initiatives. The survey questionnaire developed by the researcher, using the components of each of the three elements of FITness (Skills, Concepts and Capabilities) as mentioned in the FITness Report or NRC Report (1999), rate the students’ skill level, capabilities and knowledge of IT concepts. The study found that the students of SU are more capable with the IT skills than with the other two components of IT fluency.




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2.5 Review of Journals on Information Technology Fluency and IT Literacy

Ebenezer and et al., (2011) in the article “Engaging students in environmental research projects: Perceptions of fluency with innovative technologies and levels of scientific inquiry abilities” which was published in the journal “Journal of Research in Science Teaching ” (Vol. 48, Issue 1, pp. 94-116 )reported a study which used a mixed-method. The purpose of this study was to investigate the changes in high school students’ perceptions of fluency with innovative technologies (IT) and the levels of students’ scientific inquiry abilities as a result of engaging students in long-term scientific research projects focusing on community-based environmental issues. Over a span of 3 years, a total of 125 ninth- through twelfth-grade students participated in this study. A project-specific Likert-scale survey consisting of three parts (fluency with All Technologies, GPS/GIS, and CBL2/Easy Data) was administered to all students as a pre- and post-test. At the end of the study, 45 students were randomly interviewed and asked to elaborate on the changes in their perceptions of fluency with IT. The results indicated statistically significant increases (p < 0.001) in students’ perceptions of their fluency with IT. Qualitative analysis of students’ interview results corroborated the statistical findings of students’ changes in perceptions of their fluency with IT. Students’ research papers based on the environmental studies conducted at the interface of classroom and community were analyzed using the Scientific Inquiry Rubrics, which consist of 11 criteria developed by the researchers. Results indicated the students’ abilities to conduct scientific inquiry for 7 out of 11 criteria were at the proficient




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level. This study clearly pointed to the correlation between the development of IT fluency and ability levels to engage in scientific inquiry based on respective competencies. Ultimately, this research study recommended that students’ IT fluency ought to be developed and assessed concurrently with an emphasis on contemporary higher order scientific inquiry abilities.

Chitra Sohani (2011) in the research article “Introducing Co-operative Learning and Multiple Intelligences to Student Teachers through A Game Event: A Case Study” which was published in the journal“Experiments in Education” (vol. 39, Issue 3, pp. 23-28) described the described the systematic effort to train future teachers in co-operative principles, combined with training in multiple intelligences, through the organization of a special game event entitled “Eight Dimensional Groups,” at the S.N.D.T.College of Education for Women in Pune, Maharashtra. Positive feedback obtained from student teachers is presented along with the researcher’s reflections on the project. The study emphasized the need to implement Cooperative Learning (CL) and the necessary to develop appropriate competencies in student teachers. The study advocated that the training teacher trainees for CL as well as multiple intelligences those are the two different dimensions of teacher training at S.N.D.T. was best done through experimental learning. The article described in detail a special game event entitled “Eight Dimensional Groups,” which was conducted to promote CL among the student teachers. The purpose the game event was to tap the various kinds of intelligences hidden inside the teacher trainees and to promote cooperation among the teacher trainees.




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Vijay Kumar (2011) in the article “Technology: A Catalyst of

Teaching-Learning Process” which was published in the journal

“Edutracks” (vol.10, Issue 11, pp.3-5) asserted that updating the technical

professional knowledge and skills of teachers is the need of the hour. He

stated that the teacher educators must acquire new knowledge and skills

before they can prepare their students to meet the demands and challenges

of the 21st century. ICT in Computer Assisted teaching, online-teaching

online- designing of courses, online assessment and online- deliver of

courses are stated in the article. There is need for the effective use of ICT

to motivate the students and make the classes dynamic as they learn new

skills and techniques.

Maria Isabel Hernandez Romero and Alfredo Marin Marin

(2010) in the research article “Use of Information and Communication

Technology among English Language Teaching (ELT) students in a

Mexican University: A Survey” which was published in the

journal“International Journal of Educational Research, Development and

Extension” (vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 7-21) described the survey conducted by

them about the Use of Information and Communication Technology

among English Language Teaching (ELT) students in a Mexican

University. The study set out to determine if the students used ICT tools

for academic purposes, what ICT tools were used for information

management, how often these ICT tools were used by the students and the

functions of ICT used for information management. The method of study

followed was survey method. The collected data were both quantitative

and semi-qualitative in nature. A 24-item semi-structured questionnaire




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was designed by the researchers for the purpose of the study. The

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the

analysis of the data. The results showed that, in general the participants

seem to use ICT tools for academic purposes in a variety of types although

some training may be necessary. In terms of frequency of use, some

differences were observed among some tool types. Also, the participants

reported using several functions offered by every single ICT tool. The

study concluded that there was an apparent lack of formal training in the

use of ICT tools.

Wolfram Laaser (2010) in the article “Certain Issues in European

e-Education at Tertiary Level” which was published in the journal

“International Journal of Educational Research, Development and Extension”

(vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 7-21) discussed certain quality issues related to e-

Education in Europe. The article started with a recent review on ICT

applications at European Universities, its scope and implications for virtual

universities. It showed up that quality regulations and interpretations of

standards vary. It is pointed out that some action lines of the European

Commission to promote e-learning and virtual mobility are mentioned to

improve quality of e-learning ., it is also pointed that the financial means to

support the programs are quite modest. Next, the spectacular failure of the

British e-University is discussed. It showed that sustainable development of

e-Learning is possible only if realistic business plans are set up and if some

additional criteria for sustainable project design are taken into consideration.




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Seetha Lakshmi and Pratima Majal (2010) in the research article

“Introduction of Video Conferencing in Tamil Classroom: A Study”

which was published in the journal “International Journal of Educational

Research, Development and Extension” (vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 7-21) focused

on a pilot lesson cum research on how video conferencing software can

create a positive environment for students to interact and learn as well as

to adopt new skills for communicating via this tool. The Tamil lesson was

conducted in a class room at the Pre-service Tamil Teacher Training class

in the National Institute of Education (NIE), Nanyang Technological

University, Singapore. For the purpose of the study, the researchers

utilized the Wimba Live Classroom software. The pilot video

conferencing lesson at NIE was used as research set out to answer the

research questions. Important features of technical and educational

methodology issues were presented in the paper as the researchers from

both fields share their experiences in the pilot study. The researcher found

that the online tutorial was very helpful in explaining various issues

through the use of examples. It was also found that the tool was an

effective aid for the student trainees to understand and provide answers on

issues such as the guidelines for oral examination, to motivate students to

speak in spoken Tamil and to guide them back to talk in Tamil if they

resort to speaking in English while conversing in Tamil. The researchers

concluded their results that a lesson need not necessarily be conducted in a

formal classroom where teachers and students from all around the world

can unite and study together via the computer-mediated synchronous tool

of video conferencing.




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Verhoeven (2010) in the article “Information and

Communication Technologies in the Life of University Freshmen:

An Analysis of Change” which was published in the journal “Computers

and Education” (vol. 55, Issue 1, pp. 53-66) reported a study which tried

to find out whether freshmen, after 6 months at the university, changed

their self-perception of ICT competences and computer use in comparison

with their behavior at secondary school, and what factors can explain the

self-perception of ICT competences and computer use in secondary

school, in the university and their possible change. Hypotheses were

developed and tested to answer the research questions. Students who

consider the computer to be a useful instrument, have control over the

computer, possess a certain level of Internet competence, and are at ease

with computers are more likely to have the skills needed to maintain a

computer, to develop a web site, and to use basic ICT skills. The

predictors have little influence on Internet usage. The same predictors

contribute modestly to the explanation of the different frequencies of

computer use, and a few of the predictors explain parts of change in ICT

skills and frequency of computer use.

Erlich, Zippy and et al., (2009) in the article “The Effect of

Computer Literacy Course on Students’ Attitudes toward Computer

Applications” (EJ816678) which was published in “Journal of Educational

Technology Systems”, (v37, Issue.1, pp.83-95) indicated that the use of

technologies as teaching aids and tools for self-study is influenced by

students’ attitudes toward computers and their applications. The purpose

of this study was to determine whether taking a Computer Literacy and




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Applications (CLA) course has an impact on students’ attitudes toward

computer applications, across various undergraduate disciplines. A

Computer Application Attitude (CAA) questionnaire was administered at

the beginning and at the end of the semester to social science students

enrolled in a CLA course. The study population was divided into two

groups according to the students’ field of study: quantitative-oriented and

qualitative-oriented. A significant difference was found in attitudes before

and after the CLA course only in the quantitative group. Based upon the

results of this study, it is recommended to offer different computer literacy

courses to the different groups to improve students’ attitudes toward the

use of these applications.

Kaminski and et al., (2009) in the research article “Workforce

Readiness: A Study of University Students’ Fluency with Information

Technology” which was published in the journal “Computers and

Education” (Vol. 53, Issue 2, pp. 228-233) reported the study which

collected data from a large sample of freshmen in 2001 and a random

stratified sample of seniors in 2005 examined students perceived FITness

(Fluency with Information Technology). In the fall of 2001 freshmen at a

medium sized research-one institution completed a survey and in spring

2005 a random sample of graduating seniors completed a similar survey.

The surveys measured the student’s self-reported proficiency in

basic information technology knowledge and skills such as word

processing and presentation software as well as more complex

applications such as digital audio. They found a significant increase in

perception of skills in presentation software and browsers and although




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both groups reported low skill levels, a significant decrease in perception

of skills in database, web animation, programming, desktop publishing,

digital video and video audio. Although one might assume an

undergraduate would indicate an increase in information and

communicationtechnology skills, this study found that often student’s

perceptions of ability decline. However this decrease may be due to their

increased awareness of the skills needed in the workforce.

Lei, Jing (2009) in the article “Digital Natives as Pre-service

Teachers: What Technology Preparation is needed?” (EJ835233) which

was published in the Journal of “Computing in Teacher Education”,

(vol.25, no.3, pp.87-97) presented a study which focused on "digital

natives" as pre-service teachers to examine their beliefs, attitudes, and

technology experiences and expertise, identify the strengths and

weaknesses in their technology knowledge and skills, and explore what

technology preparation was needed to prepare them to integrate

technology in their future classrooms. Results revealed that (a) the digital-

native pre-service teachers reported strong positive beliefs in technology,

yet moderate confidence and reserved attitude in using technology; (b) the

majority (80%) of them spent the most time on social-communication

activities, and only about 10% of them spent the most time on learning-

related activities; (c) they were very proficient with basic technologies but

were not familiar with more advanced technologies; (d) the scope of their

use of Web 2.0 technologies was limited to mainly social-networking Web

sites, and they lacked the experiences and expertise in using Web 2.0

technologies with great potential for classroom application; and (e) they




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lacked experiences and expertise in using classroom technologies,

especially assistive technologies. The results suggested that, growing up

with technology, digital natives as pre-service teachers are savvy with

basic technologies and social-communication technologies. However,

their technology proficiency is limited by both the narrow scope and the

lack of depth of their technology activities. Systematic technology

preparation is needed to help them learn more advanced technologies,

classroom technologies, and assistive technologies, and more important, to

help them make the connections between technology and teaching and to

help them make the transition from digital-native students to digital-native

teachers.

Vannatta (2008) in the article “The Impact of

Assessing Technology Competencies of Incoming Teacher Education

Students” which was published in the journal “Computers in the Schools”

(Vol. 25, Issue 1-2, pp. 90-97) reported a study which had madean effort

to establish a baseline of technology competency among the entering

education students. This performance-based assessment evaluates word-

processing, presentation, spreadsheet, graphic/drawing, and Internet skills.

Although students were not required to pass the ATC, failure impacts their

final grade in an Introduction to Education course. This paper explored the

impact this assessment has had on the students’ use and development

of technology in subsequent courses. Student perceptions of the ATC and

its impact were elicited through a self-reported survey administered in a

junior-level education course. Results indicated that the ATC has

facilitated technology use among the participants. Respondents also




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revealed that their high school experiences with technology adequately

prepared them for passing the ATC, despite the fact that most students are

unable to pass the ATC in the first attempt.

Mc Manus (2006) in the article “Assessing Proficiencies in Higher

Education: Benchmarking knowledge and ICT skills of students at an

Urban Community College” which was published in the journal

“Community and Junior College Libraries” (Vol. 13, Issue 3, pp. 43-51)

described the administration of the Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) Literacy Assessment at the Bronx

Community College (BCC) of the City University of New York (CUNY)

in spring 2005, and interprets the data in the context of profiles of the test

populations. Data collected in the 2005 Large Scale ICT Literacy

Assessment at 31 campuses is viewed as contributing in meaningful ways

to the emerging portrait of BCC students’ proficiencies. Viewed in

conjunction with data from surveys, portfolios, course requirements, and

reports from faculty and staff based on day-to-day interactions with

students, BCC students show evidence of impressive momentum in

developing ICT skills. The snapshot of proficiencies of students has

developed a picture with an increasingly sharp focus, detailing distinctive

characteristics of students at an urban community college, and the skills

and knowledge they bring as they enter BCC. A multifaceted approach to

assessing proficiencies, fluency, and competencies in use

of information technologies is recommended based on the BCC

experience. The resolution of the image that emerged using the ICT

Literacy Assessment was enhanced by the comparative data it provided,




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and the picture is becoming increasingly recognizable as matching the

profile of the students with whom we interact with every day at BCC. The

author concluded that colleges and universities seeking to assess

proficiencies in information and communications technology need to learn

more about new assessment tools.

Campe, Werner, and Denner (2005) in the article titled

“Information Technology Fluency for Middle School Girls” which was

published in the journal “Computers and Advanced technology in

Education” described an after school program for middle school girls that

aims to develop IT fluency by teaching them to make computer games.

They presented data from the games that show how participants have

made substantial strides toward information technology fluency. The

findings suggested that most girls developed skills in graphics, use of a

database, and the use of the internet. They developed capabilities such as

sustained reasoning and managing complexity. And they developed

concepts such as algorithmic thinking and programming and information

organization. The authors stated that in order to participate in the changing

world of technology, students must develop information technology (IT)

fluency, rather than simply IT literacy. Fluency includes three kinds of

knowledge: skills, concepts, and capabilities. The acquisition of these

kinds of knowledge is more likely to happen in the context of project-

based work. Because of the continued majority of males in IT, it is

essential that efforts are made to increase the participation of girls.




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Collier and et al., (2004) in their article entitled “Infusing

Technology Skills into a Teacher Education Program: Change in

Students’ Knowledge about and Use of Technology”, which was published

in the Journal of “Technology and Teacher Education”; (vol.12, pp. 447-

468) presented a research study stated that teacher educators should

systematically review their early childhood / elementary programs and

made changes to meet current technology standards (ISTE, 2000).

Technology instruction was totally integrated into the other courses. Data

collected from faculty, course syllabi, and pre-service teacher self-

assessment surveys revealed effective, scaffold hands-on experiences and

increased modeling of technology to increase future teachers’ ability to

select and use appropriate technologies in instruction.

Eric, Fox and Patrick, Ghezzi (2004) in the article “Effects of

Computer-Based Fluency Training on Concept Formation” which was

published in the “Journal of Behavioral Education Springer Netherlands”

(Volume 12) provided a preliminary analysis of how the techniques of

fluency training can be combined with systematic concept instruction to

improve the learning of complex verbal concepts. Fluency techniques,

which require the learner to respond accurately at high rates, have

typically focused on definition learning when teaching concepts. To

examine this issue, 41 undergraduate students completed a computer-

based instructional module on logical fallacies. Participants were assigned

to one of four groups, with the modules for each group differing only in

the type of practice provided-either fluency or practice with either

examples or definitions. Examination of posttest scores revealed




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significantly higher scores for participants in the examples groups than

those in the definitions groups, but low experimental power prevented a

clear conclusion to be drawn about differences between the fluency and

practice groups.

Dougherty (2002) in the article “Teaching the Use of Complex IT

in Specific Domains: Developing, Assessing and Refining a Curriculum

Development Framework” which was published in the journal “Education

and Information Technologies” (Vol.7, Issue 2, pp. 137-154) reported on a

study that addresses the need for developing an Information

Technology Fluency (ITF) framework which is a methodology for

constructing components (case studies) for inclusion into existing or

newly proposed courses to help students develop the skills needed for this

challenge. He developed, assessed and refined a curriculum development

framework. Results obtained using the framework are reported, compared

to similar work at a different institution, and used to suggest

improvements to the framework. He stated that Information

technology holds the promise of increased productivity. However, rapidly

evolving tools require a professional able to incorporate these tools into

their careers effectively, which signals the need for IT curriculum

development initiatives that incorporate the use of complex, domain-

specific IT applications in specific professional fields.

Wetzel, Keith (1993) in the article “Teacher Educators’ Uses of

Computers in Teaching” which was published in “Journal of Technology

and Teacher Education”, (vol.1, no.4, pp.335-52) discussed ISTE/NCATE




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(International Society for Technology in Education / National Council for

the Accreditation of Teacher Education) computer / technology standards

for pre-service teachers in the context of faculty preparation to integrate

technology. Results of a survey on the use of technology to teach

education majors at Arizona State University are presented, and a team

approach to faculty preparation in technology applications was described.

2.6 Review of Articles on Information Technology Fluency

Thomas, Mackey and Trudy, Jacobson (2011) in the article

“Reframing Information Literacy as a Metaliteracy” stressed the need for

spreading IT literacy a compulsory skill to be achieved by everyone. He

differentiated IT literacy and IT Fluency in this article. Social media

environments and online communities are innovative collaborative

technologies that challenge traditional definitions of information literacy.

Metaliteracy is an overarching and self-referential framework that

integrates emerging technologies and unifies multiple literacy types. This

redefinition of information literacy expands the scope of generally

understood information competencies and places a particular emphasis on

producing and sharing information in participatory digital environments.

Ching Sing Chai,ee Tan and et al., (2011) in the article “Modeling

Primary school Pre-service Teachers’ Technological Pedagogical

Content Knowledge (TPACK) for meaningful learning with information

and communication technology (ICT)” cited that within the field of

educational technology, Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

(TPACK) has been theorized as a seven-factor construct to describe




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teacher’s integration of information and communication technology (ICT)

in their teaching. However, this framework has yet to be successfully

validated through survey instruments. The paper examined the construct

validity of a TPACK survey that was contextualized for the pedagogical

approaches employed in a 12-week ICT course designed with reference to

the TPACK framework for Singaporean primary school pre-service

teachers. Using this framework, the researchers were able to uncover five

of the seven TPACK constructs which were a better model fit as compared

with several extant studies of TPACK surveys. Using these results, pre

and post-course structural equation models were constructed to explain the

relationships amongst the different constructs of teachers’ TPACK

perceptions. It was found that pedagogical knowledge had a direct impact

on TPACK at the beginning of the course. As teachers made connections

between their technological knowledge and pedagogical knowledge to

form technological pedagogical knowledge during the course, the direct

relation between pedagogical knowledge and TPACK became

insignificant whereas the relations between pedagogical knowledge and

technological pedagogical knowledge, and technological pedagogical

knowledge and TPACK were strengthened. The comparison between the

pre and post-course models also revealed that the pre-service teachers’

perceived relations between content knowledge and TPACK changes from

insignificant to significant. The implications of these findings and

suggestions to improve the construct validation of the TPACK framework

are discussed in this paper.




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Ulla Bunz (2011) in the article “Perceived versus Actual Computer-e-mail-web Fluency” described about a study which compare people’s perception of their computer-email-web (CEW) fluency to their actual abilities performing related tasks. A total of 61 subjects (51% female mean age 19) participated in the research sessions. Participants completed the CEW fluency scale. Results show that the less computer anxiety subjects reported, the higher they perceived their CEW fluency to be (p = 0.001), but there was no significant relationship between computer anxiety and actual fluency (p = 0.12). There was no gender difference as to actual CEW fluency (p = 0.11), but women perceived their fluency lower than did men (p = 0.012). Overall results validate the robustness of the CEW fluency scale, help identify CEW fluency as a digital divide component, and underscore the importance of initiatives to raise women’s technological self-confidence.

Mary, Somerville and et al., (2010) in the article “Toward Large Scale Assessment of Information and Communication Technology Literacy: Implementation Considerations for the ETS ICT Literacy Instrument” detailed about the case study. The purpose of this paper was to provide guidance to those contemplating or preparing to administer a large scale information literacy assessment such as the ETS ICT assessment instrument. The case studies and literature review provide real life examples of how to consider implementing the ETS ICT instrument with special attention to issues such as collaboration, timing, marketing, budgeting, and developing a strategy that includes a discussion of how testing results will inform campus information literacy curriculum development and programming. The paper provided background




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information, techniques and guidance for academic librarians contemplating future administrations and usages of large scale assessments of student information and communication technology skills, like the ETS ICT assessment. Examples of necessary planning stages and collaboration are provided as well as a discussion of the value of large scale assessments for students, campuses and information literacy programs.

Yolanda Gayol (2009) Fielding Graduate University, USA and his

Co-author Ouanessa Boubsil, University of Maryland University College,

USA in the article “Digital Fluency of Students at a Distance Education

University” on digital fluency pointed out that in less than four decades,

information and communication technology (ICT) has changed the way

people work, communicate and learn. Digital competencies are now

essential in the knowledge society and universities all over the world are

adopting ICT standards to enhance these competencies regardless of the

instructional modality used (online, blended or face-to face).

Digital fluency has become a strategic goal in education, since

knowledge workers are required to intensively use information technology

products and services. A vast amount of literature assessing instrumental

ICT skills is available at all levels of education and training. However,

reports exploring digital competencies related to academic tasks in

graduate education are scarce, particularly those addressing ICT fluency

beyond the notion of technical literacy. This study reports the level of

digital fluency found amongst faculty of a graduate distance education

institution. The ability of faculty to access and communicate with students




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at a distance is explored. A customized survey evaluating the ICT skill

levels associated with specific mentoring tasks was designed and applied

to a random sample of faculty at three graduate colleges. The analysis of

the institutional context provided a strong foundation for professional

development and policy making in the three graduate colleges. A long-

term faculty development training plan, enriching the digital competencies

of faculty mentors, is feasible and realistic as a result of this evaluation.

Mindell Reiss Nitkin (2008) Simmons College, Patricia Clarke,

Simmons College, in an article entitled “Technology Fluency of

Undergraduate Business Students: A sampling of Current Practice”

emphasized that although technology fluency has been evaluated for

undergraduate students in the information systems major, it has not been

analyzed extensively for undergraduate students in the broader business

curriculum. Accordingly, this paper discussed current practices in teaching

and assessing the fluency that undergraduate business students are

expected to have with core business software applications. The focus is

primarily on the most widely used applications in word processing,

spreadsheet, and presentation software. Data was collected through

surveys of accounting and finance faculty at institutions of higher

learning. Survey results indicated that 75% of faculty respondents expect

proficient or advanced skills in word processing for the students. The

same levels of proficiency were reported at 70% for spreadsheets and 66%

for presentation software. Results also indicated that a relatively small

percentage of colleges and universities have formal, explicit plans to

assess the competency of core business software skills.




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HerbLin Senior Scientist, National Research Council in his article

entitled “Fluency with Information Technology” (1999) referred to the

NRC report on IT Fluency. He explained that the Computer Science and

Telecommunications Board of the National Research Council has

completed a study on what people need to know about information

technology in order to be able to use it effectively now and in the future.

Based in part on a wide range of input from the community at large

(including CNI), the report concluded that basic skills (e.g., the use of

word processors, e-mail, and Web browsers) is necessary but not

sufficient for what the authoring committee calls "fluency with

information technology." Equally necessary is the effective use of

technology.

Jossey-Bass and Edgerton, (1992) in the handbook named “Improving

Undergraduate Education through Faculty Development”, made several

hypotheses. Faculty ownership was cited as an important issue. The

handbook suggested that if faculty personally feel a relationship to a

program, the chance of success is much greater. Administrative support

was listed as the second issue. Although every site visited had obvious

enthusiasm on the part of administration, perception of this enthusiasm by

faculty was an important contributor toward success. The third issue was

that of local expertise versus outside consultants. Although the hypothesis

had been made that local expertise was preferred, it was found that the

majority of faculty appreciated the additional stimulation and insight

brought by outside trainers. An issue not often discussed in the literature

was the use of evaluations and follow-up activities. Evaluation is an




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essential component of any training system. And although there are "one-

shot" programs available, the majority of faculty surveyed in the

handbook found that this was a generally inadequate method of

information technology training.

2.7 Review of Surveys on Information Technology Fluency

In 2006, EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Research conducted a

survey titled “Students and Information Technology in Higher Education”,

which focused on students’ experiences with and opinions about

information technology. The information that the students provided was

reported in a national study that will be available to higher education

institutions. The primary goal of the study was to better understand

student experiences with information technology. The survey asks for

basic background information and questions about:

What kinds of information technologies does the students use and how often?

What is the level of skill at using different information technologies?

How these technologies contribute to the students’ undergraduate experience?

What value information technologies provide in teaching and learning in higher education?

Karen Kaminski, Jamie Switzer and Gene Gloeckner (2005), School

of Education/Adult Education and Training, Colorado State




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University, Conducted a survey titled “Workforce Readiness: A Study of

University Students’ Fluency with Information Technology”, collected

data from a large sample of freshmen in 2001 and a random stratified

sample of seniors in 2005 examined students perceived FITness (Fluency

with Information Technology). In the fall of 2001 freshmen at a medium

sized research-one institution completed a survey and in spring 2005 a

random sample of graduating seniors completed a similar survey. The

surveys measured the student’s self-reported proficiency in basic

information technology knowledge and skills such as word processing

and presentation software as well as more complex applications such as

digital audio. We found a significant increase in perception of skills in

presentation software and browsers and although both groups reported

low skill levels, a significant decrease in perception of skills in database,

web animation, programming, desktop publishing, digital video and video

audio. Although one might assume an undergraduate would indicate an

increase in information and communication technology skills, this study

found that often student’s perceptions of ability decline. However this

decrease may be due to their increased awareness of the skills needed in

the workforce.

In partial implementation of the institutional action strategies

concerning student IT literacy, the University Information Technology

Council (UITC) distributed a departmental survey of IT entry and exit

competencies during the Fall 2001. The results of that survey indicated

that desired entry-level IT skills currently identified by departments align

with a number of discipline-specific courses already in place to remediate




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and reinforce skill levels. Interviews conducted during 2003 validated

survey results plus provided insight and more detailed information as to

what interviewees believed to be important IT literacy skills, knowledge,

and attitudes. Results of this research were compared with UND data to

produce the list of student IT literacy skills, knowledge and attitudes

below. This list is the major recommendation of this report. The depth of

proficiency in each will need to be defined by each discipline; however, a

basic proficiency level should be determined by the university as a whole.

The North West Research Group (2000) conducted a survey titled

“Information Technology Indicators Residential Survey” for the City of

Seattle’s Department of Information Technology. The research group

completed development of a set of Information Technology indicators,

marking the first time that a comprehensive effort has been made to look

at the full range of impacts that technology is having in the Seattle region.

These indicators were developed as a joint effort between the Department

of Information Technology and the Citizens Telecommunications and

Technology Advisory Board along with significant public input and the

help of a broad-based Technical Advisory Group. Specifically, the

objectives of this study were to measure the following:

Residents’ ownership and access to information technology

Residents’ usage of information technology

Level of technology literacy in the community




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Integration of technology into local community activities

Awareness and use of City services online and on cable TV

Residents’ feelings about privacy, security, and safety on the

Internet

Residents’ perceptions of the impact that technology is having on their personal time, quality of life, and the quality of life for the City

President Clinton (1997) established four significant initiatives to support the use of the computer and technology in education. “The President’s Educational Technology Initiative” (1997) was composed of four pillars:

Modern computers and learning devices will be accessible to every student.

Classrooms will be connected to one another and to the outside world.

Educational software will be an integral part of the curriculum-and as engaging as the best video game.

Teachers will be ready to use and teach technology (The President’s Educational Technology Initiative, 1997).

2.8 Studies on Development of Computer Literacy Measurement Instruments

Over the last few years a considerable body of literature has

developed to describe computer usage and attitudes toward computers,

computer anxiety, computer stress, perceptions of computers. This broad




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array of research is multi-disciplinary and incorporates a wide variety of

perspectives and topics. However, at its foundation this research is

directed at influencing a person’s ability to use a computer efficiently.

Bunz, Ulla (2004) in his study “Development and Validation of

CEW Fluency Scale” described about the steps followed in the

development of a computer literacy scale. The purpose of this study was

to continue the validation process of a new measure of computer, email,

and web fluency (CEW Fluency). The sample consisted of 143 student

volunteers enrolled at a large U. S. Midwestern university. Subjects

reported their self-assessed computer-email-web fluency to be very high,

especially regarding computer, email, and web navigation fluency. Web

editing fluency was reported at a slightly lower level, mostly due to a wide

variation regarding subjects’ ability to create a website. Reliabilities of the

subscales and the total scales were lower than during the previous study,

but still within acceptable range (between 0.64 and 0.79). Correlations

between the subscales were higher than in the previous studies. The scale

needs more testing before its stability can be ascertained.CEW Fluency

scores were correlated to a number of demographic variables, including

gender, major, or ability to access the Internet from home. However, a

variety of interesting findings did emerge.

Overall, results indicated that the longer subjects had been using the

Internet, the greater their overall CEW Fluency. Results indicated that

subjects had to be classified at least at an "intermediate" level of web

expertise to have higher CEW Fluency. Results also indicated that there




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was no statistical difference between "experience" and "expertise" with

regard to web editing fluency. Overall, the more comfortable subjects felt

with computers or the Internet, the higher their reported CEW Fluency.

One exception to this overall trend was that only subjects who felt very

comfortable with the computer reported high web editing fluency.

Rawstorne, Caputi and Smith (2003) conducted a study

“The Development of a Measure of Subjective Computer Experience”.

The present study examined the psychometric properties of a recently

developed measure of subjective computer experience using a sample of

179 first year psychology students. The Subjective Computer Experience

Scale (SCES) was developed to measure the construct of subjective

computer experience, defined for present purposes, as a private

psychological state reflecting the thoughts and feelings a person ascribes

to some previous or existing computing event. Factor analysis revealed

five factors that were labeled, Frustration-Anxiety, Autonomy-Assistance,

Training-Education, Enjoyment–Usefulness and Negative Performance

Appraisal, respectively. Acceptable internal-consistency estimates of the

five subscales were obtained. Convergent validity was evidenced by

significant correlations between the SCES and measures of computer

attitude and objective computer experience. Evidence for divergent

validity was obtained with scores on four of the five subscales of the

SCES being unrelated to dispositional coping style. In sum, the SCES was

found to have promised as a psychometrically sound instrument for

measuring subjective computer experience.




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The Computer Self-efficacy Scale (CSE) (Murphy, Coover and

Owen, 2001) measured perceptions of respondents’ capabilities regarding

specific computer-related skills and knowledge. This scale consisted of 32

items that were rotated into three factors, including beginning-level

computer skills, advanced-level computer skills, and mainframe computer

skills. The reported reliabilities respectively were alphas of 0.97, 0.96, and

0.93. The authors concluded among other things that women hold lower

self-efficacy beliefs than men.

The Computer Understanding and Experience Scale (CUE)

(Potosky and Bobko, 1998) was a self-report measure of computer

experience. The scale consists of twelve items that were rotated into two

factors, technical competence and general competence. A number of the

items used actually refer to tasks more commonly performed by network

administrators or computer specialists than the average computer users,

such as “recovering deleted or lost data,” “writing computer programs,” or

“using a mainframe computer system.” This scale also included one

question about email,“I know what e-mail is,” without going into more

specific details of actual usage of this technology. Results suggested that

the CUE Scale provides an internally consistent, self-report measure

which may be subdivided into two related subscales.

The Windows Computer Experience Questionnaire (WCEQ)

(Miller et al., 1997) was a comparatively short measurement instrument,

consisting of only 13 items. The authors rotated these items into four




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factors, accounting for 67.2% of variance and reporting a coefficient alpha

reliability of 0.74.

Computer Literacy Test was developed by Simonson et al., (1987)

together with the Computer Anxiety Index (CAIN). The literacy

instrument consists of 80 multiple choice items in three subsections,

including computer systems, computer applications, and computer

programming. The reported reliability for this scale is 0.86. The CAIN

scale consisted of 26 items and reported an alpha of 0.90. The authors

successfully applied the Computer Literacy Test to establish validity.

One of the most detailed measurement instruments was the Cassel

Computer Literacy Test (CMLRTC) (Cassel and Cassel 1984). This test

consisted of 120 multiple choice items that were designed to measure a

user’s understanding of computer functionality. The items were divided

into six subtopics, including computer development, technical

understanding, computer structure, information processing, information

retrieval, and communication systems. Miller et al. (1997) criticized that

there was no reliability or validity data known about the Cassel Test.

The Standardized Test of Computer Literacy (STCL) (Montage

et al., (1984), Torardi (1985) was an equally lengthy instrument,

consisting of 80 multiple choice items determining a user’s level of

computer literacy. This test was divided into three subsections, including

computer applications, computer systems, and computer programming.

The overall reported reliability for this scale was a coefficient alpha of

0.86, with subscale reliability for the computer applications measure of a




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coefficient alpha of 0.75. Interestingly, both this and the Cassel scale use

the term “literacy,” but survey rather technical components of computer

usage. The use of this term may be connected to the date of publication of

these scales, as computer use in the 1980s was much more dependent on

understanding the underlying programming structure of both hardware and

software than it is now.

Normative data were collected from 341 college students from six

different universities. The examination was found to have a reliability

estimate of 0.86. A computer anxiety index (CAIN) was also developed.

This instrument was designed to be used to determine a person’s level of

computer anxiety. Normative data from 1943 students were collected. The

CAIN was found to have a reliability of approximately 0.90. Both the

eighty-item achievement test and the twenty-six item CAIN were sent to a

nationwide selection of instructional computing specialists who evaluated

them. This evaluation was used to revise the two tests.

The Computer Aptitude, Literacy, and Interest Profile (CALIP)

(Poplin et al., 1984) purported to measure a person’s level of computer

literacy, aptitude and interest in computer technology, using one subtest

each for interest and literacy, and four for aptitude. The purpose of the

present study was twofold: (a) to investigate differences in computer

aptitude among 56 junior high school students with learning disabilities

and 56 non-learning-disabled peers, and (b) to consider gender differences

in computer aptitude among the entire sample population. Subjects in each

group were administered the Computer Aptitude, Literacy, and Interest




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Profile (CALIP) (Poplin, Drew, and Gable, 1984), and their composite

scores were compared. Results indicated no significant difference in

scores earned by students with learning disabilities and those of their non-

learning-disabled peers. Likewise, intergroup score comparison suggested

that no relationship existed between gender and computer aptitude among

students in this sample.

The Computer Literacy Examination: Cognitive Aspects (CLECA)

scale (Cheng, Plake and Stevens 1985) focused specifically on high

school students’ cognitive knowledge about computers. This scale

consisted of 39 multiple choice questions and reported an overall

coefficient alpha reliability of 0.87.

2.9 Project on Information Technology Literacy in Higher Education

The University of North Dakota (UND) contracted with Colleges

in 2003 to conducted a benchmarking study in the area of Student

Information Technology (IT) Literacy specifically addressing the issues of

Information Technology skills, knowledge, and attitudes upon entrance to

the University, assessment of IT skills, knowledge, and attitude upon

entrance, remediation of IT skills, knowledge, and attitude when found

deficient, Information Technology skills, knowledge, and attitudes upon

graduation from the University, assessment of IT skills, knowledge, and

attitude upon graduation etc.

Data for this benchmarking study was collected by a College Senior

Consultant from a variety of sources both in person and via electronic




99

communication. When the University of North Dakota surveyed

department heads concerning IT entry and exit competencies of

undergraduate students, those competencies encompassed more than skills

alone. They included knowledge of the ethical use of computers, copyright

law, and privacy issues as well as word processing, web browser, and

email skills. Thus, UND joined with others in defining IT literacy as a

combination of IT skills and information literacy.

Key stakeholders in the project representing the following

departments or committees were interviewed. A UND survey distributed

to 74 department heads (approximately 50% return rate) identifying entry

IT skills for new students, IT exit competencies expected of graduates

upon completion of degree program, and remediation interventions.

Ohio University - Main Campus

Southern Illinois University – Carbondale

SUNY at Buffalo

University of Louisville

University of Missouri-Kansas City

After all data was collected, University of North Dakota

information was compared to that of peer institutions. Recommendations

were then developed to assist UND in formulating an IT literacy program

specific to the needs of the University.




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2.10 Studies on the Impact of IT Changes in the Faculty Community of Higher Education

There were many studies on the transformation in higher education

faculty members who, historically, have been the purveyors of

information in the educational setting.

Ayers (2005) discussed the resistance of some faculty members to take advantage of opportunities that are provided for them by the assortment of technology that many campuses have purchased. Dede (2005) suggested that faculty require a new set of capabilities-to be able to work with students in several new ways: in co-designing learning experiences; in fostering a communal environment in which students can learn from one another; in employing learning-by-doing pedagogies that capitalize on the use of IT to provide virtual and augmented reality opportunities; and in applying newer forms of assessment that are more diverse than the traditional measures provided by tests and papers. These changes will not occur without conscious attention and effort on the part of those in higher education.

Hartman, Moskal and Dziuban (2005) as the outcome of their study concerning student opinions of what qualities were inherent in good teachers, reported the following results: the ability to facilitate, not dictate, student learning; the knowledge of how to use both oneself and educational tools in order to communicate effectively; the capacity to be authentic in relationships with students; the ability to organize courses well; the professionalism to be respectful and concerned toward each student; and the commitment to assess and evaluate fairly and effectively.




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Perry (2004) noted the inequities apparent in the huge amounts of

money institutions have spent for IT in comparison to how vastly

underused these tools are by the faculty for whom they are intended. The

changes being suggested with respect to faculty processes, in many cases,

would be paradigmatic.

Rickard and Oblinger (2003) in their article “Applying the

principles of teaching and learning” made several suggestions to improve

the effectiveness of the teaching learning process. In consideration of IT in

higher education, they discussed faculty members’ fear of failure and their

lack of time to develop, not just new lessons, but new forms of lessons –

this complicated further by the frequent lack of institutional rewards for

making such an effort.

Frand (2000) in responding to the changes occurring in the learner

population, identified a need for change in the faculty as well when he

wrote that faculty needs to become, “not just a sage-on-the-stage, but a

guide-on-the-side.”

2.11 Studies on Faculty Attitudes toward Information Technology

Selvam (2006) conducted a study on “The Attitude of Primary

Teachers towards Total Quality Management in relation to their Attitude

towards Educational technology.” He found that there was significant

correlation between the total quality management and Education

technology mean attitude scores among the primary teachers in Thanjavur

district of Tamilnadu and total quality management significantly

influenced education technology among teachers.




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Karpaga Kumaravel and Ramakrishnan (2005) conducted a

study on “Web access and Usage behavior of Teacher Educators and

Student Teachers”. The study included the propose of accessing the web,

web searching methods, web searching skills and the evaluation of

information obtaining from the web. The survey technique was used in the

study. The result suggested that the teacher educators and student teachers

need some training in the searching of the web.

Vannatta et al., (2004) examined various teacher dispositions that

predicted technology use among k-12 teachers. The Teachers’ Attitude

Survey Questionnaire measured a variety of teacher attitude and amount

of technological use in their professions. This study examined the long

term effects of PICT participation to determine the degree to which

teachers continued to use technology in the classroom and facilitate

technology use with their students. In addition, this group was compared

to a matched control group of non-PICT participants from comparable

schools. Results indicated two-year and three-year participants reported

significantly higher levels in all areas (technology comfort and risk-taking,

perceptions of usefulness, teacher use) except student use when compared

to the control group. One-year participants did not report significantly

higher outcomes in several areas when compared to non-PICT teachers.

Effect sizes indicate that two and three years of PICT participation had a

moderate to large effect on all aspects of technology use among

K-12 teachers.




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Long and Long (2004) stated that Information technology skills

were being viewed as one of necessity and required skills for all

employees of the new era.

Das (2003) conducted a study on “Computer –Assisted Instruction:

Attitudes of Teachers”. The study revealed that there was significant

difference between the experimental and control group in their attitude

towards computer education. As a result of training in computer assisted

instruction (CAI) the attitude of the experimental group became more

favorable towards computer education.

Hong and Ridzuan (2003) investigated student attitudes towards

the use of internet for learning. This study investigated the success of a

technology and internet enriched teaching and learning environment in

molding positive attitude among students towards using the internet for

learning at the university in Malaysia.Students were provided with

computers facilities, required to complete two compulsory generic courses

in information technology, and the lecturers actively encouraged the use

of information technology, in particular, the Internet in the teaching and

learning processes. Results from the study indicated that students had

positive attitudes toward using the Internet as a learning tool, adequate

basic knowledge of the Internet, and viewed the learning environment as

supportive of using the Internet for learning. Students with better basic

Internet skills and who viewed the learning environment as promoting the

use of the Internet favored using the Internet for learning. The university

achieved its objectives of promoting the use of the Internet for teaching




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and learning purposes. As the university begins to offer Web-based

courses, the generic courses in information technology should likewise be

redesigned to introduce the concepts of Web-based learning environments.

These courses should in fact be conducted as Web-based courses to

prepare the students to learn in these learning environments.

Poonam Kumar and Anil Kumar (2003) examined “Effect of a

Web Based Project on Pre-service and In-service Teacher’s Attitude

towards Computer and their Technical Skills” found that there is

significant change in student’s attitude towards computer and their fluency

in using technology after the training.

Gruich, James Joseph (2002) studied attitudes towards utilization

of technologies, faculty attitude towards teaching with technology, the

integration of technology for teaching and the instructor’s belief towards

the use of technology among community college faculty in selected

southern states. A survey was conducted using the “Faculty Instructional

Computing Questionnaire” and found that faculty had a higher attitude

towards teaching with technology.

Huneke (2002) conducted a study on “Student Integration and

Attitudes towards Technology use as Predictors of Institutional

Commitment”. The findings of the study included a number of significant

relationships, such as that the variables of academic and social integration

had a much greater impact on students institutional commitment than the

variables related to students attitudes toward technology use.




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Lukow (2002) conducted a study on “Learning Styles as Predictors

of Student Attitudes toward the Use of Technology in Recreation

Courses”. The results indicating the frequent use of computers for “one to

one” communication (e-mail) and web surfing supported the literature

regarding the steady increase in the use of electronic mail and the internet

by students in higher education.

Shahapur (2002) made an attempt to study the “Attitude of Secondary School Students towards Computer Assisted Learning (CAL)”. The results showed that (i) boys of aided schools have a more favorable attitude towards CAL than boys of government schools. (ii) girls of aided schools differed in attitude towards CAL from girls of government schools,(iii) there was a significant difference between boys and girls of aided schools in respect of their attitude towards CAL and (iv) no significant difference is found between the boys and girls of government schools in respect of their attitude towards CAL.

Varank (2002) found that teachers who received the training scored higher on attitude scales, with more positive attitude towards computer use in the classroom, than those teachers who had received no training. Similarly, instruction scored higher on motivation scales than students who had received similar lessons without computer support.

Granger (2002) discussed case studies of four Canadian schools

that investigated successful ICT implementations. This study highlighted

teachers’ resistance to technical equity. In this study, an analysis of data

from qualitative case studies of four Canadian schools illuminated factors

that facilitate successful ICT implementation. Findings suggested that




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informal ICT education, such as ‘just-in-time’ learning, is most influential.

Furthermore, supportive and collaborative relationships among teachers, a

commitment to pedagogically sound implementation of new technologies,

and Principals who encourage teachers to engage in their own learning

were viewed as highly useful factors.

Leftwich, Elizabeth Rogers (2000) studied experience and events

affecting university freshmen’s attitude towards computer technology.

Survey technique was used to assess the attitude.

Milbrath et al., (2000) examined pre-service teachers’ changes in

computer anxiety perceived influence of computer technology, fluency of

using work processing, e-mail, spread sheet, better base management,

statistical packages and CD-ROM, data bases and perceived self-efficacy.

This longitudinal study examined prospective teachers’ changes in

perceived anxiety/discomfort with and use-fullness of computer

technology, frequency of using word processing, e-mail, spreadsheets,

database management, statistical packages, and CD-ROM databases, and

perceived self-efficacy with the six selected computer technologies over

three years of study. Statistical analyses of data involved three time

periods and two student teacher cohorts. Significant time effect, cohort

effect, and time by cohort interaction effect are discussed.

Toppin (1998) conducted a study on “Attitudes of College students

toward Computers”. Descriptive results indicated that the majority of

student surveyed have low anxiety, high confidence, high liking and

usefulness attitudes towards computers.




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Meyer and Schranz (1997) stated that faculty attitudes are only

one of the issues that need to be factored into the effective use of

information technology. The age of using information technology in the

classroom has occurred so rapidly, and faculty can be found on both sides:

those who have adopted information technology easily and effectively,

and those who have resisted using information technology as a negative

change in the classroom.

Collis and et al., (1996) conducted an international study involving

children, teachers, and computers, Pelgrum and Plomp stated that the

teachers are the main gatekeepers in allowing educational innovations to

diffuse into the classrooms. Therefore one of the key factors for effecting

an integration of computers in the school curriculum is adequate training

of teachers in handling and managing these new tools in their daily

practices (as cited in Collis et al., 1996). They found that the "degree of

classroom computers was closely tied to extent of training in integration

techniques" (Collis et al., 1996).

Fisher, Dwyer and Yocam (1996) in their landmark study, Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT), a ten-year qualitative study which was begun in 1985 concluded that teacher beliefs, management, instructional strategies, and student assessments changed over time as a function of technology use. More specifically and pertinent to this proposed study, wasthat technology acted as a catalyst for the changes in teacher attitudes, which, in turn, brought about changes in instructional strategies and classroom management. Learning became more student-centered as well as interactive. Students were given more responsibility for their learning




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and became more independent learners. Teacher instructional behaviors changed and became more constructivists in the presence of computer technology.

Collis (1988) explained that in order for faculty to use available information technology for personal use and in classroom instruction, it is important for them to have both knowledge of and access to information technology in training courses. Studies have shown that a lack of training has had the largest effect on faculty attitudes toward the integration and use of information technology.

Ibrahim (1995) examined in his study whether field dependence/field independence and experience in using computers had any relation with attitudes of teachers towards computers. He found significant differences in attitudes towards computers between field dependent and field independent teachers, less experienced and experienced teachers less experienced and more experienced teachers and experienced and more experienced teachers.

Stevens (1995) concluded that students who were taught in class

using computers experienced significantly more confidence towards

computers, less anxiety towards computers and a more positive attitude

towards learning process that did not use computers.

Willis et al., (1995) pointed out an example that teacher education

faculties at the University of Houston were surveyed following training

sessions. This study investigated the development and implementation of a

reproducible training model that utilizes a Lesson Planning Web Quest to

educate teacher candidates in effective technology integration. The




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findings of the study would help teacher educators better understand how

to facilitate training in the integration of technology, while taking

advantage of the affordances inherent Web Quests. The results showed

that 76 percent of the respondents said that information technology was

"Very Important to Extremely Important." These results showed that

faculty attitudes at that institution were relatively positive toward the

perceived importance of information technology after being exposed to

information technology training.

A common explanation of faculty reluctance to work with information technology is information technology anxieties. Rutherford and Grana, (1995) showed that faculty may have many different fears relating to information technology. These include fear of change, fear of time commitment, and fear of appearing incompetent, fear of "techno lingo," and fear of failure. Fear of change is part of the human condition; in the case of learning new technologies, not doing so may be a devastating choice. Many faculties feel they simply cannot afford the time needed to learn new technologies. Instructors may hesitate to try a new computer skill with a class for fear of looking incompetent. Sometimes technical acronyms can be overwhelming to novice users (FTP, HTML, etc.). Lastly, the fear of failure is also part of the human condition but one which must be overcome in order to gain knowledge.

Rutherford and Grana (1995) listed suggestions to help faculty

overcome fears and shift perspectives about information technology.

These suggestions included: 1) being realistic (knowing that information

technology is here to stay), 2) deciding who’s boss (recognizing what




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information technology can do to help in personal and classroom use), 3)

easing into the technical flow (build on previous learning experiences and

recognize that what is now being learned is simply an extension of what

has been done before), and 4) become familiar with techno-culture (read

relevant articles, attend offered training sessions). One other method

suggested by Rutherford and Grana is for faculty to network with others.

Learning the use of Internet searches, e-mail, and participating in subject-

related newsgroups can all be motivating factors for faculty.

Marcinkiewicz (1993/1994) found that educators are often resistant

to use computer technology in the classroom, so changing teachers’

attitudes is a key factor in fostering computer integration.

Gardner, Discenza, and Dukes (1993) determined that computer

anxiety is a major cause of resistance to using computers. This and other

research indicated that increased computer experience reduces computer

anxiety in many student teachers. However, it may depend on the type of

computer experience.

Beasley and Sutton (1993) found that at least 30 hours of

instruction and practice were required just to reduce anxiety about

technology. These authors contended that reducing uncertainty is just the

first step to becoming confident and competent users of technology.

Although teachers’ attitudes were not historically considered in the

introduction of computers into the classroom, many scholars now contend

that future successful implementations will need to address teachers’

attitudes toward computers.




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Rude-Parkins, Baugh, and Petroako (1993) in their study

compared the levels of adoption of technology and personality types,

defined three levels. At the "high level," teachers were enthusiastic and

integrated technology into the classroom. The "medium level" teachers

used some technology for personal use and some with students. The "low

level" adopters used technology neither with their students nor for

personal uses.

Delcourt et al., (1993) described the development of two instruments for use with pre-service and practicing teachers’ attitude towards computer technology and self-efficacy for computer technology. TheSelf-Efficacy for Computer Technologies (SCT) and Attitude toward Computer Technologies (ACT) assessed perceived usefulness of and comfort/anxiety with computer technologies. Perceived self-efficacy for computer technologies (word processing, electronic mail, spreadsheets, database programs, statistical packages, and CD-ROM databases) was measured by the SCT. In addition to data on construct validity, the results of exploratory analyzed examining predictors of self-efficacy for undergraduate students in business, education, and nursing are presented, and implications and future research directions were discussed.

Kay (1993) made a study which examined the aspect of gender in

relation to attitudes about information technology. Older studies (previous

to 1990) showed that, in general, males were more computer literate than

females, which accounted for their greater confidence with computers.

Hignite and Echternacht (1992) in their research study examined

the relationship between teacher attitudes and computer skills concluded




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that it is critical for teachers to possess both positive attitudes and

adequate computer literacy skills successfully to incorporate technology

into the classroom. This study provided some very interesting outcomes as

a result of the statistical analyses performed, with only some 40% of the

subjects achieving a level of mastery on the ICT exam, clearly the focus of

further studies should be the basic factors associated with that

achievement.

Faseyitan et al., (1992) described a study that examined the effects of personal attributes and attitudinal factors on the adoption of computers for instructions by university faculty. Results were adopted which indicated that the technical orientation of faculty’s discipline, computer self-efficacy, computer utility beliefs and attitude towards computer were predictors of adoption.

Results of many other studies showed that training has a positive impact on some, if not all, aspects of subjects’ self-perception of knowledge, confidence, and attitudes toward computers (Green and Kluever et al., 1992).

Chaudhary (1990) conducted a study on “Teacher’s Attitude towards School Television (STV) and its relation with Job Satisfaction”. He found that job satisfaction was associated with the authority responsible. For work allocation, intensive case studies revealed that the majority of teachers did not operate STV regularly and the majority of TV sets were out of order. Teachers perceived STV as a good tool for teaching and were fairly satisfied with their job. Teachers teaching classes IV and V showed a more positive attitude towards STV than teachers teaching classes 1.




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Kay (1989) described that compared differences in computer

attitude, degree of computer literacy and commitment to computer

between male and females students of university of Toronto.

Koohang’s (1989) research found that computer experience to be

significant regarding attitudes toward computers. Although teachers’

attitudes have not typically been considered in the introduction of

computers into the classroom, future successful implementation will need

to address teachers’ attitudes toward computers (Hunter and deLeeuw,

1988, as cited in Violato et al., 1989).

Loyd and Gressard (1986) showed that positive attitudes toward

computers are positively correlated with teachers’ experiences. With

familiarity, anxieties and fears tend to decrease and confidence increases.

Chen (1986) stated that attitude toward computers is a function of a

user’s experience with them. Chen’s study of high school students

compared computer experience with computer interest, confidence, and

anxiety. The scores indicated a positive correlation between interest in

computers and computer experience for both males and females.

However, males showed a greater level of self-confidence in their abilities

with computing and a lower computer anxiety level. There are almost an

equal number of studies that have found no significant differences

between males and females in their attitudes toward computer. Therefore,

gender issues will not be an aspect of this study at this time but may be

incorporated into future research relevant to the study topic.




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Gressard and Loyd (1986) found that elementary school teachers

that had received computer training were significantly less anxious and

more confident about computer use after training than before.

Gressard and Loyd (1985) developed an attitude measure that was

called the Computer Attitudes Scale (CAS). The CAS measures both

affective and evaluative aspects of attitudes and is comprised of four

factors: computer anxiety, efficiency, enthusiasm, and usefulness of

computers in instruction. Gressard and Loyd (1985) also established that

perceptions of the potential usefulness of computers can influence

attitudes toward computers. The amount of confidence a teacher possesses

in using technology may greatly influence his/her effective

implementation in the classroom.

2.12 Studies on Technology Integration into Education

Sharma et al., (2005) conducted a study on the status of computer

education in schools of Bhiwani. The study revealed that all teachers

working in schools of Bhiwani have positive attitude towards computer

education. They recognized that with passage of time, everyone will have

to acquire computer literacy if they want to cope with the technological

complexities of everyday life.

Granitz and Hugstad (2004) in their study pointed out that the

new literacy for the 21st century and beyond was clearly the ability to

utilize appropriate technological tools in an information society. The

personal computer and its associated technological innovations-the

Internet, electronic mail, and word processing software – have become a




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common ground. Current industry standards demanded skilled workers

who were fluent in the use of these technological skills. In addition to

basic computer skills, communication skills have become a significant

component adding to the existing computer skills.

Regina (2004) conducted a study titled “A Survey on the Principles

and Practices of Educational Technology in the Educational Institutions at

Higher Secondary Level in Bharathidasan University Area.”

The objectives of the study were to find out the practices of educational

technology in the educational institutions at the higher secondary level and

to quantify the practices in terms of percentage analysis. The tool used

was Educational Technology Information Schedule (ETIS) questionnaire.

The study found that a significant number of higher secondary schools in

Bharathidasan university area were adopting the principles and practices

of education technology.

Maniar et al., (2002) studied usage of internet for educational

propose. The study revealed that internet services for educational proposes

were utilized sometimes. The respondents used it more for class

assignment in comparison to research work and other educational

proposes. Significant difference was found in the internet usage for class

assignment in relation to the years of exposure.

Strehle (2002) discussed recommendations for redesigning teacher

education programmes and the need for integrating technology into

teacher educations in order to improve teachers’ attitude towards

technology. She studied the obstacles in using technology involved




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challenges in the teaching and learning environments. Three conclusions

emerged from the study. A match between the use of technology and the

goals of instruction was necessary. Technology tended to make tasks more

complicated, limiting the ability to incorporate technology into teaching.

Perhaps more important than the exploration of technology as an

instructional tool, however, was the insight gained into their own

philosophies of teaching and learning through participation in the

narrative of collaboration, and the ability to submit self-narratives for

discussion by groups of colleagues.

Katherine (2001) conducted a study on application of educational

technology in teaching of mathematics at secondary school level in

Bharathidasan university jurisdiction. The study revealed that all the

teachers of Bharathidasan university jurisdiction were having positive

attitude towards the application of educational technological aids at

secondary level.

Clark (2000) suggested that any technology inventions have been

introduced and used by educators with the belief that they would

positively impact students’ achievement and teacher’s performance. It

started with television, then computers, and now the Internet. Computers

and the Internet seem to have the most impact on the education system.

With advancement in today’s computer technology, there was a need for

schools to change their curriculum to ensure that students would possess

adequate computer skills needed to become an active participant in a more

computer technology oriented society.




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Burkholder (1995) observed that since the teachers are the ones

who will implement the technology, training should focus on them. He

contended that training should include strategic plans necessary to

integrate the use of technology in the classroom rather than introducing

teacher productivity tools alone.

Woodrow (1992) found that the integration of computers into

education requires an improvement in the instruction of teachers. Teachers

require technology in the use of education as an instructional as well as a

professional tool.

Solachi (1991) conducted a study on availability and utilization of

educational technology in the higher secondary schools of a district in

Tamilnadu. The study revealed that the utilization rate was higher in urban

schools as compared to rural schools. Government and aided schools also

differed in their utilization rate. The aided schools did a better job.

Between boys and girls schools, the boys’ schools utilized educational

technology more. Science teachers as compared to Humanities teachers

utilized more of non-projected visual aids.

Singh (1989) made an effort to find out the effectiveness of two

training strategies in developing teaching competence. One group of

student teachers was exposed to Observe-Demonstrate Practice (ODP)

teaching strategy i.e. observe good teaching in the real classroom

situation, and then see a demonstration on video film on a practice

teaching skill, followed by practice. In another teaching strategy the

sequence was demonstration followed by practice, followed by




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observation (DPO) the result of the study indicated that both the teaching

strategies were significantly effective in gaining understanding of

microteaching and in developing a positive attitude towards teaching.

Nagan (1988) found that mathematics could be taught more

effectively through the use of computers and computer assisted

programmes, and that the contribution of electronic devices such as

computers and calculators in increasing understanding in mathematics is

indisputable.

Bear and et al., (1987) cited that although there may not be

agreement on how to involve technology in curricula, one common goal is

to foster favorable attitudes toward computers. If positive attitudes are

developed in students (pre-service teachers) other objectives may become

secondary.

2.13 Studies on Faculty Integration of Information Technology

Sheridan and Herschede (2007) cited that utilizing the Internet

and e-mail services is as an important beginning for faculty to consider

when attempting integrating information technology into classroom

instruction. In general, students of this era have grown up using video

games, and have had basic information technology instruction at the high

school level. Taking the next step and learning to utilize e-mail

competently to communicate with other students and faculty and to use

the Internet for research can be an easier process for these students than it

is for faculty.




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Sheridan and Herschede (2007) stated that once these beginning

steps have been taken, faculty can begin to incorporate the use of a World

Wide Web homepage as an integral part of the course. The homepage can

be used to deliver material developed by the instructor, give access to

related materials, and give a forum for students to publish coursework

informally.

Sheridan and Herschede (2007) found that in order to integrate

information technology into their courses, faculty must first understand

student’s information technology background. Having grown up with

video games, students are less likely to suffer the computer anxiety that

adults may face. However, simply being comfortable does not mean that

students are familiar with the skills necessary for utilization in educational

environments.

Hope (2005) showed that collaborative work had a positive impact

on faculty’s acceptance of information technology. Camaraderie,

enthusiasm, and support are all benefits of learning to use information

technology collaboratively. The overwhelming issue, however, is that of

training. Without training, faculty is unlikely to acquire skills necessary to

either adopt information technology as a productivity tool, or to integrate

it into the university classroom.

Grejda and Smith (2004) in their surveys administered at Clarion

University, faculty indicated the desire to have specific information

technology expectations for pre-service teachers. They also indicated a

serious need for training in information technology integration into the




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teaching and learning process. Faculty was also interested in 1) seeing

how others are integrating information technology, and 2) assisting each

other with integration methods. The goals and objectives of the Clarion

program were to afford faculty members an opportunity to develop an

awareness of how information technology can facilitate their professional

performance, and to participate in information technology workshops and

follow-up sessions In general, literature shows that faculty are not

integrating information technology into their classes.

Skeele and Daly (2003) found that as paradigms in teaching styles

change, faculty’s role as educator continues to shift. Faculty can no longer

rely on simply giving students facts solely via lecture method. Previous

studies showed that changes in learning styles dictate a need for changes

in how knowledge is gained. First, faculty will increasingly guide and

facilitate learning, as well as assess the effectiveness of information

technology-based curriculum, and become active participants in the

learning process. Second, literature showed that trends are toward student

investigation of real-world educational problems using computer-assisted

solutions. Third, professional presentations, projects, and portfolios are

employed as alternatives to traditional forms of assessment. Fourth,

because of the increase in use of the Internet and the availability of e-mail,

research and projects done by faculty and students will become resources

for other faculty and students.

Hope (2003) performed a study which listed five factors that would

help make faculty more likely to adopt information technology: ease of




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implementation, access to information technology, collaboration, training,

and sufficient time. Learning to integrate information technology into

existing structures should not be overly complex. A growing area of

interest has been in collaborative work. There are three ways in which

collaborative work can be utilized using the computer: student to student,

student with faculty, and faculty to faculty.

Wetzel’s (1993) review of the ISTE/NCATE standards for teacher

preparation discussed professors who model uses of the computer in their

courses as one of the components of the standard. At Wetzel’s Arizona

State University-West Campus, a planning team is working to revise the

goals of the education program, which will include the infusion of

information technology into all courses. Separate content and methods

courses would be replaced by integrated courses, infused with information

technology, and taught on-site at a cooperating elementary school

(Wetzel, 1993).

Wetzel’s (1993) study showed that the largest percentage of faculty

indicated a willingness to require students to use computer tools to

complete assignment as long as students had adequate access to computers

either at home or at the university, and had received information

technology training.

Berenson and Stiff (1989), in their early study 85 faculty members

participated in a National Science Foundation study that showed that 67

percent seldom or never used the computer as a classroom demonstration

tool. The greatest use of computers by faculty included in the survey was




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for word processing. Only 14 percent of faculty made assignments

requiring students to use computers (Wetzel, 1993).

Rossberg and Bitter (1989) showed the other reasons for faculty’s

unwillingness to integrate information technology in a computer

integration project. As in other studies, the respondents in this study

indicated that the computer did not have the ability to be a time- saving

device until its uses had been mastered. The faculty in this study also

stated that information technology was viewed by them as a dehumanizing

device and that the kind of work done on the computer was done for the

faculty by staff members.

2.14 Studies on Information Technology Training to faculty

Abbey (2007) developed an information technology plan at Southwestern Oklahoma State University to assist faculty in integrating information technology. A tenure-track faculty position was redefined to be Information Technology Coordinator. Release time was allotted to this position, and duties included faculty training and support. The Coordinator was also responsible for assisting faculty in revising and updating education methods courses. The goals were to develop a technologically literate faculty, to assist faculty in the integration of information technology to enhance instruction and professional productivity, and to prepare pre-serve teachers to use educational information technology. In addition, several issues that were addressed included the fact that some faculty simply did not want to be involved in the use of information technology and the changing interaction between faculty and student that information technology integration brings about.




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Bent (2006) developed a Web site which is an interactive software

tutorial called ‘Web Tutor’ which was designed to transform novice users

into competent, informed browsers. Bent designed this tutorial in the hope

that the Web would be taken more seriously as a research tool and

information source. James Madison University implemented this tool

which has now been used by thousands of students at the campus, as well

as professors.

Gordon and Hequet (2006) in their research stated that one of the

many methods currently being used more to expose faculty to information

technology is via the Web. However, many faculties may resent sitting in

front of a computer at the office to receive training rather than traveling

off-site. Administrators, though, may find it increasingly advantageous to

decrease training costs by providing that training on-site. There are

advantages and disadvantages to both. Providing on-site training may be

less expensive, but training off-site allows the trainee to work in a focused

environment, which can be otherwise hard to achieve. With committee

meetings, teaching roles, publishing requirements, and other projects

faculty may elect to make training a last priority. There may be hidden

benefits to instructor-led training that have been overlooked; perhaps a

pressure to attend that is otherwise ignored.

Gordon and Hequet (2006) cited that when considering the use of

a "live" instructor versus incorporation of the Web, there were several

considerations to be made. When considering using the Web, limits must

be recognized in the amount and type of material that can be presented




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effectively. The speed with which the new information technology must

be learned should be considered. Where live instruction takes place should

be a consideration; if faculty members must travel far to receive

instruction, they are less likely to attend. However, scheduling is a

companion issue to geography; the difficulty of arranging for many

faculties to meet at one time is a problem that is sometimes difficult to

overcome.

Ritchie and Hoffman (2005) of San Diego State University

developed a five-module on-line course to help faculty develop and

manage their own on-line course modules. The Web resources at the site

would be supplemented by faculty with the use of videotape and printed

materials, as well as both innovative and traditional instructional

strategies.

Shotsberger (2003) stated that traditionally, one of the methods for

training faculty has been the use of workshops. The obvious drawbacks to

this type of training have included: the time and money required to travel

to distant training sites, artificiality of training done in an isolated

classroom, keeping current with trends and changes as they occur, and the

fact that many faculty have only the summer months available for

extended learning sessions. One site currently available on the Web has

been posted by the Math Department at the University of North Carolina

at Wilmington (UNCW).

Strandberg (2000) stated that trainers should focus on these

factors: 1) finding subject matter experts, 2) making learning fun,




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3) junking of the technical manual and 4) providing follow-up. Although

training priorities between university faculty and business professionals

may vary somewhat, both groups must be aware of the importance

effective training has on attitude and, therefore, integration of the newly

learned information technology skills.

Although many universities have traditionally relied on a single

information technology class to carry the burden of informing faculty on

how to use and integrate information technology, a literature review

shows the growing trends to implement other training strategies. As

information technology upgrades are constant and rapid, training will be

continuous for active users.

Willis et al., (2000) investigated a study and cited that the quality of

information technology training is an issue that can keep faculty from

using and integrating information technology. Their survey addressed the

matter of staff development. About half of the faculty stated that the poor

quality of training offered was an "Important to Extremely Serious"

barrier. However, among the highest ranking barriers stated by faculty was

the limited instruction on integration of information technology learning

to communicate electronically, via e-mail and video conferencing, among

other methods, is an issue in information technology training.

Grejda and Smith (1994) at Clarion University conducted a study

and training activities were developed to meet the recommendations of the

International Society for Information technology in Education (ISTE). The

goals of the ISTE’s recommendations were to be met by a proposed




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sequence of activities that included a concentrated four-day training

sequence and a sequence of four evening follow-up sessions. Sessions

were scheduled for the intersession time period between the end of the

spring semester and the beginning of the summer semester. Faculty

worked independently and in groups to practice specific skills in an

applied context. Consultants were available to help troubleshoot any

problems that arose during training. Further follow-up sessions were

scheduled for the fall semester.

2.15 Studies on Obstacles to Information Technology use by Faculty

There are many obstacles that faculty face when attempting to

increase their knowledge, skills, attitudes, and integration of computers

into university classrooms. Information technology traditionally has not

been integrated into many university training programs. The lack of

equipment, training, and time constraints are the things that limit

information technology use of university faculty.

Gonzales and Hill (2007) cited in their study that if Information

Technology is to become a tool of choice for learning and information,

faculty must learn to model its use to students, and mentoring has been

found to be an effective way to encourage faculty to begin integrating

information technology.

Ritchie and Hoffman (2005) investigated a study and suggested

that few faculties use the Internet for course delivery. Universities

continue to hire faculty primarily for their content expertise, to the

exclusion of other skills such as Internet use. The time necessary to learn




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these skills, such as hypertext markup language (HTML), prevents many

faculties from attempt to publish course materials on-line. In the past

faculty were not expected to master such skills as page layout, but with the

increasing popularity of the Web, required knowledge has changed.

Attitudes about the Web continue to change. There was debate over

whether or not certain information found on the Web can be considered

"published." For the time being, at least, Web publication seems to be

accepted as merely an extension of word processing. This is a skill that

has also changed, and is now regarded as necessary for both students and

faculty. The next logical step is for the Web to become an "interactive

medium of instruction"

Ritchie and Hoffman (2005) further pointed out that there are many issues involved for faculty in utilizing the Web for publishing. Faculty must first be willing and agreeable to accept articles published on the Web. Students and faculty must learn to recognize the appropriateness of material found on the Web. On-line services must be readily available both to students and faculty, and instruction in on-line course delivery must be mastered.

Skeele and Daly (2003) in their study at Seton Hall cited other reasons impeding faculty from using information technology include no reward or recognition, limited time to re-prepare course materials, and lack of funds to purchase software. Release time, specialized training, support personnel, software and hardware funds, peer support, and administrative recognition are all incentives that can be utilized in helping faculty learn to use and integrate information technology in the classroom.




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The following table (Table: 2.1) by Parker (1997) presented the

results of a question set that addressed perceived obstacles that hinder

faculty use of information technology.

Table: 2.1 Obstacles that Hinder Faculty Use of Information Technology

Lack of Time 25%

Lack of Software 52%

Lack of Hardware 58%

Lack of Keyboarding Skills 13%

Lack of Knowledge of Available Information Technology Resources 29%

Availability of Computer Lab 23%

Availability of Computer Lab Worker 45%

Using Information Technology is Frustrating to me 13%

Changes are too fast to keep current 13%

Do not think Information Technology will enhance my Subject Area 16%

Hope (1996) in his study cited that although many faculties believe

that the Internet is becoming an important means of communicating and

delivering information to students, many feel overwhelmed by the rapid

method in which information technology is introduced. This feeling of

bombardment can cause faculty to have negative attitudes when

envisioning information technology integration. Computer information

technology should represent the end to a plethora of problems, not the

introduction of new ones. At its best; it should give faculty new methods




129

for accomplishing tasks and teaching students necessary skills. Some

administrators leave the choice of information technology utilization to

faculty, and others make the decision for them.

Willis et al., (1995) in their study stated that forceful imposition of

information technology on faculty was not conducive to learning Placing

pressure on faculty to adopt information technology may actually have a

negative effect on faculty’s willingness to adopt new methods.

Wetzel (1993) found that although many faculty use computers for

word processing and e-mail, studies showed that smaller percentages

develop information technology applications for their courses. Reasons

cited in the literature for this lack of development include: 1) lack of

awareness of instructional potential, 2) lack of enough information

technology for it to make a difference, 3) lack of training and personal

expertise, and 4) a view of information technology as time consumptive

rather than time saving.

Willis (1993) found that hardware and software are no longer the

most important issues; the most important topics are instructional

strategies. Learning to recognize instructionally appropriate software and

cyclical training and support are other key issues.

Wetzel (1993) found that not all faculties are interested in learning

to use information technology for personal reasons or for integration into

the classroom. He showed that most faculties (81%) recommended that

students use information technology to complete course requirements.

Only one-half of the faculty, however, was willing to correctly




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demonstrate the best use of information technology. One of the reasons

that faculty gave for unwillingness to integrate and /or demonstrate

information technology was a limited knowledge base. Their answers to

the survey included such information as faculty’s unawareness of program

availability and the ability to have other faculty model the use of

information technology with specific course software.

Wetzel (1993) in his recent studies identified that lack of knowledge about software, time constraints, and limited recognition of information technologies potential are the obstacles to effective integration of IT into their classrooms. For many faculties, information technology experiences have been negative. Too often faculties receive outdated hardware and software. Trainers from outside the university environment are sometimes provided to faculty, and are not aware of the issues that faculty may face. The trainers may carry preconceived ideas about university education and faculty’s ability to acquire necessary skills.

Wetzel (1993) opined that lack of software and equipment were one of the main complaints of faculty in previous studies concerned that is on the decrease is the availability of hardware and software to both students and faculty. At the time of Wetzel’s study, equipment security, lack of presentation programs, suitable software, and student ability to access equipment after class were all issues that needed to be addressed. Since that time, most of the universities involved in the literature review have continued to make necessary information technology upgrades and have provided students and faculty with hardware and software necessary to perform basic functions (i.e., word processing, electronic mail, etc.).




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Staman (1990) believed that a lack of awareness of information technology potential and successful examples of use of information technology in disciplines contribute to faculty’s unwillingness to integrate information technology into the classroom.

In an early study by Jacobson and Wellers (1987-88), survey research found that among university faculty at the University of Illinois at Urbana, although 96 percent were interested in using computers, 60 percent considered lack of training an obstacle.

2.16 Studies on Computer Technology and Teacher Instructional Behaviour

The exceptionally large respondent base for the work of Becker Ravitz, Wong (1999) and allowed the survey results of teacher’s perceptions of their instructional practice to be seriously considered. More than 4,000 teachers, administrators, and technology coordinators involved in school reform were surveyed in 1998. Ravitz, Wong, and Becker sought to discover (1) how computer technology use is related to teacher pedagogical beliefs; (2) what constitutes good teaching practice; (3) how teachers go about organizing learning in their classrooms; (4) how teachers design student learning; and (5) how teacher practice changed over the last three years. The four most common teaching practices identified in this survey were students working individually to answer questions from textbooks or worksheets, teachers leading whole-class discussions, teachers questioning students for the correct answer, and using introductory drills to begin a new unit of study. As the researchers pointed out, such teacher instructional practices are traditional in nature.




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However, Ravitz, Wong, and Becker also concluded that teachers

are more likely to adopt teaching practices associated with a

constructivism when their main goals for students changed, when their

understanding about how people learn changed; when they experienced

staff development associated with constructivism, and when they used

computer technology. The changes in teaching practice over the preceding

three years described by teachers are more constructivists in nature. More

and more, students taught or helped one another, worked in groups,

reviewed and revised their own work, and explored a topic of their own

without any teacher direction. Teachers increased the number of activities

occurring simultaneously in their classrooms and evaluated student work

based on their products rather than tests.

The evaluation report of the Oakland County School project (1991)

on Teaching and Learning with Technology utilized both qualitative and

quantitative methodology to answer several evaluation questions: (1) In a

technology-rich environment, how is technology applied to enhance

educational goals? (2) What kinds of staff development programs result in

the effective use of technology to accomplish curricular objectives? (3)

What is the impact of a technology-rich environment on teaching and

learning? Evaluators reported several findings concerned with changes in

teaching. Teachers perceived changes in their teaching characterizing

themselves as more reflective and more likely to seek out research to learn

more about educational processes including continuing their formal

education. The teachers also noted changes in classroom structure, their

instruction and interactions with students as well as their professional




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practice. Most significantly, the teachers reported not wanting to teach

without technology. Teachers perceived changes in their classroom

practices as a reflection of their attitudes and skills growth. They felt more

able to tolerate ambiguity and shared ownership of the teaching learning

process with students. This project illuminated changes in teacher

instructional behavior and professional practice because of student use of

computer technology, but there was no discussion of teacher planning

behaviors or evaluation of instruction.

Howard Budin (1991) articulated his beliefs regarding the possible

effects of computer technology on the classroom teacher’s role. Budin

provided an essential context for understanding the interaction between

teacher role and computer technology by recounting the history of the

teachers. Three visions were included in his discussion: replacement,

implementation, and transformation. Rather than the usual notion of

technology replacing the teacher, Budin suggested using technology to

replace some instructional practice as a logical extension of implementing

technology. Most commonly, Budin suggested technology is seen as just

another tool to supplement curriculum rather than change it. Instead of

replacement and implementation, Budin conceived a vision where

technology helps transform curriculum, teacher’s role, and even school

structure. Echoing the reform concepts of Dewey and others, Budin

presented technology’s potentials: communication with distant places,

information access from new sources, collaboration, and critical thinking,

planning and implementing curricular projects, as a vehicle for renewing

the visions of educational reform.




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Sheingold and Hadley (1990) surveyed teachers working in

technology-rich environments who taught grades 4-12. Respondents

perceived that their teaching changed in several ways, that is, teaching

behaviors were transformed. Teachers perceived themselves as

collaborators with their students, as facilitators of student learning, as

more flexible problem solvers, and they felt better able to meet the

individual needs of students. They credited the integration of computer

technology as a catalyst and educational tool causing the shift from

teacher-centered classroom to student-centered classroom. They altered

their vision of what students should learn and what their learning tools

should be. However, neither teacher planning nor evaluative behaviors

were investigated. Descriptions of teacher instructional behaviors were

expressed in broad generalizations. Sheingold and Hadley recognized that

the survey methodology could not validate the teachers’ perceptions.

Riel (1989) investigated the changes that take place in teaching and

learning when computer technology is incorporated into educational

practice over the course of one academic year. The four experienced

teachers were given one computer for use in their classrooms even though

two of the teachers had no previous experience or training with computers.

Although the remaining two teachers had extensive experience with

computers, neither teacher had a computer available for classroom use.

However, one of the teachers with computer experience had used

computers in a lab setting for three years, used computers part-time for

language arts and mathematics instruction, and currently had the

responsibility of leading his school’s computer lab. The other teacher with




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computer experience had an Apple II for classroom use part-time in the

year prior to the study, and she had taught word processing classes

through a university extension program. Data for the study was collected

through weekly teacher interviews throughout the academic year, and

observers took notes in each of the classrooms three days a week. One to

three times a month, specific types of lessons and computer sessions were

videotaped. The results revealed changes in classroom environment,

interactive patterns, and student learning, but neither the spatial

arrangement of the classroom, the classroom time schedule, nor the

instructional behaviors of teacher was changed by the presence of the

computer. Rather, the teachers used the computer to enhance their

traditional instructional behaviors by using the computer to demonstrate

concepts to the whole class, thus continuing their use of whole class

instruction. Riel’s study did not investigate teacher planning or evaluative

behaviors.

2.17 Review of Studies on the Impact of Information Technology in Higher Education

Clayton-Pedersen and O’Neill (2010) accentuated how IT can be

used to engage students in the construction of knowledge. They stated that

opportunities to engage in debates on real-world topics of importance, and

the self-awareness that comes from assignments related to personal

discovery, more likely produce a graduate who is ready to apply

him/herself in the world. In their study, “Curricula designed to meet 21st

century expectations”, they made the following implications: (1) faculty’s




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understanding of the teaching and learning power of the technology need

to be increased, (2) increasing the use of technology will increase the

demand for technological tools to be effectively integrated into the

curriculum to enhance student learning, (3) tools need to be developed to

help faculty integrate technology into curriculum.

Hartman, Moskal and Dziuban (2009) reported the outcome of

their study “Preparing the academy of today for the learner of tomorrow”,

concerning student opinions of what qualities are inherent in good

teachers in the following results: the ability to facilitate, not dictate,

student learning; the knowledge of how to use both oneself and

educational tools in order to communicate effectively; the capacity to be

authentic in relationships with students; the ability to organize courses

well; the professionalism to be respectful and concerned toward each

student; and the commitment to assess and evaluate fairly and effectively.

IT can further each of these goals but, left to itself, cannot realize any of

them. In order for IT to be effective in the learning process, faculty will

need to know how to capitalize on all that IT has to offer. This likely will

require training and institutional support if it is to happen – thus, the

impetus for conducting the survey on which this study is constructed.

Perry (2004) in the article “Evaluating Course Management

Technology: A Pilot Study”, emphasized how various tools made

available through IT can deepen the educational process. She highlighted

course management systems that engage learners on several levels; made

note of the web-based modules that are being developed by various




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publishers; promoted the proliferation of digital based libraries that are

making sources of knowledge increasingly available to a broader

populace; emphasized the arsenal of tools that IT makes available to

enhance learners’ engagement; and discussed how IT makes possible

better sequencing and alignment of programmatic curricula, as well as

cross-disciplinary opportunities for learning.

Carole, Barone (2003) in the book, “Information Technology,

Systems, and Services in Higher Education: A Primer”, discussed the

ways in which IT can be used to deepen the learning experience by

providing an active learning environment that provides a context for what

is learned – an environment that is social and collaborative, that meets the

student where she/he is in terms of skills and knowledge, and that is in the

student’s span of control.

Rickard and Oblinger (2003), in “Applying the principles of

teaching and learning”, stressed that IT can be used to accommodate

different learning styles as well as different learning needs, to adjust the

pace of learning for the individual learner, and to provide opportunities for

people with special needs (e.g. the disabled and the immigrant

populations). A teacher, by incorporating high expectations for students

into the classroom, can increase student motivation to learn. This directly

aligns to the expectations both the students and their parents already bring

to the classroom. The significance of prompt feedback to the learning

process is also invaluable to the millennial learner.




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Seely Brown (2002) suggested that the changes brought on by IT in

the classroom involved the introduction of a new medium that invites

mutuality into the learning process. In the literature addressing these

changes, academicians, with varying points of emphasis, repeatedly have

identified benefits that IT brings to the processes of education.

Chickering collaborated with Ehrmann (1996) studied some

principles in light of the growing influence of IT in the educational forum.

Those principles were summarized as follows:

IT encourages communication between students and faculty by increasing the avenues for various types of synchronous and asynchronous communication – e-mail, computer conferencing, web access all make new ways of relating possible.

IT fosters reciprocity and cooperation among students – e-mail, discussion boards, and instant messaging present diverse venues for such to occur.

IT promotes active learning techniques by offering students opportunities to engage in simulations, virtual reality, and augmented reality – all of which provide opportunities for active learning.

IT provides increased opportunities for feedback to students by improving the range of communication tools that can be used by faculty.

IT maximizes time-on-task – at the same time that IT can make studying more efficient, it also can draw the student into exploring issues further through the use of hotlinks and the ease of accessing diverse materials.




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IT promotes high expectations by fostering improved skills of analysis, synthesis, application, and evaluation.

IT accommodates diverse talents and ways of learning and, thus, can be used to respond to diverse needs and levels of skill (Chickering and Ehrmann, 1996).

Vishnu Moorthy (1996) conducted a research on “Role of

Information Technology in Higher Education”. It was a multi-disciplinary,

theoretical study pertaining to the role of information technology from the

perspective of Marxian Dialectics. It analyzed how the modern

Information Technology is playing the dual role of Educational

Technology and Information Technology Education in Higher Education.

2.18 Review of Related Studies on various aspects of Information Technology and Teachers

Burson et al., (2007) found that information technology is still not a priority in teacher education programs. In many instances, planning for and integrating information technology into existing teacher preparation programs is a piecemeal and uncoordinated effort. However, administrators expect faculty to be technologically conversant with little training. Faculty at the University of Texas had attempted to deal with these issues by infusing information technology into their teacher education curriculum, and by assisting colleagues in the training process.

Privateer (2007) developed the new Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) which states that even students in lower classes should have basic computer terminology familiarity, basic word processing skills, the ability to manipulate simple graphics, and experience in presentations




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and publishing (TEA, 1998). All these factors contribute to the knowledge that information technology is an accepted and important part of the university classroom. Therefore, faculty attitudes toward information technology are increasingly relevant and important.

The significant and necessary transition into the next stage of the information age will tend to remain a potential unless the emphasis on the "conduit" evolves into one of "content" and "outcome." But what would make the use of technology truly valuable would be how it would encourage learners to develop.

Green (1996) used a clever analogy to describe the acceptance of information technology. He stated that it took "40 years to get the overhead projector out of the bowling alley and into the classroom." He added that it is ironic that most bowling alleys now use computerized projection systems much more than faculty use information technology in classrooms. In spite of this, information technology has finally emerged as a permanent, respected, and increasingly important component of the university experience. The use of information technology at the university level is increasingly common; e-mail addresses appear on syllabi, e-mail is sometimes offered as an addition or an alternative to office hours; commercial software or faculty-designed software might be part of required resources; class sessions might be held in computer labs; assignments and projects may involve the use of the Internet and the World Wide Web (the Web). In addition to this list, many syllabi now require that students present project information using multimedia programs, including the use of digitized images and sound clips.




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Morgan (1998) explained that after the concepts that students are to learn are defined and the links to what students already know are identified, it’s time to consider how technology can be used to enhance the learning environment. Morgan further identifies the following four checkpoints:

1) How does technology provide students with multiple exposures to variations of concepts?

2) How does technology increase student productivity? 3) How does technology actively involve students in the learning

process? 4) How does technology engage students at higher levels of

Bloom’s Taxonomy?

According to Peck and Dorricot (1994) - “Hyper Media in

Education”, databases, spreadsheets, computer-assisted design, graphics

programs, and multimedia authoring programs allow students to

independently organize and analyze, interpret, develop, and evaluate their

own work. These tools engage students in focused problem solving,

allowing them to think through what they want to accomplish, quickly test

and retest solution strategies, and immediately display the results.

Muir (1994) concluded that Computers have served their purpose

when students using multimedia tools find learning more interesting and

engaging as a result of creating an interactive project (perhaps one that

makes information pop up on the screen when you click a button). When

students are more enthusiastic about research (because they know how

their fully interactive final report is going to look) then computers are

valuable contribution to the educational process.




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Grejda and Smith (1994) at Clarion University explored the needs

of faculty in terms of information technology integration. Faculty

surveyed identified outcomes for themselves as well as students, and the

skills and knowledge needed to achieve the outcomes. Topics that were

agreed upon included the use of hypermedia, interactive video, integrated

software packages, compact disk information technology, electronic

networks, and desktop publishing. They were also interested in observing

model programs that effectively used information technology.

Tinker and Papert (1989) in “Using new technologies to increase learning in mathematics and science”, made a number of recommendations about how computers might be used in education: for communication, for interfacing, for theory building, for creativity, for database access, and for programming. Information technologies challenge us to re-examine what is possible to teach, because they can bring new resources and approaches into teaching that are not conceivable without technology. The Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition (1989) in recommending that the educational use of computers be extended to include telecommunications noted that "Modern computer technology, when used as a component in a telecommunications system, offers a link between children, teachers, and the outside world in educationally powerful ways."

Besides there were many studies examined the integration of computer technology with curriculum (e.g., Buchanan, Luck, and Dulniak, 1996), professional technology training and support for teachers (e.g., Schmidt, 1996), computer use (e.g., Weiss, 1996), the relationship between computer technology and teacher attitude (e.g., Dwyer, Ring




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Staff, and Sandholtz, 1991), student achievement (e.g., Becker, H. J., 1987) as well as the relationship between computer technology and teacher roles (e.g., Civello, 1999).

2.19 Insights from the Review and Rationale for the Present Study

In this chapter, a few literature related to the present study is presented. The main aim of the review of the available literature in research study is to provide an academic support to the study. IT in general and IT fluency among the teacher educators in particular is a new and innovative development in field of higher education. Research studies on IT fluency of higher education faculty, with special reference to teacher education are rare. However, quite a few reviews, reports, articles, surveys and projects are available on the study. From a comprehensive review of the related literature, it is found that no study has been conducted hitherto on the assessment of IT Fluency among the teachers in general and teacher educators in particular. Though there were some studies conducted abroad to assess IT Fluency of the respondents, most of them were found to be concentrated on assessing the IT literacy of the respondents. A standardized instrument to assess the level of IT Fluency, based on the NRC Report, was not found in any reviews by the researcher. To be precise, research studies based on the principles of the National Research Council were very rare. To strengthen study, literatures were collected from various available sources. In this context the present study becomes

important and essential as endorsed by the specific concerns of earlier

researchers both in its aims of the study and its procedures. In this sense,

the present study is unique against the series of studies covered in this

review.




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CHAPTER - II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATUREshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/16165/10/10... · 2018-07-09 · 60 CHAPTER - II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction